Construction Materials and Testing

Lesson 6
Masonry
TOPICS
1. Types of Masonry Units
2. Bricks
3. Concrete Masonry Units
4. Calcium Silica units
5. Concrete Hollow Blocks
6. Mortar
7. Grout
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Understand the importance of bricks as construction materials
 Familiarize with the different types of masonry units
 Perform laboratory activity on the characteristics and properties of masonry units

TOPIC 1: Types of Masonry Units

Masonry in its many forms is one of the most important character-defining features of a traditional
building. Brick, stone, adobe, terra-cotta, ceramics, stucco, cast artificial stone, and concrete are typical
masonry construction materials used, reflecting its sequence of settlement and development, as well as
personal means and architectural style. Masonry materials of various types exist as walls, cornices,
pediments, steps, chimneys, foundations, and functional and/or decorative building features and details.
Masonry is usually comprised of the masonry unit, e.g. the individual brick of stone, and the medium used to
bind these units, e.g. the mortar, each with a mutually supporting role. The pattern used to lay the brick (the
bond) is directly influenced by the hardness, color, thickness and profile of the mortar coursing with which it
is laid.
A masonry structure (wall) is formed by combining masonry units, such as stone, blocks, or brick,
with mortar. Masonry is one of the oldest construction materials. Examples of ancient masonry structures
include the pyramids of Egypt, the Great Wall of China, and Greek and Roman ruins. Bricks of nearly
uniform size became commonly used in Europe during the beginning of the 13th century. The first extensive
use of bricks in the United States was around 1600. In the last two centuries, bricks have been used in
constructing sewers, bridge piers, tunnel linings, and multistory buildings. There is two types of masonry:
• Structured/load-bearing à this is used for exterior walls.
• Non structured/non load-bearing à this is used for interior walls.

Masonry units, are a popular construction material throughout the world; they must have adequate
strength to carry loads, to compete favourably with other materials, such as wood, steel, and concrete for
certain applications. Several different types of masonry units are commonly used. Common masonry unit
types include clay and concrete units, which may be solid or hollow, and glazed or unglazed. Other masonry
unit types include cast stone and calcium silicate units. Masonry units can be classified as the clay masonry,
tile, brick, tile and concrete masonry units.

1. Clay Masonry
Clay masonry is one of the oldest manufactured building
materials still in use today is clay brick. There are two methods
of manufacture: extrusion and pressing. The extrusion method
produces a denser brick, whereas the pressing method results
in a smoother, more accurately shaped brick.

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Three Types of Forming Methods are used to produce clay masonry units:
 Stiff- mud
Utilizes a clay blended with approximately 10 to 15 percent water by weight to produce a
plastic mass which is then de – aired in a vacuum to reduce the air content of the wet clay. The
clay is then extruded through a die, and as it leaves the die, any required surface texture may
be applied to the clay ribbon. Cutter wires, spaced to compensate for normal drying and burning
shrinkage, cut the brick to size. The bricks are then sorted off of a continuous – belt conveyor,
the acceptable bricks being placed on dryer carts and the rejects being returned to pugmill. (see
[Link]

 Soft – mud
Used for clays which contain 20 to 30 percent water in their natural state. The clay are
mixed and the n molded in forms. Either sand or water can be used as a release agent to
prevent the clay from sticking to the mold. Bricks produced this way is called water – struck or
sand – struck, depending upon the material used as a release agent (see
[Link]

 Dry - press
Utilized for low plasticity clays Blended with less than 10 percent water and formed in
molds under pressures ranging from 500 to 1500 psi (see
[Link]

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2. Tile
Tiles are hollow clay masonry units are commonly called clay tile and are produced with core
areas in excess of 25 percent of the gross cross – sectional area of the unit. (See
[Link]

3. Bricks
The term brick is used to denote solid clay masonry units. Cored units are considered solid as long as
the cores do not exceed 25 percent of the total cross – sectional area of the unit.

TOPIC 2: Bricks

One of the oldest building material brick continues to be a most popular and leading construction
material because of being cheap, durable and easy to handle and work with. Clay bricks are used for
building-up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings and other load bearing structures. A brick is
rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with one hand. Brick may be made of
burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of Portland cement concrete. Clay bricks are commonly used since
these are economical and easily available. The length, width and height of a brick are interrelated as below:
Length of brick = 2 × width of brick + thickness of mortar
Height of brick = width of brick
Size of a standard brick (also known as modular brick) should be 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 19 × 9 × 4 cm.
When placed in masonry the 19 × 9 × 9 cm brick with mortar becomes 20 × 10 × 10 cm. However, the bricks
available in most part of the country still are 9" × " × 3" and are known as field bricks. Weight of such a brick
is 3.0 kg. An indent called frog, 1–2 cm deep, is provided for 9 cm high bricks. The size of frog should be 10
× 4 × 1 cm. The purpose of providing frog is to form a key for holding the mortar and therefore, the bricks
are laid with frogs on top. Frog is not provided in 4 cm high bricks and extruded bricks

Classification of bricks
I. On Practice
Clay bricks are classified as first class, second class, third class and fourth class based on their
physical and mechanical properties.
A. First Class Bricks
1. These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red,
cherry or copper colour.
2. The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with
parallel, sharp and straight edges and square
corners.
3. These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.
4. These should have uniform texture.
5. No impression should be left on the brick when a
scratch is made by a finger nail.
6. The fractured surface of the brick should not show
lumps of lime.
7. A metallic or ringing sound should come when two
bricks are struck against each other.
9. Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight
when immersed in cold water for 24 hours. The
crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2. This limit varies with
different Government organizations around the country.

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Uses: First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face work in masonry
structures, flooring and reinforced brick work.

B. Second Class Bricks are supposed to have the same

requirements as the first class ones except that
1. Small cracks and distortions are permitted.
2. A little higher water absorption of about 16–20%
of its dry weight is allowed.
3. The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0
N/mm2

Uses: Second class bricks are recommended for all

important or unimportant hidden masonry works
and centering of reinforced brick and reinforced
cement concrete (RCC) structures (recommend
for exterior walls)

[Link] Class Bricks are underburnt. They are soft and

light-coloured producing a dull sound when struck
against each other. Water absorption is about 25 per
cent of dry weight.

Uses: It is used for building temporary structures.

[Link] Class Bricks are overburnt and badly distorted

in shape and size and are brittle in nature.

Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation

and floors in lime concrete and road metal

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II. On Strength
Compressive strength or crushing strength is the property of brick which represent the
amount of load carried by brick per unit area. According to BIS the minimum compressive strength
of brick should be 3.5N/mm2. Crushing strength of bricks reduced when they are soaked in water.
𝑁
Crushing strength of bricks (𝑚𝑚2 ) Grades
7-14 Class A
>14 Class AA

III. On the basis of use

1. Common Brick is a general multi-purpose unit manufactured economically without special
reference to appearance. These may vary greatly in strength and durability and are used for
filling, backing and in walls where appearance is of no consequence.
2. Facing Bricks are made primarily with a view to have good appearance, either of colour or
texture or both. These are durable under severe exposure and are used in fronts of building
walls for which a pleasing appearance is desired.
3. Engineering Bricks are strong, impermeable, smooth, table moulded, hard and conform to
defined limits of absorption and strength. These are used for all load bearing structures.

IV. On the basis of finish

1. Sand-faced Brick has textured surface manufactured by sprinkling sand on the inner surfaces
of the mould.
2. Rustic Brick has mechanically textured finish, varying in pattern.

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V. On the basis of manufacture

1. Hand-made: These bricks are hand moulded.
2. Machine-made: Depending upon mechanical arrangement, bricks are known as wire-cut
bricks—bricks cut from clay extruded in a column and cut off into brick sizes by wires;
pressed-bricks—when bricks are manufactured from stiff plastic or semi-dry clay and pressed
into moulds; moulded bricks—when bricks are moulded by machines imitating hand mixing.

VI. On the basis of burning

1. Pale Bricks are underburnt bricks obtained from outer portion of the kiln.
2. Body Bricks are well burnt bricks occupying central portion of the kiln.
3. Arch Bricks are overburnt also known as clinker bricks obtained from inner portion of the kiln.

VII. On the basis of type

1. Solid: Small holes not exceeding 25 per cent of the volume of the brick are permitted;
alternatively, frogs not exceeding 20 per cent of the total volume are permitted.
2. Perforated: Small holes may exceed 25 per cent of the total volume of the brick. Hollow: The
total of holes, which need not be small, may exceed 25 per cent of the volume of the brick.
3. Cellular: Holes closed at one end exceed 20 per cent of the volume

TOPIC 2.1: Manufacturing of bricks

A. Additives in the manufacturing of bricks

Certain additives such as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk ash, basalt stone dust, etc. are often
required not only to modify the shaping, drying and firing behaviour of clay mass, but also to help
conserve agricultural land and utilise waste materials available in large quantities. These additives
should, however, have a desirable level of physical and chemical characteristics so as to modify the
behaviour of clay mass within the optimum range without any adverse effect on the performance and
durability.

1. Fly Ash
A waste material available in large quantities from thermal power plants can be added to
alluvial, red, black, marine clays, etc. The fly ash contains amorphous glassy material, mullite,
haematite, magnetite, etc. and shows a chemical composition similar to brick earths. These
silicates also help towards strength development in clay bodies on firing, when mixed in
optimum proportion depending on the physio-chemical and plastic properties of soils to be used
for brick making. The proportion of fly ash mixed as an additive to the brick earth should be
optimum to reduce drying shrinkage, check drying losses and to develop strength on firing

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without bloating or black coring in fired product. The crystallites present in the fly ash should
comply with the resultant high temperature phases in the finished product.

2. Sandy Loam
Addition of sandy loam is often found effective in controlling the drying behaviour of highly
plastic soil mass containing expanding group of clay minerals. Sandy loam should preferably
have a mechanical composition as specified below. The material should, however, meet the
other requirement as well.

3. Rice Husk Ash

The ash should preferably have unburnt carbon content in the range of 3–5% and should
be free from extraneous material. It can be used with plastic black red soils showing excessive
shrinkage.

4. Basalt Stone Dust

Basalt stone occurs underneath the black cotton soil and its dust is a waste product
available in large quantity from basalt stone crushing units. The finer fraction from basalt stone
units is mixed with soil mass to modify the shaping, drying and firing behaviour of bricks. The
dust recommended for use as an additive with brick earth should be fine (passing 1 mm
sieve), free from coarse materials or mica flakes and should be of non-calcitic or dolomitic
origin.

B. Operations in the Manufacturing of Bricks

The manufacturing of bricks is typically consists of preparation of clay, moulding, drying and
the burning (see [Link]

1. Preparation of the brick Earth

It consists of the following operations:
 Unsoiling: The soil used for making building
bricks should be processed so as to be free of
gravel, coarse sand (practical size more than 2
mm), lime and kankar particles, organic matter,
etc. About 20 cm of the top layer of the earth,
normally containing stones, pebbles, gravel,
roots, etc., is removed after clearing the trees
and vegetation.

 Digging: The soil mass is then manually

excavated, puddled, watered and left over for
weathering and subsequent processing. The
digging operation should be done before rains.

 Weathering: Stones, gravels, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug earth and
the soil is heaped on level ground in layers of 60–120 cm. The soil is left in heaps and
exposed to weather for at least one month in cases where such weathering is
considered necessary for the soil. This is done to develop homogeneity in the mass of
soil, particularly if they are from different sources, and also to eliminate the impurities
which get oxidized. Soluble salts in the clay would also be eroded by rain to some
extent, which otherwise could have caused
scumming at the time of burning of the bricks
in the kiln. The soil should be turned over at
least twice and it should be ensured that the
entire soil is wet throughout the period of
weathering. In order to keep it wet, water may
be sprayed as often as necessary. The
plasticity and strength of the clay are
improved by exposing the clay to weather.

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 Blending: The earth is then mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in suitable
proportions to modify the composition of soil. Moderate amount of water is mixed so as
to obtain the right consistency for moulding.
The mass is then mixed uniformly with
spades. Addition of water to the soil at the
dumps is necessary for the easy mixing and
workability, but the addition of water should
be controlled in such a way that it may not
create a problem in moulding and drying.
Excessive moisture content may effect the
size and shape of the finished brick

 Tempering: Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to make the
mass stiff and plastics (by plasticity, we mean
the property which wet clay has of being
permanently deformed without cracking). It
should preferably be carried out by storing the
soil in a cool place in layers of about 30 cm
thickness for not less than 36 hours. This will
ensure homogeneity in the mass of clay for
subsequent processing. For manufacturing
good brick, tempering is done in pug mills and
the operation is called pugging.

2. Moulding
It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the prepared brick earth.
Moulding may be carried out by hand or by machines. The process of moulding of bricks may
be the soft-mud (hand moulding), the stiff-mud (machine moulding) or the dry- press process
(moulding using maximum 10 per cent water and forming bricks at higher pressures). Fire-
brick is made by the soft mud process. Roofing, floor and wall tiles are made by dry-press
method. However, the stiff-mud process is used for making all the structural clay products

Types of Moulding

 Hand moulding (ground and Table moulding)

 Machine Moulding

3. Green bricks contain about 7 – 30% moisture depending upon the method of manufacture.
The object of drying is to remove the moisture to control the shrinkage and save fuel and time
during burning. The drying shrinkage is dependent upon pore spaces within the clay and the
mixing water. The addition of sand or ground burnt clay reduces shrinkage increases porosity
and facilities drying. The moisture content is brought down to about 3 per cent underexposed
conditions within three to four days. Thus,the strength of the green bricks is increased and the
bricks can be handled safel
Clay products can be dried:
 open air driers
 artificial driers- the hot floor drier and the tunnel drier.

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Types of drying: Open air drying and artificial drying

4. Burning
The burning of clay may be divided into three main stages. Dehydration (400–650°C): This is
also known as water smoking stage. During dehydration: (1) the water which has been
retained in the pores of the clay after drying is driven off and the clay loses its plasticity, (2)
some of the carbonaceous matter is burnt, (3) a portion of sulphur is distilled from pyrites.
Hydrous minerals like ferric hydroxide are dehydrated, and (5) the carbonate minerals are
more or less de-carbonated. Too rapid heating causes cracking or bursting of the bricks. On
the other hand, if alkali is contained in the clay or sulphur is present in large amount in the
coal, too slow heating of clay produces a scum on the surface of the bricks.

Types of burning: Open burning and kiln burning

TOPIC 2.2: ASTM Standards for Bricks

Brick selection is made according to the specific application in which the brick will be used.
Standards for brick cover specific uses of brick and classify the brick by performance characteristics. The
performance criteria include strength, durability and aesthetic requirements. Selection of the proper
specification and classification within that specification, along with proper design and construction, should
result in expected performance.
ASTM International (ASTM) publishes the most widely accepted standards on brick. These
standards are voluntary consensus standards that are reviewed and updated periodically to contain the
most recent information. All have been through a thorough review process by a balanced committee of
interested ASTM members classified as producers, users and general interest. All of the model building
codes in the United States reference ASTM standards for brick.
A. Physical Property Requirements
The physical property requirements in most specifications are compressive strength, water
absorption and saturation coefficient. These properties must be determined in accordance with ASTM C
67, Standard Methods of Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile [Ref. 1] or CSA A82
[Ref.3]. The minimum compressive strength, maximum water absorption and maximum saturation
coefficient are used in combination to predict the durability of the bricks in use. The saturation
coefficient, also referred to as the C/B ratio, is the ratio of 24-hour cold water absorption to the five-hour
boiling absorption.

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B. Appearance
Classification related to the appearance may include limits tolerances on dimensions, distortion,
out-of-square and chippage. The appearance classification is established on the size and precision
attained in manufacturing. The tolerances on the sizes of bricks are fixed by giving maximum and
minimum dimensions, not on individual bricks but on batches of 20 bricks chosen at random. It follows
from this method of measurement that batches are likely to contain, bricks outside the prescribed limit of
tolerance. Such lots should be rejected to avoid complaints about the variation of perpends.
 Dimensional Tolerances. Variations in raw materials and the manufacturing process will
result in brick that vary in size. Permitted size variation is based on the brick classification
and the relative dimensional range measured.
 Distortion. The amount of distortion is based on the brick specification and face
dimension. Distortion may be convex or concave and may be in the plane of the wall or
perpendicular to it. Other terms for distortion are “bowed” or “banana” brick. A brick that is
over the distortion limitations is difficult to lay and is easily noticeable in the brickwork.

 Chippage. Brick may be damaged or chipped during packaging, shipping or on the job
site. The amount of chippage is based upon the brick specification and classification.

C. Other Requirements
1. Void Area
A solid brick is defined as a unit whose net cross-sectional area in every plane parallel to
the bearing surface is 75 percent or more of its gross cross-sectional area measured in the same
plane. Thus, a solid brick has a maximum coring or
void area of 25 percent. A hollow brick is defined as a
unit whose net cross-sectional area in every plane
parallel to the bearing surface is less than 75 percent
of its gross cross-sectional area measured in the
same plane. A hollow brick has a minimum coring or
void area greater than 25 percent, and a maximum of
60 percent. Brick are cored or frogged at the option of
the manufacturer.

2. Efflorescence
Efflorescence is a crystalline deposit of water-soluble salts that can form on the surface of
some brickwork. The principal objection is an unsightly appearance, though it typically is not
harmful to brick. The test for efflorescence is
described in ASTM C 67 and CSA A82. Brick tested
under C 67 are given a rating of “effloresced” or “not
effloresced.” The specifier must invoke this part of the
standard for the requirement of “not effloresced” to
apply. CSA A82 also includes a rating of “slightly
effloresced,” and it is this rating that must be met if
efflorescence testing is invoked. Requirements on
efflorescence are not included in C 62 and C 126.

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3. Compressive Strength
Brickwork may be used as a structural material, so there may be instances when it is
important to specify a minimum compressive strength of the brick. This possibility is noted in ASTM
C 62, C 216, C 652 and C 1405. Most brick have compressive strengths considerably higher than
the minimum compressive strengths required for durability and abrasion resistance (see
[Link]
The crushing affords a basis for comparing the quality of bricks but is of little value in
determining the strength of a masonry wall, since the latter depends primarily on the strength of
mortar. Six bricks are taken for the compressive strength test although it may be found that an
individual brick varies by 20% or more from the average, the permissible stresses allowed for load
bearing walls take account of this, being based on an average strength of six bricks. It is, therefore,
both unnecessary and uneconomical to insist that every bricks is above a certain strength. As a
criterion of structural strength for brick, the transverse failure in a wall or pavement is likely to occur
on account of improper bedment. For testing bricks for compressive strength from a sample the
two bed faces of bricks are ground to provide smooth, even and parallel faces. The bricks are then
immersed in water at room temperature for 24 hours. These are then taken out of water and
surplus water on the surfaces is wiped off with cotton or a moist cloth. The frog of the brick is
flushed level with cement mortar and the brick is stored under damp jute bags for 24 hours
followed by its immersion in water at room temperature for three days. The specimen is placed in
the compression testing machine with flat faces horizontal and mortar filled face being upwards

4. Initial Rate of Absorption

The initial rate of absorption (IRA) is a measure of how quickly the brick will remove water from
mortar spread on it. IRA is not a qualifying property or condition of brick in the ASTM or CSA
specifications. IRA values may be of interest when selecting mortar and in use of the brick on the
jobsite. If the purchaser wishes to learn the IRA of the brick, the IRA test must be requested. Initial
rate of absorption information is included in ASTM C 62, C 216, C 652 and C 1405 (see
[Link]
Low absorption (< 7 %) usually indicates a high resistance to damage by freezing, although
some type of bricks of much higher absorption may also be frost resistance. Since expansive force
of water freezing in the pores of a clay product depends upon the proportion of pore space
occupied, the ratio of the absorption after 24 hours submersion to the absorption after boiling for 5
hours (C24/B5) appears to be better criterion of resistance to freezing than the percentage of
absorption.

TOPIC 3: Concrete Masonry Units

A Concrete masonry unit (CMU) – also called concrete block, cement block, and foundation block –
is a large rectangular brick used in construction. Concrete blocks are made from cast concrete, example:
Portland cement and aggregate, usually sand and fine gravel for high-density blocks. Lower density blocks
may use industrial wastes as an aggregate.

Type of CMU: stretcher, single-corner, and double-corner

Characteristics of CMU
Solid concrete units are commonly called concrete bricks, while hollow units are known as concrete
blocks, hollow blocks, or cinder blocks.
 Hollow units have a net cross-sectional area in every plane parallel to the bearing surface less
than 75% of the gross cross-sectional area in the same plane.
 If this ratio is 75% or more, the unit is categorized as solid

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 Concrete masonry units are specified by their nominal dimensions. The nominal dimension is
greater than its specified (or modular) dimension by the thickness of the mortar joint, usually 10
mm. For example
o A 200 x 200 x 400 block has an actual width of 190 mm, height of 190 mm, and
length of 390 mm
o Load-bearing concrete masonry units are available in nominal widths of 100 mm,
150 mm, 200 mm, 250 mm, and 300 mm, heights of 100 mm and 200 mm, and
lengths of 300 mm, 400 mm, and 600 mm.

Manufacturing process of CMU

Manufacturing process of concrete blocks consists of four basic processes: (a) mixing, (b) molding,
(c) curing, and (d) cubing.

Manufacturing process of CMU

1. Mixing:
 Raw materials are weighed out in proportions and transported to the mixer.
 All raw materials are mixed for 6 to 8 minutes
 Very dry, no-slump concrete

2. Molding
 From the mixer the materials enter the block molding machine
 The molds consist of an outer mold box containing several mold liners.
 The molds are vibrated for 7 seconds.
 After the mold is removed the block are able to stand by themselves

3. Curing
 The concrete blocks are placed in a curing rack. Each rack holds several hundred blocks.
 When a rack is full, it is rolled onto a set of rails and moved into a curing kiln.
 Blocks remain in the curing kilns for 24 hours. They are baked in a moist steam heat at 60 ℃

4. Cubing
 The rake of cured blocks is rolled out of the kiln.
 The blocks pass through a cuber which aligns each block and then stacks them into a cube three
blocks across by six blocks deep by three or four blocks high.
 These cubes are carried outside with a forklift and placed in storage.

Properties of CMU
Concrete masonry units are manufactured in three classes, based on their density: lightweight
units, medium-weight units, and normal-weight units, with dry unit weights. Well graded sand, gravel, and
crushed stone are used to manufacture normal-weight units. Lightweight aggregates such as pumice,
scoria, cinders, expanded clay, and expanded shale are used to manufacture lightweight units.

Table 1. Weigh classification and allowable maximum water absorption of CMU

Weight Classification Unit Weight (
𝒌𝒈
) Maximum Water Absorption
𝒎𝟑 𝒌𝒈
(average of 3 units, 𝟑)
𝒎
Light weight Less than 1680 288
Medium weight 1680-2000 240
Normal weight 2000 or more 208

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The amount of water absorption of concrete masonry units is controlled to reduce the effect of
weathering and to limit the amount of shrinkage due to moisture loss after construction. The absorption of
concrete masonry units is determined by immersing the unit in water for 24 hours. The absorption and
moisture content are calculated as follows:

𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑑
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100%
𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑖

𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑑
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100%
𝑊𝑑
𝑊𝑟 − 𝑊𝑑
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100%
𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑖
Where:
𝒌𝒈
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝒎𝟑
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛, 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑑 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛, 𝑘𝑔

TOPIC 4: Calcium Silica units

Calcium silicate masonry units (AKA. Cast sand stone), are produced from sand and silica, which
is mixed with hydrated lime and other elements. The no-slump mixture is then pressed into modular-sized
molds and cured in an autoclave. Calcium silicate contains no Portland cement.

Advantages:
 High strength
 High density - slim bearing walls
 Optimal protection against heat loss
Disadvantages:
 Demanding – labor consumption
 Lower thermal resistance
 Price

Manufacturing of Calcium Silica Units

Calcium silicate masonry units are a manufactured masonry product (see
[Link]

 Lime and silica-based sand are mixed and then pressed into modular-sized units under high
pressure.
 The “green” units are then subjected to high pressure steam (curing) in an autoclave to produce a
masonry unit with uniformly fine-grained texture. During this process, dried bricks are loaded into
an autoclave where they are exposed to synergistic effect of elevated temperature (the
temperature range is 170°C to about 195°C) and adequate pressure saturated steam (pressure
approximately 16 bars).
 A calcium silicate hydrate binder is formed when the elements in the raw materials chemically react
in the autoclave. This results in a durable, strong and integrally bonded unit.

A wide variety of distinctive colors can be produced, many of which cannot be matched by other types
of masonry units. These range from natural white to pastel shades to earthen tones. Proprietary color
blending techniques make it possible to produce striations and ranges similar to those in natural stone

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Properties of Calcium Silica Units

 The strength of dry calcium silicate bricks is approximately 30%-50%higher than when saturated.
 Prolonged exposure to acidic atmospheric gases in moist air may degrade the calcium silicate
bricks.
 Sulfur dioxide decomposes the hydrated calcium silicate cementing agent, forming a skin of
calcium sulfate (gypsum) and hydrated silica.
 Carbon dioxide ingress marginally increases strength but causes slight shrinkage.
 Absorption of liquids (about 7-16% by weight) is similar to some clay bricks (except engineering
bricks).
 The thermal conductivity (k) of calcium silicate masonry is moisture content and density dependent;
for masonry of density 2000 kg/m3, k =0.92 W/mK at 1% moisture content by volume (sheltered
conditions) and k = 1.24 W/mK at 5% moisture contentby volume (exposed conditions).
 Ordinarily there are no water soluble salts present in calcium silicate bricks; however, repeated
crystallization of sea salt may cause surface deterioration; they are not recommended in these
locations.
 The resistance of calcium silicate bricks to frost damage is mainly related to their mechanica
strength and they are not recommended for use in highly exposed conditions (e.g, pavings).

Uses of Calcium Silica Units

A calcium silicate masonry unit used for masonry veneer construction. Veneer applications include:
 Thin-clad installations.
 For interior and exterior use in residential, commercial and institutional applications (chimneys,
fireplaces, behind wood stoves, outside entranceways, front of house, exterior walls etc.)
 For the base of the buildings, stairways, terraces
 Paving

TOPIC 5: Masonry Walls

Masonry walls are the most durable part of any building or structure. They provide strength,
durability to the structure and also helps to control indoor temperature. Based on the wall construction, the
types of masonry walls are:
1. Load Bearing Masonry Walls
2. Reinforced Masonry Walls
3. Hollow Masonry Walls
4. Composite Masonry Walls
5. Post-tensioned Masonry Walls

Load bearing masonry walls are constructed with bricks, stones or concrete blocks. These walls
directly transfer loads from the roof to the foundation. These walls can be exterior as well as interior walls.
The construction system with load bearing walls are economical than the system with framed structures.
The thickness of load bearing walls is based on the quantity of load from roof it has to bear. For example, a
load bearing wall with just a ground floor can have its outer walls of 230mm, while with one or more floors
above it, based on occupancy type, its thickness may be increased. The load bearing walls can be
reinforced or unreinforced masonry walls.

Reinforced masonry walls can be load bearing walls or non-load bearing walls. The use of
reinforcement in walls helps it to withstand tension forces and heavy compressive loads. The unreinforced
masonry walls are prone to cracks and failure under heavy compressive loads and during earthquakes.

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They have little ability to withstand lateral forces during heavy rain and wind. Cracks also develop in un-
reinforced masonry walls due to earth pressure or differential settlement of foundations.

Reinforced masonry wall

Hollow or Cavity masonry walls are used to prevent moisture reaching the interior of the building
by providing hollow space between outside and inside face of the wall. These walls also help in temperature
control inside the building from outside wall as the hollow space restricts heat to pass through the wall.

When the wall is exposed to moisture for a sustained period and penetrates through the outer face,
the water reaches the cavity or the hollow space and flows down. Then they are drained through the weep
holes to the exterior of the building. These hollow spaces may be coated with water repellent coating or
damp-proofing to further reduce the ingress of moisture.

Composite Masonry Walls are constructed with two or more units such as stones or bricks and
hollow bricks. This type of masonry wall construction is done for better appearance with economy. In
composite masonry walls, two wythes of masonry units are constructed bonding with each other. While one
wythe can be brick or stone masonry while the other can be hollow bricks. A wythe is a continuous vertical
section of masonry one unit in thickness. These wythes are interconnected either by horizontal joint
reinforcement or by using steel ties.

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Post-tensioned masonry walls are constructed to strengthen the masonry walls against the
forces that may induce tension in the wall such as earthquake forces or wind forces. These walls are
constructed from the foundation level and post-tensioning rods are anchored into the foundation. These rods
are run vertically between the wythes or in the core of concrete masonry units. After the masonry wall
construction is completed and cured, these rods are tensioned and anchored on the steel place at the top of
the wall.

TOPIC 5.1: Concrete Hollow Blocks in the Philippines

Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB), are one of the most extensively used walling materials in the
Philippines. Some of the reasons for this is their relative low cost when compared to other materials and
speed of installation by semi-skilled labourers. CHB walls are very weak against lateral loads (pushing or
pulling forces from typhoon or earthquake). Adding steel reinforcing bars vertically and horizontally inside
the CHBs can increase their resistance to lateral loads (see
[Link]

Background Information:
1. Advantages
 Readily available product
 Good thermal and sound resistance
 High fire resistance
 Can be reinforced to increase lateral resistance against earthquakes and typhoons
 20+ years lifespan

2. Challenges
 Local sourcing of good quality raw materials and CHBs can be difficult
 High weight
 Lower thermal resistance
 Demanding – labour consumption

3. Standard size in the Philippines

 40cm (length) X 20 cm (width) X 4 in (thickness)
 40cm (length) X 20 cm (width) X 5 in (thickness)
 40cm (length) X 20 cm (width) X 6 in (thickness)

4. Product and Material Quality

Crushed coarse sand or gravel is optimal for the manufacture of CHBs. Avoid sand sourced
from rivers and coastal areas (sea sand)

Existing Standards for CHBs and CHB Wall construction in the Philippines
(from the National Building Code of the Philippines)

Load bearing wall 6” CHB

CHBS used must be of Type I Class A or B Unit, confirming with ASTM C-90-70
Minimum compressive 5.41MPa (800psi) for individual CHBs
strength 6.89MPa (1000psi) based on the average gross area of 5 units
Non-Load Bearing wall 4” CHB
Applications include: walls, partitions, fences and dividers
Steel bars Applications include: walls, partitions, fences and dividers
Mortar and grout Type 1, 2, 3 or Type 4 Portland Cement confirming to ASTM C-150
Standard Mix to the building code specifications

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Proportion of concrete for the manufacture of CHBs

Method By volume
By weight
Mixture Mix Proportion of 1: 7 (as per structural engineer’s specification)

Water 4clean water shall be used; shall not exceed 28L per 40kilograms per bag of
cement, slump test (as per ASTM C-143) shall not exceed 10cm, unless specified
by a structural engineer
Common CHB mix ½ bucket of water
1 bucket cement
7 bucket sand
Common Mortar Mix 1 bucket of water
1 bucket cement
7 bucket sand
Mixing Time If batch mixer is used, use accurate timing and measuring devices to operate as
per manufacturer’s instructions. Revolutions should be between 14 and 20 per
minute
Curing After being removed from the mould, the CHBs should be covered with plastic
sheet or tarpaulin and kept damp and shaded for at least 7 day in order to
effectively cure. This can be achieved by continually spraying them with water or
keeping them under water in tanks. A good curing process leads to less cracking
and a stronger, harder, denser and more durable concrete.

Tips in making CHB

 Selection of raw materials for the manufacture of CHBs: It is recommended to use good
quality, clean ingredients. Avoid using beach sand as it contains salt which significantly
compromises the quality of concrete.
 Proportions of materials in mixture: Mix concrete well, using the proportions specified by a
structural engineer. Ensure that an adequate amount of cement is added and avoid adding
excessive water as it weakens the mixture. Concrete should stand up when mixed, not flow away
due to excessive water.
 Mixing: Use a mixing board otherwise water used for mixing will percolate into the ground and
impurities such as dirt and grass could become incorporated into the mixture. If concrete is mixed
in batches, maintain consistent proportions for all batches.
 Pouring and compaction: Ensure the formwork is clean before pouring and vibrate uniformly. The
concrete should be well compacted in order to make sure that any air which is trapped in the
concrete (weak points) is removed.
 Curing: Avoid using freshly made, uncured CHBs as they are still in a state of shrinkage.
 Storage: Store CHBs for at least 14 days after curing before using them. Protect them from rain
and ground water, stacking them in a way which allows air to circulate around and between them.
 Transportation: Minimize excessive handling and transportation of CHBs to avoid damage
 Selection and quality control of CHBs: It is recommended to test the compressive strength of
CHBs produced/purchased in order to ensure they meet the required strength. Select only strong
CHBs. Blocks with cracks and corners crumbling away when handled suggests poor quality. If the
CHB breaks when dropped from head height, don’t use it or other blocks in the same batch.
 Construction: Dampen CHBs before laying as dry masonry absorbs water from the cement,
weakening the joint. CHBs should always be laid on a full bed of mortar and vertical joints should
always be filled.
 Earthquake and typhoon resistance: In order to increase the building’s resistance against lateral
loads (pushing or pulling forces from typhoon or earthquake), connect CHB walls to the reinforced
concrete columns and beams with vertical and horizontal steel reinforcing bars, in accordance with
structural engineer’s details.
 Maintenance: Consider plastering/rendering the surface of CHB walls in order to avoid excess
absorption of moisture into the wall and to facilitate periodic cleaning

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TOPIC 6: Mortar

Mortar is a mixture of cementitious material, aggregate generally with a grain size of less than 4 mm,
water and possibly additives and/or admixtures. Mortar can be classified as cement-lime mortar cement
mortar, lime mortar or masonry cement mortar. Mortar is used for the following functions:
 To bind materials together (e. g. masonry mortar and tile adhesive mortar, either non reinforced or
reinforced
 To serve as a seating and levelling material for the masonry unit
 To provide aesthetic quality of the structure and a level or smooth finish (e. g. floor screed mortar,
internal plastering
 To protect against weathering (e. g. external rendering)
 To improve thermal insulation of walls (e. g. external thermal insulation composite systems, thermal
insulation rendering mortar, lightweight masonry mortar)
Masonry mortar which is divided into general purpose mortar, lightweight mortar, and thin layer
mortar. Rendering mortar which is used to protect buildings against weathering and to give them a
decorative look. Thermal insulating renders are part of this group. Plastering mortar to finish inside walls.
Floor screed mortar; mainly self-levelling. High-technology dry mortars (tile adhesive, concrete repair etc.)
External Thermal Insulating Composite Systems (ETICS)

The mortars are generally classified according to their composition, application, requirements, their
production method, and their supply method.
Mortars classified according to their composition:
 Cement mortars
 Hydraulic lime mortars
 Air lime mortars: they are mortars produced with hydrated air lime and sand which are used for
internal and external coatings
 Composite mortars made from cement and hydraulic lime
 Composite mortars made from cement and air lime: these limes can be mixed with different
amounts of cement (common or white)

Mortars defined by their application

 Mortars for masonry construction
 Mortars for coatings
 Mortars for paving
 Adhesive mortars
 Mortars for repair work
 Waterproofing mortars

Mortars defined by their requirements

 Mortars made with recipes or prescriptions: They are normally known based on their declared
components. For example: Cement: Lime: Sand mortars, Lime: Sand mortars or Cement: Sand
mortars.
 Designed mortars: A mortar which is required to have a certain characteristic, which can be a
particular strength, adherence or water resistance. For example: an M-5 masonry mortar should
achieve a compression strength after 28 days of 5 N/mm2 in accordance with the EN 998-2(14)
regulation.

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Mortars defined by their production method

 Masonry mortar produced on site: a mortar composed of the individual components measured and
mixed on site.
 Semi-finished factory produced masonry mortar:
o Pre-dosed masonry mortar: a mortar whose components are completely factory dosed
and are supplied to the place where they will be used and where they are mixed in
accordance with the manufacturer's specifications and conditions.
o A premixed lime and sand masonry mortar: a mortar whose components have been
completely factory dosed and mixed and are supplied to its place of use where other
factory specified or supplied components are added: (i.e.: cement).
 Factory made masonry mortar (industrial mortar): mortar dosed and mixed in a factory. It can be "dry
mortar", a prepared mix which only requires the addition of water or "wet mortar" which is supplied
ready for use.

Mortars defined by their supply method

 Dry mortar in silos: the procedure is simple, clean and economical in its consumption. The
manufacturer provides one or more silos and the exact type of mortar (transported in tank trucks)
defined by the designer. It is only necessary to add the indicated water to create the mix at the
construction site.
 Dry mortar in bags: dry mortars can also be supplied in bags. Their use on site is very simple
because there is no dosing or selection of components required on site. The supplier's instructions
should be followed for manual or mechanical mixing with mixers.
 Wet mortar: principally produced with lime putty, it is supplied ready for use in bags or containers.

Mortar Properties

Workability may be defined as the behaviour of a mix in respect of all the properties required,
during application, subsequent working and finishing.
o Ease of use, i.e. the way it adheres or slides on the trowel.
o Ease of spread on the masonry unit.
o Ease of extrusion between courses without excessive dropping or smearing.
o Ease of positioning of the masonry unit without movement due to its own weight and the
weight of additional courses

Water Retentivity & Air content is the property of mortar that resists water loss by absorption into
the masonry units (suction) and to the air, in conditions of varying temperature, wind and humidity. Water
retentivity is related to workability. The air content of the mortar in its plastic state is also important. In
order to achieve good durability it is necessary that there is sufficient air content (entrained air) to enable
freezethaw cycles to be resisted without disrupting the matrix of the material.

The progression of stiffening, refers to the gradual change from fresh or plastic mortar to setting
or set mortar. Hardening refers to the subsequent process whereby the set mortar progressively develops
strength.

Properties of hardened mortar:

 Durability of mortar may be defined as its ability to endure aggressive conditions during its design
life.
 A number of potentially destructive influences may interact with the mortar: these include water,
frost, soluble salts and temperature change.
 In general, as the cement content increases so will durability.
 Air entrainment of mortars improves resistance to freeze-thaw damage.

Compressive strength:
The use of too much cement will produce a more rigid mortar, which may result in vertical cracking
passing through units and mortar joints as stresses are imposed. Use of the appropriate mortar should not
result in cracking, but any that does occur, (e.g. due to movement), will tend to follow the joints, which will
be much easier to repair

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TOPIC 7: Grout

Masonry grout is a cementitious mixture used to fill cores or cavities in masonry construction. While
usually added for structural reasons, grout can also increase: fire ratings, security, acoustical performance,
termite resistance, blast resistance, thermal storage capacity and anchorage capabilities.

Grout is composed of cement, aggregate, lime (optional) and sufficient water to allow ease of
placement and ensure complete filling of the grout space. With approval, admixtures may be added to the
grout mix. The high initial water content of typical grout mixes compensates for water absorption by the
masonry during and after grout placement. The final water-to-cement ratio is significantly reduced, thus
grout develops high compressive strength despite its apparent high initial water to cement ratio.

Generally, grout is used to structurally bond wall elements into a wall system. The most common
example is in reinforced construction, where grout bonds the steel reinforcing bars to the masonry, allowing
them to act as one system in resisting loads. Grouted cores also increase the net cross-sectional area of
concrete masonry and permit walls to carry higher compressive, shear loads and lateral loads.

Types of grout
Grout for use in concrete masonry construction should comply with ASTM C 476, Standard
Specification for Grout for Masonry, or the governing building code which may permit grouting options other
than those in set forth in ASTM C 476. ASTM C 476 defines two types of grout: fine and coarse.
1. Fine grout:
 contains sand smaller than 9.5 mm as its only aggregate
 would only be used in small core units such as reinforced brick
 Fine grout is required to flow through small openings so a grout slump of over 250mm is
recommended.
2. Coarse grout:
 Allows pea gravel smaller than 13 mm, or other acceptable aggregate, in addition to the sand.
 Coarse grout may be used where the grout space for the grouted cavity of a double wythe(18)
masonry construction is at least 4 cm in width horizontally, or where the minimum block cell
dimension is 4 x 8 cm.

Grout Properties
Masonry grout is most often used in conjunction with steel reinforcement in masonry walls. While
mortar is placed between units as they are laid, grout is poured or pumped into the cores or cavities
between wythes of masonry walls already in place. The grout must uniformly fill these grout spaces, harden
to provide desired compressive strength, and bond to reinforcing steel and masonry units. To satisfactorily
meet these performance requirements, the flow ability, aggregate size, and proportions of a grout mix must
be compatible with the application.

Slump:
The flowability of grout at the time of placement is measured by its slump. The slump should be in the range
of 200 to 250 mm. Although this is high compared to ranges common for concrete, it is needed to assure
that grout spaces are completely filled. Some of the water used to achieve slump is absorbed by the
masonry units, thus lowering the water-cement ratio of the grout in place.

Compressive Strength:
In certain engineered masonry applications, the compressive strength of the grout may be specified at a
value consistent with the desired compressive strength of the masonry f’m, but not less than 13.5 MPa.

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Laboratory Activity 7

SAMPLING & TESTING CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS, ASTM C140

I. Introduction:
Standards for sampling and testing concrete masonry units are developed by the technical
committees of ASTM International in accordance with consensus procedures. These standards reflect the
expert opinion of researchers, concrete masonry manufacturers, designers, contractors and others with an
interest in quality standards for concrete masonry.

Depending upon the structural requirements of masonry unit, concrete mixes can be designed
using ingredients available locally or if not found suitable then with in the most economical distance. The
concrete mix used for normal hollow and solid blocks shall not be richer than one part by volume of
cement to 6 parts by volume of combined room dry aggregates before mixing. Hollow concrete blocks for
normal work used in masonry when reinforced is used shall not be leaner than 1 part cement to 8 parts
room dry sand by volume. The mixes are designed with the available materials to give overall economy
and the required properties of the products. The hollow load bearing concrete blocks of the standard size
400 x 200 x 200mm will weigh between 17 and 26 kg (1063 to 1625 kg/m3) when made with normal weight
aggregates. Normal weight blocks are made with cement, sand, gravel, crushed stone and air-cooled slag

II. Materials
20 full size units shall be measured for length, width and height. Cored units shall also be
measured for minimum thickness of face, shells and webs. From these 3 blocks are to be tested for block
density, 8 blocks for compressive strength, 3 blocks for water absorption and 3 blocks for drying shrinkage
and moisture movement.

III. Procedure:

A. Determination of Block Density

Three blocks shall be dried to constant mass in a suitable oven heated to approximately
1000°C. After cooling the blocks to room temperature, the dimensions of each block shall be
measured in centimetres to the nearest millimetre and the overall volume computed in cubic
centimetres. The blocks shall then be weighted in kilograms to the nearest 10 gm. The density of
each block calculated as follows:

𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 (𝑘𝑔)

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 ( 3 ) =
𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘

B. Determination of Water Absorption

Three full size blocks shall be completely immersed in clean water at room temperature
for 24 hours. The blocks shall then be removed from the water and allowed to drain for one minute
by placing them on a 10 mm or coarser wire mesh, visible surface water being removed with a
damp cloth, the saturated and surface dry blocks immediately weighed. After weighing all blocks
shall be dried in a ventilated oven at 100 to 1150C for not less than 24 hours and until two
successive weighing at intervals of 2 hours show an increment of loss not greater than 0.2 percent
of the last previously determined mass of the specimen.
The water absorption calculates as given below:

𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑑
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100%
𝑊𝑑
Where:
𝒌𝒈
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝒎𝟑
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛, 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑑 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑘𝑔

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C. Compressive Strength
Eight full size units shall be tested within 72 hours after delivery to the laboratory, during
which time they shall be stored continuously in normal room air. For the purpose of acceptance,
age of testing the specimens shall be 28 days. The age shall be reckoned from the time of the
addition of water to the dry ingredients.

1. Capping Test Specimens

The bearing surfaces of units shall be capped by gypsum. The gypsum and water paste
shall be spread evenly on a non-absorbent surface that has been lightly coated with oil. The
surface of the unit to be capped shall be brought into contact with the capping paste. The
average thickness of the cap shall be not more than 3 mm. The caps shall be aged for at least 2
hours before the specimens are tested.

2. Procedure
Specimens shall be tested with the centroid of their bearing surfaces aligned vertically
with the centre of thrust of the spherically seated steel bearing blocks of the testing machine. The
load up to one-half of the expected maximum load may be applied at any convenient rate, after
which the control of the machine shall be adjusted as required to give a uniform rate of travel of
the moving head such that the remaining load is applied in not less than one nor more than two
minutes. The compressive strength of a concrete masonry unit shall be taken as the maximum
load in Newtones divided by the gross cross sectional area of the unit in square millimetres.

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