Package ‘terra’

January 12, 2026

Type Package
Title Spatial Data Analysis
Version 1.8-93
Date 2026-01-11
Depends R (>= 3.5.0), methods
Suggests parallel, tinytest, ncdf4, sf (>= 0.9-8), deldir, XML,
leaflet (>= 2.2.1), htmlwidgets
LinkingTo Rcpp
Imports Rcpp (>= 1.0-10)
SystemRequirements C++17, GDAL (>= 2.2.3), GEOS (>= 3.4.0), PROJ (>=
4.9.3), TBB, sqlite3
Encoding UTF-8
Language en-US
Maintainer Robert J. Hijmans <[Link]@[Link]>
Description
Methods for spatial data analysis with vector (points, lines, polygons) and raster (grid) data. Meth-
ods for vector data include geometric operations such as intersect and buffer. Raster methods in-
clude local, focal, global, zonal and geometric operations. The predict and interpolate meth-
ods facilitate the use of regression type (interpolation, machine learning) models for spatial pre-
diction, including with satellite remote sensing data. Processing of very large files is sup-
ported. See the manual and tutorials on <[Link] to get started.
License GPL (>= 3)
URL [Link] [Link]
BugReports [Link]
LazyLoad yes
NeedsCompilation yes
Author Robert J. Hijmans [cre, aut] (ORCID:
<[Link]
Márcia Barbosa [ctb] (ORCID: <[Link]
Roger Bivand [ctb] (ORCID: <[Link]

1
2 Contents

Andrew Brown [ctb] (ORCID: <[Link]

Michael Chirico [ctb] (ORCID: <[Link]
Emanuele Cordano [ctb] (ORCID: <[Link]
Krzysztof Dyba [ctb] (ORCID: <[Link]
Edzer Pebesma [ctb] (ORCID: <[Link]
Barry Rowlingson [ctb] (ORCID: <[Link]
Michael D. Sumner [ctb] (ORCID:
<[Link]
Repository CRAN
Date/Publication 2026-01-12 [Link] UTC

Contents
terra-package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
activeCat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
add_abline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
add_box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
add_grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
add_legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
add_mtext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
adjacent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
animate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
app . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
approximate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Arith-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
ar_info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
atan2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
barplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
bestMatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
boxplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
buffer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
cartogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
catalyze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Contents 3

cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
cellSize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
centroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
chunk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
clamp_ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
classify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
click . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
coerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
combineGeoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Compare-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
compareGeom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
concats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
contour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
costDist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
crds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
crop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
crosstab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
crs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
datatype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
deepcopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
densify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
deprecated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
describe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
diff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
disagg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
draw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
elongate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
erase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
expanse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
ext . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
extend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
extractAlong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
extractRange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
extremes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
fillHoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
fillTime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4 Contents

flip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
flowAccumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
focal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
focal3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
focalCpp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
focalMat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
focalPairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
focalReg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
focalValues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
forceCCW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
freq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
gdal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
geom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
geomtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
global . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
graticule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
gridDist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
halo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
headtail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
hist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
identical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
ifel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
impose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
inplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
inset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
interpIDW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
interpNear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
intersect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
k_means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
lapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
layerCor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
linearUnits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
makeTiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
makeVRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
map_extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Contents 5

mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Math-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
mem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
mergeTime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
meta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
metags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
mosaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
NAflag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
nearest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
NIDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
north . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
nseg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
patches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
perim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
persp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
pitfinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
plet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
plotRGB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
plot_extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
plot_graticule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
prcomp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
predict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
princomp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
quantile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
query . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
rangeFill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
rapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
rast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
rasterize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
rasterizeGeom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
rasterizeWin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
rcl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
readwrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
rectify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
regress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6 Contents

relate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
rep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
replace_dollar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
replace_layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
replace_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
resample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
rescale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
RGB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
rotate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
rowSums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
sapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
sbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
scale_linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
scatterplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
scoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
sds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
segregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
sel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
selectHighest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
selectRange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
serialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
setValues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
shade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
sharedPaths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
sieve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
simplifyGeom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
SpatExtent-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
SpatRaster-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
spatSample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
SpatVector-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
sprc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
subset_dollar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
subset_double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
subset_single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
subst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
summarize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
surfArea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Contents 7

svc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
symdif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
tapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
thresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
tighten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
tmpFiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
toMemory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
varnames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
vect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
vector_layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
viewshed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
voronoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
vrt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
vrt_tiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
where . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
[Link] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
wrap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
wrapCache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
writeCDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
writeRaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
writeVector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
xapp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
xmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
xyRowColCell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
zonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
zoom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Index 358
8 terra-package

terra-package Description of the methods in the terra package

Description
terra provides methods to manipulate geographic (spatial) data in "raster" and "vector" form.
Raster data divide space into rectangular grid cells and they are commonly used to represent spa-
tially continuous phenomena, such as elevation or the weather. Satellite images also have this data
structure, and in that context grid cells are often referred to as pixels. In contrast, "vector" spatial
data (points, lines, polygons) are typically used to represent discrete spatial entities, such as a road,
country, or bus stop.
The package implements two main classes (data types): SpatRaster and SpatVector. SpatRaster
supports handling large raster files that cannot be loaded into memory; local, focal, zonal, and global
raster operations; polygon, line and point to raster conversion; integration with modeling methods
to make spatial predictions; and more. SpatVector supports all types of geometric operations such
as intersections.
Additional classes include SpatExtent, which is used to define a spatial extent (bounding box);
SpatRasterDataset, which represents a collection of sub-datasets for the same area. Each sub-
dataset is a SpatRaster with possibly many layers, and may, for example, represent different weather
variables; and SpatRasterCollection and SpatVectorCollection that are equivalent to lists of
SpatRaster or SpatVector objects. There is also a SpatGraticule class to assist in adding a
longitude/latitude lines and labels to a map with another coordinate reference system.
These classes hold a C++ pointer to the data "reference class" and that creates some limitations.
They cannot be recovered from a saved R session either or directly passed to nodes on a computer
cluster. Generally, you should use writeRaster to save SpatRaster objects to disk (and pass a
filename or cell values to cluster nodes). Also see wrap and saveRDS. You should not write scripts
that directly access this pointer, as its user-interface is not stable.
The "terra" package is a replacement of the "raster" package. "terra" has a very similar, but simpler,
interface; it is faster, and it can do much more. At the bottom of this page there is a table that shows
differences in the methods between the two packages.
Below is a list of some of the most important methods grouped by theme.
———————————————————————————————————————

SpatRaster
———————————————————————————————————————

I. Creating, combining and sub-setting

rast Create a SpatRaster from scratch, file, or another object

c Combine SpatRasters (multiple layers)
add<- Add a SpatRaster to another one
subset or [[, or $ Select layers of a SpatRaster
selectRange Select cell values from different layers using an index layer
terra-package 9

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II. Changing the spatial extent or resolution

Also see the methods in section VIII

merge Combine SpatRasters with different extents (but same origin and resolution)
mosaic Combine SpatRasters with different extents using a function for overlapping cells
crop Select a geographic subset of a SpatRaster
extend Add rows and/or columns to a SpatRaster
trim Trim a SpatRaster by removing exterior rows and/or columns that only have NAs
aggregate Combine cells of a SpatRaster to create larger cells
disagg Subdivide cells
resample Resample (warp) values to a SpatRaster with a different origin and/or resolution
project Project (warp) values to a SpatRaster with a different coordinate reference system
shift Adjust the location of SpatRaster
flip Flip values horizontally or vertically
rotate Rotate values around the date-line (for lon/lat data)
t Transpose a SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

III. Local (cell based) methods

Apply-like methods:

app Apply a function to all cells, across layers, typically to summarize (as in base::apply)
tapp Apply a function to groups of layers (as in base::tapply and stats::aggregate)
lapp Apply a function to using the layers of a SpatRaster as variables
sapp Apply a function to each layer
rapp Apply a function to a spatially variable range of layers
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Arithmetic, logical, and standard math methods:

Arith-methods Standard arithmetic methods (+, -, *, ^, %%, %/%, /)

Compare-methods Comparison methods for SpatRaster (==, !=, >, <, <=, >=m [Link], [Link])
[Link] a one-step equivalent to ![Link]
Summary-methods mean, max, min, median, sum, range, prod,
any, all, stdev, [Link], [Link], anyNA, noNA, allNA
Logic-methods Boolean methods (!, &, |)
Math-methods abs, sign, sqrt, ceiling, floor, trunc, cummax, cummin, cumprod,
cumsum, log, log10, log2, log1p, acos, acosh, asin, asinh, atan, atanh,
exp, expm1, cos, cosh, sin, sinh, tan, tanh, round, signif
10 terra-package

[Link] create a Boolean (logical) SpatRaster

[Link] create an integer (whole numbers) SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Other methods:

approximate Compute missing values for cells by interpolation across layers

roll Rolling functions such as the rolling mean
clamp Restrict cell values to a minimum and/or maximum value
cellSize Compute the area of cells
classify (Re-)classify values
subst Substitute (replace) cell values
cover First layer covers second layer except where the first layer is NA
init Initialize cells with new values
mask Replace values in a SpatRaster based on values in another SpatRaster
[Link] which is the first layer that is TRUE?
segregate Make a 0/1 layer for each unique value
rangeFill Make a 0/1 SpatRaster for a time series
regress Cell-based regression models
————————— ——————————————————————————————

IV. Zonal and global methods

expanse Compute the summed area of cells

crosstab Cross-tabulate two SpatRasters
freq Frequency table of SpatRaster cell values
global Summarize SpatRaster cell values with a function
quantile Quantiles
layerCor Correlation between layers
stretch Stretch values
scale Scale values
summary Summary of the values of a SpatRaster (quartiles and mean)
unique Get the unique values in a SpatRaster
zonal Summarize a SpatRaster by zones in another SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

V. Situation (spatial context) based methods

adjacent Identify cells that are adjacent to a set of cells of a SpatRaster

boundaries Detection of boundaries (edges)
distance Shortest distance to a cell that is not NA or to or from a vector object
gridDist Shortest distance through adjacent grid cells
terra-package 11

costDist Shortest distance considering cell-varying friction

direction Direction (azimuth) to or from cells that are not NA
focal Focal (neighborhood; moving window) functions
focal3D Three dimensional (row, col, lyr) focal functions
focalCpp Faster focal by using custom C++ functions
focalReg Regression between layers for focal areas
focalPairs Apply a function (e.g. a correlation coefficient) to focal values for pairs of layers
patches Find patches (clumps)
sieve Sieve filter to remove small patches
terrain Compute slope, aspect and other terrain characteristics from elevation data
viewshed Compute viewshed (showing areas that are visible from a particular location
shade Compute hill shade from slope and aspect layers
autocor Compute global or local spatial autocorrelation
————————— ——————————————————————————————

VI. Model predictions

predict Predict a non-spatial (regression or classification) model to a SpatRaster

interpolate Predict a spatial model to a SpatRaster
interpIDW Inverse-distance-weighted interpolation
interpNear Nearest neighbor interpolation
k_means k-means clustering of SpatRaster data
princomp and prcomp Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with raster data
————————— ——————————————————————————————

VII. Accessing cell values

Apart from the function listed below, you can also use indexing with [ with cell numbers, and row
and/or column numbers

values cell values (fails with very large rasters)

values<- Set new values to the cells of a SpatRaster
setValues Set new values to the cells of a SpatRaster
[Link] Get cell values as a matrix
[Link] Get cell values as an array
[Link] get cell values as a [Link] (including class lables)
extract Extract cell values from a SpatRaster (with cell numbers, coordinates, points, lines, or polygons)
extractAlong Extract cell values along a line such that the values are in the right order
spatSample Take a sample (regular, random, stratified, weighted) sample from a SpatRaster
minmax Get the minimum and maximum value of the cells of a SpatRaster (if known)
setMinMax Compute the minimum and maximum value of a SpatRaster if these are not known
12 terra-package

————————— ——————————————————————————————

VIII. Getting and setting dimensions

Get or set basic parameters of SpatRasters. If there are values associated with a SpatRaster (either
in memory or via a link to a file) these are lost when you change the number of columns or rows or
the resolution. This is not the case when the extent is changed (as the number of columns and rows
will not be affected). Similarly, with crs you can set the coordinate reference system, but this does
not transform the data (see project for that).

ncol The number of columns

nrow The number of rows
ncell The number of cells (can not be set directly, only via ncol or nrow)
res The resolution (x and y)
nlyr Get or set the number of layers
names Get or set the layer names
xres The x resolution (can be set with res)
yres The y resolution (can be set with res)
xmin The minimum x coordinate (or longitude)
xmax The maximum x coordinate (or longitude)
ymin The minimum y coordinate (or latitude)
ymax The maximum y coordinate (or latitude)
ext Get or set the extent (minimum and maximum x and y coordinates ("bounding box")
origin The origin of a SpatRaster
sources Get the filename(s) to which a SpatRaster is linked
inMemory Are the data sources in memory (or on disk)?
toMemory Force data sources to memory (not recommended)?
compareGeom Compare the geometry of SpatRasters
NAflag Set the NA value (for reading from a file with insufficient metadata)
————————— ——————————————————————————————

IX. Computing row, column, cell numbers and coordinates

Cell numbers start at 1 in the upper-left corner. They increase within rows, from left to right, and
then row by row from top to bottom. Likewise, row numbers start at 1 at the top of the raster, and
column numbers start at 1 at the left side of the raster.

xFromCol x-coordinates from column numbers

yFromRow y-coordinates from row numbers
xFromCell x-coordinates from row numbers
yFromCell y-coordinates from cell numbers
xyFromCell x and y coordinates from cell numbers
colFromX Column numbers from x-coordinates (or longitude)
rowFromY Row numbers from y-coordinates (or latitude)
rowColFromCell Row and column numbers from cell numbers
cellFromXY Cell numbers from x and y coordinates
cellFromRowCol Cell numbers from row and column numbers
terra-package 13

cellFromRowColCombine Cell numbers from all combinations of row and column numbers
cells Cell numbers for a SpatVector or SpatExtent
————————— ——————————————————————————————

X. Depth related methods

depth can be used to explicitly a third or fourth dimension of a SpatRaster.

depth Get or set depth dimension values ()

depthName Set or get the depth name
depthUnit Set or get the depth unit
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XI. Time related methods

time can be used to explicitly a third or fourth dimension of a SpatRaster.

time Get or set time

fillTime can add empty layers in between existing layers to assure that the time step between layers is constan
mergeTime combine multiple rasters, perhaps partly overlapping in time, into a single time series
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XII. Methods for categorical rasters

[Link] Are there categorical layers?

levels Get active categories, or set categories
activeCat Get or set the active category
cats Get categories (active and inactive)
[Link] Set categories in place
concats Combine SpatRasters with different categories
catalyze Create a layer for each category
[Link] use the active category to create a non-categorical SpatRaster
[Link] Make the layers of a SpatRaster categorical
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XIII. Writing SpatRaster files

Basic:

writeRaster Write all values of SpatRaster to disk. You can set the filetype, datatype, compression.
writeCDF Write SpatRaster data to a netCDF file
————————— ——————————————————————————————
14 terra-package

Advanced:

readStart Open file connections for efficient multi-chunk reading

readValues Read some values from an opened file
readStop Close file connections
writeStart Open a file for writing
writeValues Write some values to an opened file
writeStop Close the file after writing
blocks Get blocksize for reading files (when not writing)
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XIV. Miscellaneous SpatRaster methods

terraOptions Show, set, or get session options, mostly to control memory use and to set write options
sources Show the data sources of a SpatRaster
tmpFiles Show or remove temporary files
mem_info memory needs and availability
inMemory Are the cell values in memory?
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XV. SpatRasterDataset
A SpatRasterDataset contains SpatRasters that represent sub-datasets for the same area. They all
have the same extent and resolution.

sds Create a SpatRasterDataset from a file with subdatasets (ncdf or hdf) or from SpatRasters
[ or $ Extract a SpatRaster
names Get the names of the sub-datasets
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XVI. SpatRasterCollections
A SpatRasterCollection is a vector of SpatRaster objects. Unlike for a SpatRasterDataset, there the
extent and resolution of the SpatRasters do not need to match each other.

sprc create a SpatRasterCollection from (a list of) SpatRasters

length how many SpatRasters does the SpatRasterCollection have?
crop crop a SpatRasterCollection
impose force the members of SpatRasterCollection to the same geometry
merge merge the members of a SpatRasterCollection
mosaic mosaic (merge with a function for overlapping areas) the members of a SpatRasterCollection
terra-package 15

[ extract a SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

SpatVector
———————————————————————————————————————

XVII. Create SpatVector objects

vect Create a SpatVector from a file (for example a "shapefile") or from another object
vector_layers list or delete layers in a vector database such as GPGK
rbind append SpatVectors of the same geometry type
unique remove duplicates
[Link] remove empty geometries and/or fields that are NA
project Project a SpatVector to a different coordinate reference system
writeVector Write SpatVector data to disk
centroids Get the centroids of a SpatVector
voronoi Voronoi diagram
delaunay Delaunay triangles
hull Compute a convex, circular, or rectangular hull around the (geometries of) a SpatVector
fillHoles Remove or extract holes from polygons
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XVIII. Properties of SpatVector objects

geom returns the geometries as matrix or WKT

crds returns the coordinates as a matrix
ncol The number of columns (of the attributes)
nrow The number of rows (of the geometries and attributes)
names Get or set the layer names
ext Get the extent (minimum and maximum x and y coordinates ("bounding box")
crs The coordinate reference system (map projection)
linearUnits returns the linear units of the crs (in meter)
[Link] Test if an object has (or may have) a longitude/latitude coordinate reference system
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XIX. Geometric queries

adjacent find adjacent polygons

16 terra-package

expanse computes the area covered by polygons

nearby find nearby geometries
nearest find the nearest geometries
relate geometric relationships such as "intersects", "overlaps", and "touches"
perim computes the length of the perimeter of polygons, and the length of lines
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XX. Geometric operations

erase or "-" erase (parts of) geometries

intersect or "*" intersect geometries
union or "+" Merge geometries
cover update polygons
symdif symmetrical difference of two polygons
aggregate dissolve smaller polygons into larger ones
buffer buffer geometries
disagg split multi-geometries into separate geometries
crop clip geometries using a rectangle (SpatExtent) or SpatVector
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXI. SpatVector attributes

We use the term "attributes" for the tabular data ([Link]) associated with vector geometries.

extract spatial queries between SpatVector and SpatVector (e.g. point in polygons)
spatSample Take a regular or random point sample from polygons or lines
sel select - interactively select geometries
click identify attributes by clicking on a map
merge Join a table with a SpatVector
[Link] get attributes as a [Link]
[Link] get attributes as a list
values Get the attributes of a SpatVector
values<- Set new attributes to the geometries of a SpatRaster
sort sort SpatVector by the values in a field
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXII. Change geometries (for display, experimentation)

shift change the position geometries by shifting their coordinates in horizontal and/or vertical direction
spin rotate geometries around an origin
terra-package 17

rescale shrink (or expand) geometries, for example to make an inset map
flip flip geometries vertically or horizontally
t transpose geometries (switch x and y)
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXIII. Geometry properties and topology

width the minimum diameter of the geometries

clearance the minimum clearance of the geometries
sharedPaths shared paths (arcs) between line or polygon geometries
simplifyGeom simplify geometries
gaps find gaps between polygon geometries
fillHoles get or remove the polygon holes
makeNodes create nodes on lines
mergeLines connect lines to form polygons
removeDupNodes remove duplicate nodes in geometries and optionally rounds the coordinates
[Link] check if geometries are valid
makeValid attempt to repair invalid geometries
snap make boundaries of geometries identical if they are very close to each other
erase (single argument) remove parts of geometries that overlap
union (single argument) create new polygons such that there are no overlapping polygons
rotate rotate to (dis-) connect them across the date-line
[Link] move geometries that are outside of the -180 to 180 degrees range.
elongate make lines longer by extending both sides
combineGeoms combine geometries that overlap, share a border, or are within a minimum distance of each other
forceCCW force counter-clockwise polygon winding
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXIV. SpatVectorCollections
A SpatVectorCollection is a vector of SpatVector objects.

svc create a SpatVectorCollection from (a list of) SpatVector objects

length how many SpatRasters does the SpatRasterCollection have?
[ extract a SpatVector
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXV. Coordinate reference system method

crs Get or set the coordinate reference system (map projection) of a Spat* object
18 terra-package

[Link] Test if an object has (or may have) a longitude/latitude coordinate reference system
linearUnits returns the linear units of the crs (in meter)
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Other classes
———————————————————————————————————————

XXVI. SpatExtent

ext Create a SpatExtent object. For example to crop a Spatial dataset

intersect Intersect two SpatExtent objects, same as -
union Combine two SpatExtent objects, same as +
Math-methods round/floor/ceiling of a SpatExtent
align Align a SpatExtent with a SpatRaster
draw Create a SpatExtent by drawing it on top of a map (plot)
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXVII. SpatGraticule

graticule Create a graticule

crop crop a graticule
plot<SpatGraticule> plot a graticule
————————— ——————————————————————————————

General methods
———————————————————————————————————————

XXVIII. Conversion between spatial data objects from different packages

You can coerce SpatRasters to Raster* objects, after loading the raster package, with as(object,
"Raster"), or raster(object) or brick(object) or stack(object)

rast SpatRaster from matrix and other objects

vect SpatVector from sf or Spatial* vector data
sf::st_as_sf sf object from SpatVector
rasterize Rasterizing points, lines or polygons
terra-package 19

rasterizeWin Rasterize points with a moving window

rasterizeGeom Rasterize attributes of geometries such as "count", "area", or "length"
[Link] Create points from a SpatRaster or SpatVector
[Link] Create lines from a SpatRaster or SpatVector
[Link] Create polygons from a SpatRaster
[Link] Contour lines from a SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

XXIX. Plotting
Maps:

plot Plot a SpatRaster or SpatVector. The main method to create a map

panel Combine multiple plots
points Add points to a map
lines Add lines to a map
polys Add polygons to a map
text Add text (such as the values of a SpatRaster or SpatVector) to a map
halo Add text with a halo to a map
[Link] Color palettes for mapping
image Alternative to plot to make a map with a SpatRaster
plotRGB Combine three layers (red, green, blue channels) into a single "real color" plot
plot<SpatGraticule> plot a graticule
sbar Add a scale bar to a map
north Add a north arrow to a map
inset Add a small inset (overview) map
add_legend Add a legend to a map
add_box Add a bounding box to a map
map_extent Get the coordinates of a map’s axes positions
dots Make a dot-density map
cartogram Make a cartogram
persp Perspective plot of a SpatRaster
contour Contour plot or filled-contour plot of a SpatRaster
colorize Combine three layers (red, green, blue channels) into a single layer with a color-table
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Interacting with a map:

zoom Zoom in to a part of a map by drawing a bounding box on it

click Query values of SpatRaster or SpatVector by clicking on a map
sel Select a spatial subset of a SpatRaster or SpatVector by drawing on a map
draw Create a SpatExtent or SpatVector by drawing on a map
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Other plots:
20 terra-package

plot x-y scatter plot of the values of (a sample of) the layers of two SpatRaster objects
hist Histogram of SpatRaster values
barplot Bar plot of a SpatRaster
density Density plot of SpatRaster values
pairs Pairs plot for layers in a SpatRaster
boxplot Box plot of the values of a SpatRaster
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Comparison with the raster package

———————————————————————————————————————

XXX. New method names

terra has a single class SpatRaster for which raster has three (RasterLayer, RasterStack,
RasterBrick). Likewise there is a single class for vector data SpatVector that replaces six
Spatial* classes. Most method names are the same, but note the following important differences
in methods names with the raster package

raster package terra package

raster, brick, stack rast
rasterFromXYZ rast( , type="xyz")
stack, addLayer c
addLayer add<-
area cellSize or expanse
approxNA approximate
calc app
cellFromLine, cellFromPolygon, cells
cellsFromExtent cells
cellStats global
clump patches
compareRaster compareGeom
corLocal focalPairs
coordinates crds
couldBeLonLat [Link]
disaggregate disagg
distanceFromPoints distance
drawExtent, drawPoly, drawLine draw
dropLayer subset
extent ext
getValues values
isLonLat, isGlobalLonLat [Link]
layerize segregate
layerStats layerCor
movingFun roll
NAvalue NAflag
nlayers nlyr
overlay lapp
terra-package 21

unstack [Link]
projectRaster project
rasterToPoints [Link]
rasterToPolygons [Link]
readAll toMemory
reclassify, subs, cut classify
sampleRandom, sampleRegular spatSample
shapefile vect
stackApply tapp
stackSelect selectRange

XXXI. Changed behavior

Also note that even if function names are the same in terra and raster, their output can be dif-
ferent. In most cases this was done to get more consistency in the returned values (and thus fewer
errors in the downstream code that uses them). In other cases it simply seemed better. Here are
some examples:
resample Results are not numerically identical when using method="bilinear", especially at edges, and when
[Link] By default, terra returns dissolved polygons
quantile computes by cell, across layers instead of the other way around
extract By default, terra returns a matrix, with the first column the sequential ID of the vectors.
raster returns a list (for lines or polygons) or a matrix (for points, but without the ID
column. You can use list=TRUE to get the results as a list
values terra always returns a matrix. raster returns a vector for a RasterLayer
Summary-methods With raster, mean(x, y) and mean(stack(x, y) return the same result, a single
layer with the mean of all cell values. This is also what terra returns with
mean(c(x, y)), but with mean(x, y) the parallel mean is returned – that is, the
computation is done layer-wise, and the number of layers in the output is the same as
that of x and y (or the larger of the two if they are not the same). This affects
all summary functions (sum, mean, median, [Link], [Link], min, max,
prod, any, all, stdev), except range, which is not implemented for this case
(you can use min and max instead)
————————— ——————————————————————————————

Contributors
Except where indicated otherwise, the methods and functions in this package were written by Robert
Hijmans. The configuration scripts were written by Roger Bivand. Some of code using the GEOS
library was adapted from code by Edzer Pebesma for sf. Emanuele Cordano contributed function-
ality for catchment related computations. Andrew Gene Brown, Márcia Barbosa, Michael Chirico,
Krzysztof Dyba, Barry Rowlingson, and Michael D. Sumner also made important contributions
This package is an attempt to climb on the shoulders of giants (GDAL, PROJ, GEOS, NCDF,
GeographicLib, Rcpp, R). Many people have contributed by asking questions or raising issues.
Feedback and suggestions by Kendon Bell, Jean-Luc Dupouey, Sarah Endicott, Derek Friend, Alex
Ilich, Agustin Lobo, Gerald Nelson, Jakub Nowosad, and Monika Tomaszewska have been espe-
cially helpful.
22 activeCat

activeCat Active category

Description

Get or set the active category of a multi-categorical SpatRaster layer

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

activeCat(x, layer=1)
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'
activeCat(x, layer=1)<-value

Arguments

x SpatRaster
layer positive integer, the layer number or name
value positive integer or character, indicating which column in the categories to use.
Note that when a number is used this index is zero based, and "1" refers to the
second column. This is because the first column of the categories has the cell
values, not categorical labels

Value

integer

See Also

levels, cats

Examples
[Link](0)
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r) <- sample(3, ncell(r), replace=TRUE) + 10
d <- [Link](id=11:13, cover=c("forest", "water", "urban"), letters=letters[1:3], value=10:12)
levels(r) <- d

activeCat(r)
activeCat(r) <- 3
activeCat(r)
add 23

add Add (in place) a SpatRaster to another SpatRaster or to a SpatRaster-

Dataset or SpatRasterCollection

Description

Add (in place) a SpatRaster to another SpatRaster. Comparable with c, but without copying the
object.

Usage

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

add(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset,SpatRaster'

add(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection,SpatRaster'

add(x)<-value

Arguments

x SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset or SpatRasterCollection

value SpatRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

Examples

r <- rast(nrows=5, ncols=9, vals=1:45)

x <- c(r, r*2)
add(x) <- r*3
x
24 add_box

add_abline add vertical and/or horizontal lines to a map made with terra

Description
Adaptation of abline that allows adding a horizonal or vertical lines to a map. This function will
place the lines in the locations within the mapped area as delineated by the axes. It is meant to be
used when you specifiy your own tick marks, such that add_grid does not work.
Also see graticule

Usage
add_abline(h=NULL, v=NULL, ...)

Arguments
h the y-value(s) for horizontal line(s)
v the x-value(s) for vertical line(s)
... additional graphical parameters for drawing lines

See Also
add_grid, graticule, add_legend, add_box, add_grid, add_mtext

Examples
v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
atx <- seq(xmin(v), xmax(v), .1)
aty <- seq(ymin(v), ymax(v), .1)
plot(v, pax=list(xat=atx, yat=aty), ext=ext(v)+.2)
add_abline(h=aty, v=atx, lty=2, col="gray")

add_box draw a box

Description
Similar to box allowing adding a box around a map. This function will place the box around the
mapped area.

Usage
add_box(...)
add_grid 25

Arguments
... arguments passed to lines

See Also
add_legend, add_grid, add_mtext

Examples
v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
plot(v)
add_box(col="red", lwd=3, xpd=TRUE)

add_grid add a grid to a map made with terra

Description
Adaptation of grid that allows adding a grid to a map. This function will place the grid in the
locations within the mapped area as delineated by the axes.
If you set the tick marks yourself, you can use add_abline to create a grid:
Also see graticule

Usage
add_grid(nx=NULL, ny=nx, col="lightgray", lty="dotted", lwd=1)

Arguments
nx, ny number of cells of the grid in x and y direction. When NULL, as per default, the
grid aligns with the tick marks on the corresponding default axis (i.e., tickmarks
as computed by axTicks). When NA, no grid lines are drawn in the correspond-
ing direction
col character or (integer) numeric; color of the grid lines
lty character or (integer) numeric; line type of the grid lines
lwd non-negative numeric giving line width of the grid lines

See Also
graticule, add_abline, add_legend, add_box, add_grid, add_mtext

Examples
v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
plot(v)
add_grid()
26 add_mtext

add_legend add a custom legend

Description
Wrapper around legend that allows adding a custom legend to a map using a keyword such as
"topleft" or "bottomright". This function will place the legend in the locations within the mapped
area as delineated by the axes.

Usage
add_legend(x, y, xpd=TRUE, ...)

Arguments
x The keyword to be used to position the legend (or the x coordinate)
y The y coordinate to be used to position the legend (is x is also a coordinate)
xpd logical. If TRUE, the legend can be added outside the map area
... arguments passed to legend

See Also
add_box, add_grid, add_mtext

Examples
v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
plot(v)
points(centroids(v), col="red")
legend("topleft", legend = "centroids", pch = 20, xpd=NA, bg="white", col="red")
add_legend("topright", legend = "centroids", pch = 20, col="red")

add_mtext draw a box

Description
Similar to mtext allowing adding a text to the margins of a map. This function useds the margins
around the mapped area; not the margins that R would use.

Usage
add_mtext(text, side=3, line=0, ...)
adjacent 27

Arguments
text character or expression vector specifying the text to be written
side integer indicating the margin to use (1=bottom, 2=left, 3=top, 4=right)
line numeric to move the text in or outwards.
... arguments passed to text

See Also
add_legend, add_grid, add_box

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)

plot(r, axes=FALSE, legend=FALSE)

add_box()
for (i in 1:4) add_mtext("margin text", i, cex=i, col=i, line=2-i)

adjacent Adjacent cells or polygons

Description
Identify cells that are adjacent to a set of raster cells. Or identify adjacent polygons

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
adjacent(x, cells, directions="rook", pairs=FALSE, include=FALSE, symmetrical=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

adjacent(x, type="rook", pairs=TRUE, symmetrical=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, or SpatVector of polygons
cells vector of cell numbers for which adjacent cells should be found. Cell numbers
start with 1 in the upper-left corner and increase from left to right and from top
to bottom
directions character or matrix to indicated the directions in which cells are considered con-
nected. The following character values are allowed: "rook" or "4" for the hor-
izontal and vertical neighbors; "bishop" to get the diagonal neighbors; "queen"
or "8" to get the vertical, horizontal and diagonal neighbors; or "16" for knight
and one-cell queen move neighbors. If directions is a matrix it should have
odd dimensions and have logical (or 0, 1) values
28 adjacent

pairs logical. If TRUE, a two-column matrix of pairs of adjacent cells is returned. If x is

a SpatRaster and pairs is FALSE, an n*m matrix is returned where the number
of rows n is length(cells) and the number of columns m is the number of
neighbors requested with directions
include logical. Should the focal cells be included in the result?
type character. One of "rook", "queen", "touches", or "intersects". "queen" and
"touches" are synonyms. "rook" exclude polygons that touch at a single node
only. "intersects" includes polygons that touch or overlap
symmetrical logical. If TRUE and pairs=TRUE, an adjacent pair is only included once. For
example, if polygon 1 is adjacent to polygon 3, the implied adjacency between
3 and 1 is not reported

Value

matrix

Note

When using global lon/lat rasters, adjacent cells at the other side of the date-line are included.

See Also

relate, nearby, nearest

Examples

r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)

adjacent(r, cells=c(1, 5, 55), directions="queen")
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, crs="+proj=utm +zone=1 +datum=WGS84")
adjacent(r, cells=11, directions="rook")

#same as
rk <- matrix(c(0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0), 3, 3)
adjacent(r, cells=11, directions=rk)

## note that with global lat/lon data the E and W connect

r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")
adjacent(r, cells=11, directions="rook")

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
a <- adjacent(v, symmetrical=TRUE)
head(a)
aggregate 29

aggregate Aggregate raster or vector data

Description
Aggregate a SpatRaster to create a new SpatRaster with a lower resolution (larger cells). Aggrega-
tion groups rectangular areas to create larger cells. The value for the resulting cells is computed with
a user-specified function. See resample for aggregating cells with a factor that is not an integer.
You can also aggregate ("dissolve") a SpatVector. This either combines all geometries into one
geometry, or it combines the geometries that have the same value for the variable(s) specified with
argument by.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
aggregate(x, fact=2, fun="mean", ..., cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

aggregate(x, by=NULL, dissolve=TRUE, fun="mean", count=TRUE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
fact positive integer. Aggregation factor expressed as number of cells in each di-
rection (horizontally and vertically). Or two integers (vertical (fact[1]) and hori-
zontal (fact[2]) aggregation factor) or three integers (when also aggregating over
layers)
fun function used to aggregate values. Either an actual function, or for the follow-
ing, their name: "mean", "max", "min", "median", "sum", "modal", "any", "all",
"none", "prod", "[Link]", "[Link]", "table", "sd" (sample standard de-
viation) and "std" (population standard deviation)
... additional arguments passed to fun, such as [Link]=TRUE
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created. Ignored for C++ level implemented functions that are listed under
fun
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster
by character. The variable(s) used to group the geometries
dissolve logical. Should borders between aggregated geometries be dissolved?
count logical. If TRUE and by is not NULL, a variable "agg_n" is included that shows
the number of input geometries for each output geometry
30 aggregate

Details
Aggregation starts at the upper-left end of a SpatRaster. If a division of the number of columns or
rows with factor does not return an integer, the extent of the resulting SpatRaster will be somewhat
larger then that of the original SpatRaster. For example, if an input SpatRaster has 100 columns, and
fact=12, the output SpatRaster will have 9 columns and the maximum x coordinate of the output
SpatRaster is also adjusted.
The function fun should take multiple numbers, and return one or more numeric values. If multiple
numbers are returned, the length of the returned vector should always be the same, also, for example,
when the input is only NA values. For that reason, range works, but unique will fail in most cases.

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
disagg to disaggregate, and resample for more complex changes in resolution and alignment

Examples
r <- rast()
# aggregated SpatRaster, no values
ra <- aggregate(r, fact=10)

values(r) <- runif(ncell(r))

# aggregated raster, max of the values
ra <- aggregate(r, fact=10, fun=max)

# aggregated raster, 'fact' parameter contains two values, max of the values
# same result as above
rb <- aggregate(r, fact=c(10,10), fun=max)

# groups of 10 rows and 2 columns are combined into new cells

rc <- aggregate(r, fact=c(10,2), fun=max)

# multiple layers
s <- c(r, r*2)
x <- aggregate(s, 20)

## SpatVector
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
va <- aggregate(v, "ID_1")

plot(va, "NAME_1", lwd=5, plg=list(x="topright"), mar=rep(2,4))

lines(v, lwd=3, col="light gray")
lines(va)
text(v, "ID_1", halo=TRUE)
align 31

align Align a SpatExtent

Description
Align an SpatExtent with a SpatRaster This can be useful to create a new SpatRaster with the same
origin and resolution as an existing SpatRaster. Do not use this to force data to match that really
does not match (use e.g. resample or (dis)aggregate for this).
It is also possible to align a SpatExtent to a clean divisor.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatRaster'
align(x, y, snap="near")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,numeric'

align(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatExtent
y SpatRaster or numeric
snap Character. One of "near", "in", or "out", to determine in which direction the
extent should be aligned. To the nearest border, inwards or outwards

Value
SpatExtent

See Also
ext, draw

Examples
r <- rast()
e <- ext(-10.1, 9.9, -20.1, 19.9)
ea <- align(e, r)
e
ext(r)
ea

align(e, 0.5)
32 [Link]

[Link] Compare two SpatRaster, SpatVector, or SpatExtent objects for equal-

ity

Description
Compare two objects for (near) equality
In the case of SpatRasters, first the attributes of the objects are compared. If these are the same, a
(perhaps small) sample of the raster cells is compared as well.
The sample size used can be increased with the maxcell argument. You can set it to Inf, but for
large rasters your computer may not have sufficient memory. See the examples for a safe way to
compare all values.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
[Link](target, current, maxcell=100000, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

[Link](target, current, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatExtent'

[Link](target, current, ...)

Arguments
target SpatRaster, SpatVector, or SpatExtent
current object of the same class as target
maxcell positive integer. The size of the regular sample used to compare cell values
... additional arguments passed to [Link] to compare cell values for
SpatRaster and geometry and attribute values for SpatVectors

Value
Either TRUE or a character vector describing the differences between target and current.

See Also
identical, compareGeom

Examples
x <- sqrt(1:100)
mat <- matrix(x, 10, 10)
r1 <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, xmin=0, vals = x)
r2 <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, xmin=0, vals = mat)
animate 33

[Link](r1, r2)
[Link](r1, r1*1)
[Link](rast(r1), rast(r2))

# compare geometries
compareGeom(r1, r2)

# Compare all cell values for near equality

# as floating point number imprecision can be a problem
m <- minmax(r1 - r2)
all(abs(m) < 1e-7)

# comparison of cell values to create new SpatRaster

e <- r1 == r2

animate Animate a SpatRaster

Description
Animate (sequentially plot) the layers of a SpatRaster to create a movie.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
animate(x, pause=0.25, main, range=NULL, maxcell=50000, n=1, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
pause numeric. How long should be the pause be between layers?
main title for each layer. If not supplied the z-value is used if available. Otherwise the
names are used.
range numeric vector of length 2. Range of values to plot, If NULL the range of all
layers is used. If NA the range of each individual layer is used
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot. If maxcell <
ncell(x), spatSample(type="regular") is used before plotting
n integer > 0. Number of loops
... Additional arguments passed to plot

Value
None

See Also
plot
34 app

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
animate(s, n=1)

app Apply a function to the cells of a SpatRaster

Description
Apply a function to the values of each cell of a SpatRaster. Similar to apply – think of each layer
in a SpatRaster as a column (or row) in a matrix.
This is generally used to summarize the values of multiple layers into one layer; but this is not
required.
app calls function fun with the raster data as first argument. Depending on the function supplied, the
raster data is represented as either a matrix in which each layer is a column, or a vector representing
a cell. The function should return a vector or matrix that is divisible by ncell(x). Thus, both "sum"
and "rowSums" can be used, but "colSums" cannot be used.
You can also apply a function fun across datasets by layer of a SpatRasterDataset. In that case,
summarization is by layer across SpatRasters.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
app(x, fun, ..., cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

app(x, fun, ..., cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset
fun a function that operates on a vector or matrix. This can be a function that is
defined in base-R or in a package, or a function you write yourself (see exam-
ples). Functions that return complex output (e.g. a list) may need to be wrapped
in your own function to simplify the output to a vector or matrix. The fol-
lowing functions have been re-implemented in C++ for speed: "sum", "mean",
"median", "modal", "which", "[Link]", "[Link]", "min", "max", "prod",
"any", "all", "none", "sd", "std", "first". To use the base-R function for say,
"min", you could use something like fun=function(i) min(i) or the equiva-
lent fun = \(i) min(i)
... additional arguments for fun. These are typically numerical constants. They
should *never* be another SpatRaster
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used. You can also supply a cluster object. Ignored for functions
that are implemented by terra in C++ (see under fun)
app 35

filename character. Output filename

overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Details
To speed things up, parallelization is supported, but this is often not helpful, and it may actually
be slower. There is only a speed gain if you have many cores (> 8) and/or a very complex (slow)
function fun. If you write fun yourself, consider supplying a cppFunction made with the Rcpp
package instead (or go have a cup of tea while the computer works for you).

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
lapp, tapp, Math-methods, roll; global to summarize the values of a single SpatRaster

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
x <- c(r, sqrt(r), r+50)
s <- app(x, fun=sum)
s
# for a few generic functions like
# "sum", "mean", and "max" you can also do
sum(x)

## SpatRasterDataset
sd <- sds(x, x*2, x/3)
a <- app(sd, max)
a
# same as
max(x, x*2, x/3)
# and as (but slower)
b <- app(sd, function(i) max(i))

## also works for a single layer

f <- function(i) (i+1) * 2 * i + sqrt(i)
s <- app(r, f)
# same as above, but that is not memory-safe
# and has no filename argument
s <- f(r)

## Not run:
#### multiple cores
test0 <- app(x, sqrt)
test1 <- app(x, sqrt, cores=2)
36 approximate

testfun <- function(i) { 2 * sqrt(i) }

test2 <- app(x, fun=testfun, cores =2)

## this fails because testfun is not exported to the nodes

# test3 <- app(x, fun=function(i) testfun(i), cores=2)
## to export it, add it as argument to fun
test3 <- app(x, fun=function(i, ff) ff(i), cores =3, ff=testfun)

## End(Not run)

approximate Estimate values for cell values that are NA by interpolating between
layers

Description
approximate uses the stats function approx to estimate values for cells that are NA by interpolation
across layers. Layers are considered equidistant, unless argument z is used, or time(x) returns
values that are not NA, in which case these values are used to determine distance between layers.
For estimation based on neighboring cells see focal

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
approximate(x, method="linear", yleft, yright,
rule=1, f=0, ties=mean, z=NULL, NArule=1,filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
method specifies the interpolation method to be used. Choices are "linear" or "constant"
(step function; see the example in approx
yleft the value to be returned before a non-NA value is encountered. The default is
defined by the value of rule given below
yright the value to be returned after the last non-NA value is encountered. The default
is defined by the value of rule given below
rule an integer (of length 1 or 2) describing how interpolation is to take place at for
the first and last cells (before or after any non-NA values are encountered). If
rule is 1 then NAs are returned for such points and if it is 2, the value at the
closest data extreme is used. Use, e.g., rule = 2:1, if the left and right side
extrapolation should differ
f for method = "constant" a number between 0 and 1 inclusive, indicating a com-
promise between left- and right-continuous step functions. If y0 and y1 are the
values to the left and right of the point then the value is y0*(1-f)+y1*f so that
f = 0) is right-continuous and f = 1 is left-continuous
Arith-methods 37

ties Handling of tied ’z’ values. Either a function with a single vector argument
returning a single number result or the string "ordered"
z numeric vector to indicate the distance between layers (e.g., depth). The default
is time(x) if these are not NA or else 1:nlys(x)
NArule single integer used to determine what to do when only a single layer with a non-
NA value is encountered (and linear interpolation is not possible). The default
value of 1 indicates that all layers will get this value for that cell; all other values
do not change the cell values
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
focal, fillTime

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5)
r1 <- setValues(r, runif(ncell(r)))
r2 <- setValues(r, runif(ncell(r)))
r3 <- setValues(r, runif(ncell(r)))
r4 <- setValues(r, runif(ncell(r)))
r5 <- setValues(r, NA)
r6 <- setValues(r, runif(ncell(r)))
r1[6:10] <- NA
r2[5:15] <- NA
r3[8:25] <- NA
s <- c(r1,r2,r3,r4,r5,r6)
s[1:5] <- NA
x1 <- approximate(s)
x2 <- approximate(s, rule=2)
x3 <- approximate(s, rule=2, z=c(1,2,3,5,14,15))

Arith-methods Arithmetic

Description
Standard arithmetic operators for computations with SpatRasters. Computations are local (applied
on a cell by cell basis). If multiple SpatRasters are used, these must have the same geometry (extent
and resolution). These operators have been implemented:
+, -, *, /, ^, %%, %/%
38 Arith-methods

You can also use a SpatRaster and a vector or a matrix. If you use a SpatRaster with a vector of
multiple numbers, each element in the vector is considered a layer (with a constant value). If you
use a SpatRaster with a matrix, the number of columns of the matrix must match the number of
layers of the SpatRaster. The rows are used to match the cells. That is, if there are two rows, these
match cells 1 and 2, and they are recycled to 3 and 4, etc.
The following methods have been implemented for (SpatExtent, SpatExtent): +, -, and the
following for (SpatExtent, numeric): +, -, *, /, %%

Value

SpatRaster or SpatExtent

See Also

ifel to conveniently combine operations and Math-methods or app to use mathematical functions
not implemented by the package.

Examples

r1 <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)

v <- runif(ncell(r1))
v[10:20] <- NA
values(r1) <- v
r2 <- rast(r1)
values(r2) <- 1:ncell(r2) / ncell(r2)
r3 <- r1 + r2
r2 <- r1 / 10
r3 <- r1 * (r2 - 1 / r2)

b <- c(r1, r2, r3)

b2 <- b * 10

### SpatExtent methods

x <- ext(0.1, 2.2, 0, 3)
y <- ext(-2, 1, -2,2)
# union
x + y
# intersection
x * y

e <- x %% 2
e
e * 2
e / 2
e + 1
e - 1
ar_info 39

ar_info ar_info

Description
Describe a multi-dimensional array (netcdf) file

Usage
ar_info(x, what="describe", simplify=TRUE, filter=TRUE, array="")

Arguments
x character. The name of a netcdf (or similar) raster file
what character that (partially) matches "describe", "arrays" or "dimensions"
simplify logical. If TRUE and what="describe", simplify the output for readability
filter logical. If TRUE and what="describe" filter arrays that (probably) dimensions
array character. Required when what="dimensions"

Value
character or [Link]

See Also
describe

[Link] Create a text representation of (the skeleton of) an object

Description
Create a text representation of (the skeleton of) an object

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'
[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
40 [Link]

Value
character

Examples
r <- rast()
ext(r)
ext(c(0, 20, 0, 20))

[Link] SpatRaster or SpatVector to [Link]

Description
Coerce a SpatRaster or SpatVector to a [Link]

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
[Link](x, [Link]=NULL, optional=FALSE, geom=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, [Link]=NULL, optional=FALSE, xy=FALSE,
cells=FALSE, time=FALSE, [Link]=NA, wide=TRUE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
geom character or NULL. If not NULL, either "WKT" or "HEX", to get the geometry
included in Well-Known-Text or hexadecimal notation. If x has point geometry,
it can also be "XY" to add the coordinates of each point
xy logical. If TRUE, the coordinates of each raster cell are included
time logical. If TRUE, the time data is included (if available)
[Link] logical. If TRUE, cells that have a NA value in at least one layer are removed. If
the argument is set to NA only cells that have NA values in all layers are removed
cells logical. If TRUE, the cell numbers of each raster cell are included
wide logical. If FALSE, the [Link] returned has a "long" format
... Additional arguments passed to the [Link]
[Link] This argument is ignored
optional This argument is ignored

Value
[Link]
[Link] 41

See Also
[Link], [Link]. See geom to only extract the geometry of a SpatVector

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
[Link](v)

[Link] Conversion to a SpatVector of lines

Description
Conversion of a SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent to a SpatVector of lines.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

[Link](x, crs="")

## S4 method for signature 'matrix'

[Link](x, crs="")

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector, SpatExtent or matrix. If x is a matrix it should have two
columns for a single line, or four columns, where each row has the start and end
coordinates (x, y) for lines
crs character. The coordinate reference system (see crs)

Value
SpatVector

See Also
[Link], [Link]
42 [Link]

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=2, nrows=2)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

[Link](r)

[Link](ext(r), crs=crs(r))

p <- [Link](r)
[Link](p)

## with a matrix
s <- cbind(1:5, 1:5)
e <- cbind(1:5, 0)

[Link](s)
[Link](cbind(s, e), "+proj=longlat")

[Link] Coerce a Spat* object to a list

Description
Coerce a SpatRaster, SpatRasterCollection, SpatRasterDataset, SpatVector or SpatVectorCollection
to a list. With a SpatRaster, each layer becomes a list element. With a SpatRasterCollection or Spa-
tRasterDataset, each SpatRaster becomes a list element. With a SpatVector, each variable (attribute)
becomes a list element. With a SpatVectorCollection, each SpatVector becomes a list element.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x, geom=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

[Link](x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

[Link](x, geom=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorCollection'

[Link](x, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset, SpatRasterCollection, or SpatVector
[Link] 43

geom character or NULL. If not NULL, and x is a SpatVector, it should be either

"WKT" or "HEX", to get the geometry included in Well-Known-Text or hex-
adecimal notation. If x has point geometry, it can also bey "XY" to add the
coordinates of each point. If x is a SpatRaster, any value that is not NULL will
return a list with the the parameters describing the geometry of the SpatRaster
are returned
... additional arguments. These are ignored

Value

list

See Also

see coerce for [Link] with a SpatRaster; and geom to only extract the geometry of a
SpatVector

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
[Link](v)

s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")) + 1

[Link](s)

[Link] Conversion to a SpatVector of points

Description

Conversion of a SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent to a SpatVector of points.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, values=TRUE, [Link]=TRUE, [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

[Link](x, multi=FALSE, skiplast=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

[Link](x, crs="")
44 [Link]

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent
values logical; include cell values as attributes?
multi logical. If TRUE a multi-point geometry is returned
skiplast logical. If TRUE the last point of a polygon (which is the same as the first point)
is not included
[Link] logical. If TRUE cells that are NA are ignored
[Link] logical. If TRUE cells are only ignored if [Link]=TRUE and their value is NA for
all layers instead of for any layer
crs character. The coordinate reference system (see crs)

Value
SpatVector

See Also
[Link], [Link]

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=2, nrows=2)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

[Link](r)

p <- [Link](r)
[Link](p)

[Link] Conversion to a SpatVector of polygons

Description
Conversion of a SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent to a SpatVector of polygons.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x, round=TRUE, aggregate=TRUE, values=TRUE,
[Link]=TRUE, [Link]=FALSE, extent=FALSE, digits=0, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

[Link](x, extent=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

[Link](x, crs="")
[Link] 45

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent
round logical; If TRUE and aggregate=TRUE, values are rounded before aggregation.
If this value is FALSE the SpatVector returned can have very many polygons and
can be very large
aggregate logical; combine cells with the same values? If TRUE only the first layer in x is
processed
values logical; include cell values as attributes?
extent logical. if TRUE, a polygon for the extent of the SpatRaster or SpatVector is re-
turned. If x is a SpatRaster, the polygon has vertices for each row and column,
not just the four corners of the raster. This can be useful for more precise pro-
jection. If that is not required, it is more efficient to get the extent represented
by only the four corners with [Link](ext(x), crs=crs(x))
[Link] logical. If TRUE cells that are NA are ignored
[Link] logical. If TRUE cells are only ignored if [Link]=TRUE and their value is NA for
all layers instead of for any layer
digits integer. The number of digits for rounding (if round=TRUE)
crs character. The coordinate reference system (see crs)
... additional arguments. For backward compatibility. Will be removed in the fu-
ture

Value
SpatVector

See Also
[Link], [Link]

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=2, nrows=2)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

p <- [Link](r)
p

[Link] Coerce to a "raster" object

Description
Implementation of the generic [Link] function to create a "raster" (small r) object. Such objects
can be used for plotting with the rasterImage function. NOT TO BE CONFUSED with the Raster*
(big R) objects defined by the ’raster’ package!
46 atan2

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x, maxcell=500000, col)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
col vector of colors. The default is [Link]("viridis", 100)

Value
’raster’ object

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=3, nrows=3)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
[Link](r)

atan2 Two argument arc-tangent

Description
For SpatRasters x and y, atan2(y, x) returns the angle in radians for the tangent y/x, handling the
case when x is zero. See Trig
See Math-methods for other trigonometric and mathematical functions that can be used with Spa-
tRasters.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
atan2(y, x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

atan_2(y, x, filename, ...)

Arguments
y SpatRaster
x SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
autocorrelation 47

See Also
Math-methods

Examples
r1 <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
r2 <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r1) <- (runif(ncell(r1))-0.5) * 10
values(r2) <- (runif(ncell(r1))-0.5) * 10
atan2(r1, r2)

autocorrelation Spatial autocorrelation

Description
Compute spatial autocorrelation for a numeric vector or a SpatRaster. You can compute standard
(global) Moran’s I or Geary’s C, or local indicators of spatial autocorrelation (Anselin, 1995).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'numeric'
autocor(x, w, method="moran")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

autocor(x, w=matrix(c(1,1,1,1,0,1,1,1,1),3), method="moran", global=TRUE)

Arguments
x numeric or SpatRaster
w Spatial weights defined by or a rectangular matrix. For a SpatRaster this matrix
must the sides must have an odd length (3, 5, ...)
global logical. If TRUE global autocorrelation is computed instead of local autocorrela-
tion
method character. If x is numeric or SpatRaster: "moran" for Moran’s I and "geary" for
Geary’s C. If x is numeric also: "Gi", "Gi*" (the Getis-Ord statistics), locmor
(local Moran’s I) and "mean" (local mean)

Details
The default setting uses a 3x3 neighborhood to compute "Queen’s case" indices. You can use a filter
(weights matrix) to do other things, such as "Rook’s case", or different lags.

Value
numeric or SpatRaster
48 barplot

References
Moran, P.A.P., 1950. Notes on continuous stochastic phenomena. Biometrika 37:17-23
Geary, R.C., 1954. The contiguity ratio and statistical mapping. The Incorporated Statistician 5:
115-145
Anselin, L., 1995. Local indicators of spatial association-LISA. Geographical Analysis 27:93-115
[Link]

See Also
The spdep package for additional and more general approaches for computing spatial autocorrela-
tion

Examples
### raster
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, xmin=0)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

autocor(r)

# rook's case neighbors

f <- matrix(c(0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0), nrow=3)
autocor(r, f)

# local
rc <- autocor(r, w=f, global=FALSE)

### numeric (for vector data)

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
w <- relate(v, relation="touches")

# global
autocor(v$AREA, w)

# local
v$Gi <- autocor(v$AREA, w, "Gi")
plot(v, "Gi")

barplot Bar plot of a SpatRaster

Description
Create a barplot of the values of the first layer of a SpatRaster. For large datasets a regular sample
with a size of approximately maxcells is used.
bestMatch 49

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
barplot(height, maxcell=1000000, digits=0, breaks=NULL, col, ...)

Arguments
height SpatRaster
maxcell integer. To regularly subsample very large datasets
digits integer used to determine how to round the values before tabulating. Set to NULL
or to a large number if you do not want any rounding
breaks breaks used to group the data as in cut
col a color generating function such as rainbow (the default), or a vector of colors
... additional arguments for plotting as in barplot

Value
A numeric vector (or matrix, when beside = TRUE) of the coordinates of the bar midpoints, useful
for adding to the graph. See barplot

See Also
hist, boxplot

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
barplot(r, digits=-1, las=2, ylab="Frequency")

op <- par([Link] = TRUE)

par(mai = c(1, 2, .5, .5))
barplot(r, breaks=10, col=c("red", "blue"), horiz=TRUE, digits=NULL, las=1)
par(op)

bestMatch bestMatch

Description
Determine for each grid cell which reference it is most similar to. A reference consists of a SpatVec-
tor with reference locations, or a [Link] or matrix in which each column matches a layer name
in the SpatRaster.
Similarity is computed with the mean absolute or the mean squared differences between the cell
and the reference, or with an alternative function you provide. It may be important to first scale the
input.
50 bestMatch

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'
bestMatch(x, y, labels=NULL, fun="squared", ...,
filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,[Link]'

bestMatch(x, y, labels=NULL, fun="squared", ...,
filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,matrix'

bestMatch(x, y, labels=NULL, fun="squared", ...,
filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatVector, [Link] or matrix
labels character. labels that correspond to each class (row in y
fun character. One of "abs" for the mean absolute difference, or "squared" for the
mean squared difference. Or a true function like terr[Link]match_sqr
... additional arguments passed to fun. For the built-in functions this can be [Link]=TRUE
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package = "terra")
r <- rast(f)

# locations of interest
pts <- vect(cbind(c(25.25, 34.324, 43.003), c(54.577, 46.489, 30.905)))
pts$code <- LETTERS[1:3]

plot(r)
points(pts, pch=20, cex=2, col="red")
text(pts, "code", pos=4, halo=TRUE)

x <- scale(r)

s1 <- bestMatch(x, pts, labels=pts$code)

plot(s1)

# same result
boundaries 51

e <- extract(x, pts, ID=FALSE)

s2 <- bestMatch(x, e, labels=c("Ap", "Nt", "Ms"))

boundaries Detect boundaries (edges)

Description

Detect boundaries (edges). Boundaries are cells that have more than one class in the 4 or 8 cells
surrounding it, or, if classes=FALSE, cells with values and cells with NA.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

boundaries(x, classes=FALSE, inner=TRUE, directions=8,
falseval=0, ignoreNA=FALSE, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
inner logical. If TRUE, "inner" boundaries are returned, else "outer" boundaries are
returned
classes character. Logical. If TRUE all different values are (after rounding) distinguished,
as well as NA. If FALSE (the default) only edges between NA and non-NA cells are
considered
directions integer. Which cells are considered adjacent? Should be 8 (Queen’s case) or 4
(Rook’s case)
falseval numeric. The value to use for cells that are not a boundary and not NA
ignoreNA logical. If TRUE and classes=TRUE external boundaries (with NA cells) are ig-
nored, only boundaries between classes are returned (and the value of argument
inner is irrelevant)
filename character. Output filename
... options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster. Cell values are either 1 (a boundary) or 0 (not a boundary), or NA

See Also

focal, patches
52 boxplot

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=18, ncols=36, xmin=0)
r[150:250] <- 1
r[251:450] <- 2
bi <- boundaries(r)
bo <- boundaries(r, inner=FALSE)
bc <- boundaries(r, classes=TRUE)
#plot(bc)

boxplot Box plot of SpatRaster data

Description
Box plot of layers in a SpatRaster

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
boxplot(x, y=NULL, maxcell=100000, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y NULL or a SpatRaster. If x is a SpatRaster it used to group the values of x by
"zone"
maxcell Integer. Number of cells to sample from datasets
... additional arguments passed to graphics::boxplot

Value
boxplot returns a list (invisibly) that can be used with bxp

See Also
pairs, hist

Examples
r1 <- r2 <- r3 <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
[Link](409)
values(r1) <- rnorm(ncell(r1), 100, 40)
values(r2) <- rnorm(ncell(r1), 80, 10)
values(r3) <- rnorm(ncell(r1), 120, 30)
s <- c(r1, r2, r3)
names(s) <- c("Apple", "Pear", "Cherry")

boxplot(s, notch=TRUE, col=c("red", "blue", "orange"), main="Box plot", ylab="random", las=1)

buffer 53

op <- par([Link] = TRUE)

par(mar=c(4,6,2,2))
boxplot(s, horizontal=TRUE, col="lightskyblue", axes=FALSE)
axis(1)
axis(2, at=0:3, labels=c("", names(s)), las=1, [Link]=.9, lty=0)
par(op)

## boxplot with 2 layers

v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
y <- rasterize(v, r, "NAME_2")
b <- boxplot(r, y)
bxp(b)

buffer Create a buffer around vector geometries or raster patches

Description
Calculate a buffer around all cells that are not NA in a SpatRaster, or around the geometries of a
SpatVector.
SpatRaster cells inside the buffer distance get a value of 1.
Note that the distance unit of the buffer width parameter is meters if the CRS is (+proj=longlat),
and in map units (typically also meters) if not.
If your data has a longitude/latitude CRS do not project them to a planar CRS because that makes
the results less precise (see Examples).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
buffer(x, width, background=0, include=TRUE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

buffer(x, width, quadsegs=10, capstyle="round",
joinstyle="round", mitrelimit=NA, singlesided=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
width numeric. Unit is meter if x has a longitude/latitude CRS, or in the units of the
coordinate reference system in other cases (typically also meter). The value
should be > 0 if x is a SpatRaster. If x is a SpatVector, this argument is vector-
ized, meaning that you can provide a different value for each geometry in x; and
you can also use the name of a variable in x that has the widths
filename character. Output filename
54 c

... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

background numeric. value to assign to cells outside the buffer. If this value is zero or
FALSE, a boolean SpatRaster is returned
include logical. If TRUE the raster cells that are not NA are included in the buffer. Other-
wise these cells get the background value
quadsegs positive integer. Number of line segments to use to draw a quart circle
capstyle character. One of "round", "square" or "flat". Ignored if [Link](x)
joinstyle character. One of "round", "mitre" or "bevel". Ignored if [Link](x)
mitrelimit numeric. Place an upper bound on a mitre join to avoid it from extending very
far from acute angles in the input geometry. Ignored if [Link](x)
singlesided logical. If TRUE a buffer is constructed on only one side of each input line.
Ignored if [Link](x)

Value

Same as x

See Also

distance, elongate

Examples

r <- rast(ncols=36, nrows=18)

r[500] <- 1
b <- buffer(r, width=5000000)
plot(b)

v <- vect(rbind(c(170,10), c(0,60)), crs="+proj=merc")

b <- buffer(v, 20)
plot(b)
points(v)

crs(v) <- "+proj=longlat"

b <- buffer(v, 1500000)
plot(b)
points(v)

c Combine SpatRaster or SpatVector objects

c 55

Description
With c you can:
– Combine SpatRaster objects. They must have the same extent and resolution. However, if x is
empty (has no cell values), its geometry is ignored with a warning. Two empty SpatRasters with
the same geometry can also be combined (to get a summed number of layers). Also see add<-
– Add a SpatRaster to a SpatRasterDataset or SpatRasterCollection
– Add SpatVector objects to a new or existing SpatVectorCollection
To append SpatVectors, use rbind.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
c(x, ..., warn=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

c(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

c(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

c(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorCollection'

c(x, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector, SpatRasterDataset or SpatVectorCollection
warn logical. If TRUE, a warning is emitted if x is an empty SpatRaster
... as for x (you can only combine raster with raster data and vector with vector
data)

Value
Same class as x

See Also
add<-

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=5, ncols=9)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
x <- c(r, r*2, r*3)
56 cartogram

cartogram Cartogram

Description

Make a cartogram, that is, a map where the area of polygons is made proportional to another vari-
able. This can be a good way to map raw count data (e.g. votes).

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

cartogram(x, var, type="nc", inside=FALSE, exp=1)

Arguments

x SpatVector
var character. A variable name in x
type character. Cartogram type, one of "nc" (non-contiguous) or "circles" (dorling)
inside logical to compute the centroids. See centroids
exp positive numeric that can be used to scale the output polygons

Value

SpatVector

See Also

plot, rescale

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
v$value <- 1:12
pnc <- cartogram(v, "value", "nc")
pcirc <- cartogram(v, "value", "circles")
plot(v, col="light gray", border="gray")
lines(pnc, col="red", lwd=2)
lines(pcirc, col="blue", lwd=2)
catalyze 57

catalyze Factors to numeric

Description
Change a categorical layer into one or more numerical layers. With [Link] you can transfer
the active category values to cell values in a non-categorical SpatRaster. catalyze creates new
layers for each category.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x, index=NULL, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

catalyze(x, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
index positive integer or category indicating the category to use. If NULL the active
category is used
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
activeCat, cats

Examples
[Link](0)
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r) <- sample(3, ncell(r), replace=TRUE) + 10
d <- [Link](id=11:13, cover=c("forest", "water", "urban"), letters=letters[1:3], value=10:12)
levels(r) <- d
catalyze(r)

activeCat(r) <- 3
[Link](r)
58 cells

cells Get cell numbers

Description
Get the cell numbers covered by a SpatVector or SpatExtent. Or that match values in a vector; or
all non NA values.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,missing'
cells(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

cells(x, y, pairs=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'

cells(x, y, method="simple", weights=FALSE, exact=FALSE,
touches=[Link](y), small=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatExtent'

cells(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatVector, SpatExtent, 2-column matrix representing points, numeric repre-
senting values to match, or missing
method character. Method for getting cell numbers for points. The default is "simple",
the alternative is "bilinear". If it is "bilinear", the four nearest cells and their
weights are returned
weights logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the approximate fraction of each cell that is
covered is returned as well
pairs logical. If TRUE the cell values matched area also returned
exact logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the exact fraction of each cell that is covered
is returned as well
touches logical. If TRUE, values for all cells touched by lines or polygons are extracted,
not just those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the poly-
gon. Not relevant for points
small logical. If TRUE, values for all cells in touched polygons are extracted if none of
the cells center points is within the polygon; even if touches=FALSE

Value
numeric vector or matrix
cellSize 59

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
r[c(1:25, 31:100)] <- NA
r <- ifel(r > 28, r + 10, r)

# all cell numbers of cells that are not NA

cells(r)

# cell numbers that match values

x <- cells(r, c(28,38))
x$lyr.1

# cells for points

m <- cbind(x=c(0,10,-30), y=c(40,-10,20))
cellFromXY(r, m)

v <- vect(m)
cells(r, v)
cells(r, v, method="bilinear")

# cells for polygons

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
r <- rast(v)
cv <- cells(r, v)

cellSize Area covered by each raster cell

Description

Compute the area covered by individual raster cells.

Computing the surface area of raster cells is especially relevant for longitude/latitude rasters.
But note that for both angular (longitude/latitude) and for planar (projected) coordinate reference
systems raster cells sizes are generally not constant, unless you are using an equal-area coordinate
reference system. For planar CRSs, the area is therefore not computed based on the linear units of
the coordinate reference system, but rather by transforming cells to longitude/latitude. If you do not
want that correction, you can use transform=FALSE or init(x, prod(res(x)))

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

cellSize(x, mask=FALSE, lyrs=FALSE, unit="m", transform=TRUE, rcx=100, filename="", ...)
60 cellSize

Arguments

x SpatRaster
mask logical. If TRUE, cells that are NA in x are also NA in the output
lyrs logical. If TRUE and mask=TRUE, the output has the same number of layers as x.
That is only useful if cases where the layers of x have different cells that are NA
unit character. One of "m", "km", or "ha"
transform logical. If TRUE, planar CRS data are transformed to lon/lat for accuracy
rcx positive integer. The maximum number of rows and columns to be used to
compute area of planar data if transform=TRUE. If x has more rows and/or
columns, the raster is aggregated to match this limit, and values for the original
cells are estimated by bilinear interpolation (see resample). This can save a lot
of time
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

expanse, surfArea

Examples

# SpatRaster
r <- rast(nrows=18, ncols=36)
v <- 1:ncell(r)
v[200:400] <- NA
values(r) <- v

# size of each raster cell

a <- cellSize(r)

# illustration of distortion
r <- rast(ncols=90, nrows=45, ymin=-80, ymax=80)
m <- project(r, "+proj=merc")

bad <- init(m, prod(res(m)) / 1000000, wopt=list(names="naive"))

good <- cellSize(m, unit="km", names="corrected")
plot(c(good, bad), nc=1, mar=c(2,2,1,6))
centroids 61

centroids Centroids

Description

Get the centroids of polygons or lines, or centroid-like points that are guaranteed to be inside the
polygons or on the lines.
Or get the (weighted) centroid of the the cells with values (not NA) of a SpatRaster.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

centroids(x, inside=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

centroids(x, weighted=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatVector
inside logical. If TRUE the points returned are guaranteed to be inside the polygons or
on the lines, but they are not the true centroids. True centroids may be outside
a polygon, for example when a polygon is "bean shaped", and they are unlikely
to be on their line
weighted logical. If TRUE the centroids are computed as the weighted means of the coor-
dinates of cells with values

Value

SpatVector of points

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
x <- centroids(v)
y <- centroids(v, TRUE)

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
centroids(r)
62 chunk

chunk Make a SpatRaster method memory-safe

Description
This method allows for running a function that takes a SpatRaster as first argument in chunks (tiles).
This can be useful if the functions is not memory-safe, typically because it reads all the raster cell
values into memory.
This method is not designed to be especially efficient, and there might be more efficient ways to
accomplish what the the goal of the function that is not memory-safe.
Also, some functions must have access to all cells at once to be valid. In those cases, chunk would
return incorrect results.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
chunk(x, fun, ..., n=NULL, buffer=0, filename="", wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
fun function that takes a SpatRaster as first argument
... additional arguments for fun
n NULL or positive integer to specifying the number of rows and columns for
each chunk (or 2 numbers for a different number of rows and columns, as in
getTileExtents
buffer integer. The number of additional rows and columns added to each tile. Can
be a single number, or two numbers to specify a separate number of rows and
columns. This allows for creating overlapping tiles that can be used for com-
puting spatial context dependent values with e.g. focal. The expansion is only
inside x, no rows or columns outside of x are added
filename character. Output filename
wopt list with additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
f <- function(x, a = 0) {
print("chunk")
sum(x) + a
}
clamp 63

x <- chunk(s, f, a=100)

clamp Clamp values

Description
Clamp values to a minimum and maximum value. That is, all values below a lower threshold value
and above the upper threshold value become either NA, or, if values=TRUE, become the threshold
value

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
clamp(x, lower=-Inf, upper=Inf, values=TRUE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'numeric'

clamp(x, lower=-Inf, upper=Inf, values=TRUE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
lower numeric with the lowest acceptable value (you can specify a different value for
each layer). Or a SpatRaster that has a single layer or the same number of layers
as x
upper numeric with the highest acceptable value (you can specify a different value for
each layer). Or a SpatRaster that has a single layer or the same number of layers
as x
values logical. If FALSE values outside the clamping range become NA, if TRUE, they get
the extreme values
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
classify, subst

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
rc <- clamp(r, 25, 75)
rc
64 clamp_ts

clamp_ts clamp time series data

Description
clamp time-series datat that are S shaped. The value in layers before the minimum value in a cell
can be set to that minimum value, and the value in layers after the maximum value for a cell can be
set to that maximum value.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
clamp_ts(x, min=FALSE, max=TRUE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
min logical. If TRUE the time-series is clamped to the minimum value
max logical. If TRUE the time-series is clamped to the maximum value
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
clamp, cummin, cummax

Examples
sigm <- function(x) { .8 / (1 + exp(-(x-10))) + runif(length(x))/4 }
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, nlyr=50)
s <- seq(5.2, 15,.2)
[Link](1)
values(r) <- t(replicate(100, sigm(s)))

x <- clamp_ts(r, TRUE, TRUE)

plot(unlist(r[4]))
lines(unlist(x[4]))
classify 65

classify Classify (or reclassify) cell values

Description
Classify values of a SpatRaster. The function (re-)classifies groups of values to other values.
The classification is done based on the argument rcl. You can classify ranges by specifying a
three-column matrix "from-to-becomes" or change specific values by using a two-column matrix
"is-becomes". You can also supply a vector with "cuts" or the "number of cuts".
With "from-to-becomes" or "is-becomes" classification is done in the row order of the matrix. Thus,
if there are overlapping ranges or values, the first time a number is within a range determines the
reclassification value.
With "cuts" the values are sorted, so that the order in which they are provided does not matter.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
classify(x, rcl, [Link]=FALSE, right=TRUE,
others=NULL, brackets=TRUE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
rcl matrix for classification. This matrix must have 1, 2 or 3 columns. If there are
three columns, the first two columns are "from" "to" of the input values, and the
third column "becomes" has the new value for that range.
The two column matrix ("is", "becomes") can be useful for classifying integer
values. In that case, the arguments right and [Link] are ignored.
A single column matrix (or a vector) is interpreted as a set of cuts if there is more
than one value. In that case the values are classified based on their location in-
between the cut-values.
If a single number is provided, that is used to make that number of cuts, at equal
intervals between the lowest and highest values of the SpatRaster.
[Link] logical, indicating if a value equal to the lowest value in rcl (or highest value in
the second column, for right=FALSE) should be included.
right logical. If TRUE, the intervals are closed on the right (and open on the left). If
FALSE they are open at the right and closed at the left. "open" means that the
extreme value is *not* included in the interval. Thus, right-closed and left open
is (0,1] = {x | 0 < x <= 1}. You can also close both sides with right=NA, that
is only meaningful if you "from-to-becomes" classification with integers. For
example to classify 1-5 -> 1, 6-10 -> 2, 11-15 -> 3. That may be easier to read
and write than the equivalent 1-5 -> 1, 5-10 -> 2, 10-15 -> 3 with right=TRUE
and [Link]=TRUE
others numeric. If not NULL all values that are not matched are set to this value. Other-
wise they retain their original value.
66 classify

brackets logical. If TRUE, intervals are have parenthesis or brackets around them to indi-
cate whether they are open or closed. Only applies if rcl is a vector (or single
column matrix)
filename character. Output filename
... Additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

Note
classify works with the "raw" values of categorical rasters, ignoring the levels (labels, categories).
To change the labels of categorical rasters, use subst instead.
For model-based classification see predict

See Also
subst for simpler from-to replacement, and clamp

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- (0:99)/99

## from-to-becomes
# classify the values into three groups
# all values >= 0 and <= 0.25 become 1, etc.
m <- c(0, 0.25, 1,
0.25, 0.5, 2,
0.5, 1, 3)
rclmat <- matrix(m, ncol=3, byrow=TRUE)
rc1 <- classify(r, rclmat, [Link]=TRUE)

## cuts
# equivalent to the above, but now a categorical SpatRaster is returned
rc2 <- classify(r, c(0, 0.25, 0.5, 1), [Link]=TRUE, brackets=TRUE)
freq(rc2)

## is-becomes
x <- round(r*3)
unique(x)
# replace 0 with NA
y <- classify(x, cbind(0, NA))
unique(y)

# multiple replacements
m <- rbind(c(2, 200), c(3, 300))
m

rcx1 <- classify(x, m)

click 67

unique(rcx1)

rcx2 <- classify(x, m, others=NA)

unique(rcx2)

click Query by clicking on a map

Description
Click on a map (plot) to get the coordinates or the values of a SpatRaster or SpatVector at that
location. For a SpatRaster you can also get the coordinates and cell number of the location.
Note that for many installations this does to work well on the default RStudio plotting device. To
work around that, you can first run [Link](noRStudioGD = TRUE) which will create a separate
window for plotting, then use plot() followed by click() and click on the map. It may also help
to set your RStudio "Tools/Global Options/Appearance/Zoom" to 100

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
click(x, n=10, id=FALSE, xy=FALSE, cell=FALSE, type="p", show=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

click(x, n=10, id=FALSE, xy=FALSE, type="p", show=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'missing'

click(x, n=10, id=FALSE, type="p", show=TRUE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector, or missing
n number of clicks on the plot (map)
id logical. If TRUE, a numeric ID is shown on the map that corresponds to the row
number of the output
xy logical. If TRUE, xy coordinates are included in the output
cell logical. If TRUE, cell numbers are included in the output
type one of "n", "p", "l" or "o". If "p" or "o" the points are plotted; if "l" or "o" they
are joined by lines. See locator
show logical. Print the values after each click?
... additional graphics parameters used if type != "n" for plotting the locations. See
locator

Value
The value(s) of x at the point(s) clicked on (or touched by the box drawn). A [Link] with
the value(s) of all layers of SpatRaster x for the cell(s) clicked on; or with the attributes of the
geometries of SpatVector x that intersect with the box drawn).
68 coerce

Note
The plot only provides the coordinates for a spatial query, the values are read from the SpatRaster
or SpatVector that is passed as an argument. Thus, you can extract values from an object that has
not been plotted, as long as it spatially overlaps with the extent of the plot.
Unless the process is terminated prematurely values at most n positions are determined. The iden-
tification process can be terminated, depending on how you interact with R, by hitting Esc, or by
clicking the right mouse button and selecting "Stop" from the menu, or from the "Stop" menu on
the graphics window.

See Also
draw

Examples
## Not run:
r <-rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
plot(r)
click(r, n=1)
## now click on the plot (map)

## End(Not run)

coerce Coercion to vector, matrix or array

Description
Coercion of a SpatRaster to a vector, matrix or array. Or coerce a SpatExtent to a vector or matrix

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x, mode='any')

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, wide=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

[Link](x, mode='any')

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

[Link](x, ...)
colors 69

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
wide logical. If FALSE each layer in the SpatRaster becomes a column in the matrix
and each cell in the SpatRaster becomes a row. If TRUE each row in the Spa-
tRaster becomes a row in the matrix and each column in the SpatRaster becomes
a column in the matrix
mode this argument is ignored
... additional arguments (none implemented)

Value
vector, matrix, or array

See Also
[Link] and [Link]

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=2, nrows=2)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

[Link](r)
[Link](r)
[Link](r, wide=TRUE)
[Link](r, xy=TRUE)
[Link](r)

[Link](ext(r))
[Link](ext(r))

colors Color table

Description
Get or set color table(s) associated with a SpatRaster. Color tables are used for associating colors
with values, for use in mapping (plot).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
coltab(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

coltab(x, ..., layer=1)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x)
70 combineGeoms

Arguments
x SpatRaster
layer positive integer, the layer number or name
value a two-column [Link] (first column the cell value, the second column the
color); a vector of colors (the first one is the color for value 0 and so on); or
a four (value,red,green,blue) or five (including alpha) column [Link] also
from 0 to n; or NULL to remove the color table. You can also supply a list of
such [Link] to set a color table to all layers
... additional arguments (none implemented)

Value
[Link]

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=3, nrows=2, vals=1:6)
x <- c(r, r)
names(x) <- c("A", "B")

coltb <- [Link](value=1:6, col=rainbow(6, end=.9))

coltb

plot(r)

[Link](r)
coltab(r) <- coltb
plot(r)
[Link](r)

tb <- coltab(r)
class(tb)
dim(tb[[1]])

coltab(x, layer="B") <- coltb

combineGeoms Combine geometries

Description
Combine the geometries of one SpatVector with those of another. Geometries can be combined
based on overlap, shared boundaries and distance (in that order of operation).
The typical use-case of this method is when you are editing geometries and you have a number of
small polygons in one SpatVector that should be part of the geometries of the another SpatVector;
perhaps because they were small holes inbetween the borders of two SpatVectors.
To append SpatVectors use ‘rbind‘ and see methods like intersect and union for "normal" poly-
gons combinations.
combineGeoms 71

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'
combineGeoms(x, y, overlap=TRUE, boundary=TRUE, distance=TRUE,
append=TRUE, minover=0.1, maxdist=Inf, dissolve=TRUE, erase=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatVector of polygons
y SpatVector of polygons geometries that are to be combined with x
overlap logical. If TRUE, a geometry is combined with the geometry it has most overlap
with, if the overlap is above minover
boundary logical. If TRUE, a geometry is combined with the geometry it has most shared
border with
distance logical. If TRUE, a geometry is combined with the geometry it is nearest to
append logical. Should remaining geometries be appended to the output? Not relevant
if distance=TRUE
minover numeric. The fraction of the geometry in y that overlaps with a geometry in x.
Below this threshold, geometries are not considered overlapping
maxdist numeric. Geometries further away from each other than this distance (in meters)
will not be combined
dissolve logical. Should internal boundaries be dissolved?
erase logical. If TRUE no new overlapping areas are created

Value
SpatVector

See Also
union, erase, intersect, sharedPaths, aggregate, rbind

Examples
x1 <- vect("POLYGON ((0 0, 8 0, 8 9, 0 9, 0 0))")
x2 <- vect("POLYGON ((10 4, 12 4, 12 7, 11 7, 11 6, 10 6, 10 4))")

y1 <- vect("POLYGON ((5 6, 15 6, 15 15, 5 15, 5 6))")

y2 <- vect("POLYGON ((8 2, 9 2, 9 3, 8 3, 8 2))")
y3 <- vect("POLYGON ((2 6, 3 6, 3 8, 2 8, 2 6))")
y4 <- vect("POLYGON ((2 12, 3 12, 3 13, 2 13, 2 12))")

x <- rbind(x1, x2)

values(x) <- [Link](xid=1:2)
crs(x) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1"

y <- rbind(y1, y2, y3, y4)

values(y) <- [Link](yid=letters[1:4])
72 Compare-methods

crs(y) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1"

plot(rbind(x, y), border=c(rep("red",2), rep("blue", 4)), lwd=2)

text(x, "xid")
text(y, "yid")

v <- combineGeoms(x, y)
plot(v, col=c("red", "blue"))

v <- combineGeoms(x, y, boundary=FALSE, maxdist=1, minover=.05)

plot(v, col=rainbow(4))

Compare-methods Compare and logical methods

Description
Standard comparison and logical operators for computations with SpatRasters. Computations are
local (applied on a cell by cell basis). If multiple SpatRasters are used, these must have the same
geometry (extent and resolution). These operators have been implemented:
Logical: !, &, |, isTRUE, isFALSE
Compare: ==, !=, >, <, <=, >=, [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link]
See [Link] for the inverse of [Link], and noNA to detect cells with missing value across layers.
The compare and logic methods implement these operators in a method that can return NA istead
of FALSE and allows for setting an output filename.
The terra package does not distinguish between NA (not available) and NaN (not a number). In most
cases this state is represented by NaN.
If you use a SpatRaster with a vector of multiple numbers, each element in the vector is considered
a layer (with a constant value). If you use a SpatRaster with a matrix, the number of columns of the
matrix must match the number of layers of the SpatRaster. The rows are used to match the cells.
That is, if there are two rows, these match cells 1 and 2, and they are recycled to 3 and 4, etc.
The following method has been implemented for (SpatExtent, SpatExtent): ==

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
compare(x, y, oper, falseNA=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

logic(x, oper, falseNA=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatRaster or numeric
compareGeom 73

oper character. Operator name. For compare this can be one of "==", "!=", ">",
"<", ">=", "<=" and for logic it can be one of "!", "[Link]", "[Link]",
"allNA", "anyNA", "noneNA", "[Link]", "[Link]", "iSTRUE", "isFALSE"
falseNA logical. Should the result be TRUE, NA instead of TRUE, FALSE?
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster or SpatExtent

See Also

[Link], Arith-methods. See ifel to conveniently combine operations and Math-methods or

app to apply any R function to a SpatRaster.

Examples

r1 <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)

values(r1) <- runif(ncell(r1))
r1[10:20] <- NA
r2 <- rast(r1)
values(r2) <- 1:ncell(r2) / ncell(r2)

x <- [Link](r1)
!x
r1 == r2
compare(r1, r2, "==")
compare(r1, r2, "==", TRUE)

compareGeom Compare geometries

Description

Evaluate whether two SpatRasters have the same extent, number of rows and columns, projection,
resolution, and origin (or a subset of these comparisons).
Or evaluate whether two SpatVectors have the same geometries, or whether a SpatVector has dupli-
cated geometries.
74 compareGeom

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
compareGeom(x, y, ..., lyrs=FALSE, crs=TRUE, warncrs=FALSE, ext=TRUE,
rowcol=TRUE, res=FALSE, stopOnError=TRUE, messages=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

compareGeom(x, y, tolerance=0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,missing'

compareGeom(x, y, tolerance=0)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
y Same as x. If x is a SpatRaster, y can also be a list of SpatRasters. If x is a
SpatVector, y can be missing
... Additional SpatRasters
lyrs logical. If TRUE, the number of layers is compared
crs logical. If TRUE, coordinate reference systems are compared
warncrs logical. If TRUE, a warning is given if the crs is different (instead of an error)
ext logical. If TRUE, bounding boxes are compared
rowcol logical. If TRUE, number of rows and columns of the objects are compared
res logical. If TRUE, resolutions are compared (redundant when checking extent and
rowcol)
stopOnError logical. If TRUE, code execution stops if raster do not match
messages logical. If TRUE, warning/error messages are printed even if stopOnError=FALSE
tolerance numeric

Value
logical (SpatRaster) or matrix of logical (SpatVector)

Examples
r1 <- rast()
r2 <- rast()
r3 <- rast()
compareGeom(r1, r2, r3)
nrow(r3) <- 10

## Not run:
compareGeom(r1, r3)

## End(Not run)
concats 75

concats Concatenate categorical rasters

Description

Combine two categorical rasters by concatenating their levels.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

concats(x, y, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster (with a single, categorical, layer)

y SpatRaster (with a single, categorical, layer)
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

cats

Examples
[Link](0)
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r) <- sample(3, ncell(r), replace=TRUE)
levels(r) <- [Link](id=1:3, cover=c("forest", "water", "urban"))

rr <- rast(r)
values(rr) <- sample(1:3, ncell(rr), replace=TRUE)
levels(rr) <- [Link](id=c(1:3), color=c("red", "green", "blue"))

x <- concats(r, rr)

x
levels(x)[[1]]
76 contour

contour Contour plot

Description
Contour lines (isolines) of a SpatRaster. Use add=TRUE to add the lines to the current plot. See
graphics::contour for details.
if filled=TRUE, a new filled contour plot is made. See graphics::[Link] for details.
[Link] returns the contour lines as a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
contour(x, maxcells=100000, filled=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, maxcells=100000, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster. Only the first layer is used
maxcells maximum number of pixels used to create the contours
filled logical. If TRUE, a [Link] plot is made
... any argument that can be passed to contour or [Link] (graphics
package)

See Also
plot

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
plot(r)
contour(r, add=TRUE)

v <- [Link](r)
plot(r)
lines(v)

contour(r, filled=TRUE, nlevels=5)

## if you want a SpatVector with contour lines

template <- disagg(rast(r), 10)
rr <- resample(r, template)
rr <- floor(rr/100) * 100
v <- [Link](rr)
costDist 77

plot(v, 1, col=[Link](7))

## to combine filled contours with contour lines (or other spatial data)

br <- seq(100, 600, 100)

plot(r, breaks=br)
lines([Link](r, levels=br))

## or
x <- [Link](classify(r, br))
plot(x, "elevation")

costDist Cost-distance

Description
Use a friction (cost) surface to compute the cost-distance from any cell to the border of one or more
target cells.
Distances are computed by summing local distances between cells, which are connected with their
neighbors in 8 directions, and assuming that the path has to go through the centers of one of the
neighboring raster cells.
Distances are multiplied with the friction, thus to get the cost-distance, the friction surface must
express the cost per unit distance (speed) of travel.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
costDist(x, target=0, scale=1, maxiter=50, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
target numeric. value of the target cells (where to compute cost-distance to)
scale numeric. Scale factor. The cost distance is divided by this number
maxiter numeric. The maximum number of iterations. Increase this number if you get
the warning that costDistance did not converge
filename character. output filename (optional)
... additional arguments as for writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
78 cover

See Also

gridDist, distance

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, crs="+proj=utm +zone=1 +datum=WGS84",
xmin=0, xmax=5, ymin=0, ymax=5, vals=1)
r[13] <- 0
d <- costDist(r)
plot(d)
text(d, digits=1)

r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, xmin=0, xmax=10, ymin=0, ymax=10,

vals=10, crs="+proj=utm +zone=1 +datum=WGS84")
r[5, 1] <- -10
r[2:3, 1] <- r[1, 2:4] <- r[2, 5] <- 0
r[3, 6] <- r[2, 7] <- r[1, 8:9] <- 0
r[6, 6:10] <- NA
r[6:9, 6] <- NA

d <- costDist(r, -10)

plot(d)
text(d, digits=1, cex=.8)

cover Replace values with values from another object

Description

Replace missing (NA) or other values in SpatRaster x with the values of SpatRaster y. Or replace
missing values in the first layer with the first value encountered in other layers.
For polygons: areas of x that overlap with y are replaced by y or, if identity=TRUE intersected
with y.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

cover(x, y, values=NA, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,missing'

cover(x, y, values=NA, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

cover(x, y, identity=FALSE, expand=TRUE)
crds 79

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatVector
y Same as x or missing if x is a SpatRaster
values numeric. The cell values in x to be replaced by the values in y
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
identity logical. If TRUE overlapping areas are intersected rather than replaced
expand logical. Should parts of y that are outside of x be included?

Value

SpatRaster

Examples
r1 <- r2 <- rast(ncols=36, nrows=18)
values(r1) <- 1:ncell(r1)
values(r2) <- runif(ncell(r2))
r2 <- classify(r2, cbind(-Inf, 0.5, NA))
r3 <- cover(r2, r1)

p <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

e <- [Link](ext(6, 6.4, 49.75, 50))
values(e) <- [Link](y=10)

cv <- cover(p, e)
plot(cv, col=rainbow(12))
ci <- cover(p, e, identity=TRUE)
lines(e, lwd=3)

plot(ci, col=rainbow(12))
lines(e, lwd=3)

crds Get the coordinates of SpatVector geometries or SpatRaster cells

Description

Get the coordinates of a SpatVector or SpatRaster cells. A matrix or [Link] of the x (longitude)
and y (latitude) coordinates is returned.
80 crds

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

crds(x, df=FALSE, list=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

crds(x, df=FALSE, [Link]=TRUE, [Link]=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatVector
df logical. If TRUE a [Link] is returned instead of a matrix
list logical. If TRUE a list is returned instead of a matrix
[Link] logical. If TRUE cells that are NA are excluded. Ignored if the SpatRaster is a
template with no associated cell values
[Link] logical. If TRUE cells are only ignored if [Link]=TRUE and their value is NA for
all layers instead of for any layer

Value

matrix or [Link]

See Also

geom returns the complete structure of SpatVector geometries. For SpatRaster see xyFromCell

Examples
x1 <- rbind(c(-175,-20), c(-140,55), c(10, 0), c(-140,-60))
x2 <- rbind(c(-125,0), c(0,60), c(40,5), c(15,-45))
x3 <- rbind(c(-10,0), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55))
x4 <- rbind(c(80,0), c(105,13), c(120,2), c(105,-13))
z <- rbind(cbind(object=1, part=1, x1), cbind(object=2, part=1, x2),
cbind(object=3, part=1, x3), cbind(object=3, part=2, x4))
colnames(z)[3:4] <- c('x', 'y')
z <- cbind(z, hole=0)
z[(z[, "object"]==3 & z[,"part"]==2), "hole"] <- 1

p <- vect(z, "polygons")

crds(p)

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
g <- crds(v)
head(g)
crop 81

crop Cut out a geographic subset

Description
Cut out a part of a SpatRaster or SpatVector.
You can crop a SpatRaster with a SpatExtent, or with another object from which an extent can
be obtained. Note that the SpatRaster returned may not have the exactly the same extent as the
SpatExtent supplied because you can only select entire cells (rows and columns), and you cannot
add new areas. See methods like resample and disagg to force SpatRasters to align and extend to
add rows and/or columns.
You can only crop rectangular areas of a SpatRaster, but see argument mask=TRUE for setting cell
values within SpatRaster to NA; or use the mask method after crop for additional masking options.
You can crop a SpatVector with another SpatVector. If these are not polygons, the minimum convex
hull is used. Unlike with intersect the geometries and attributes of y are not transferred to the
output. You can also crop a SpatVector with a rectangle (SpatRaster, SpatExtent).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
crop(x, y, snap="near", mask=FALSE, touches=TRUE, extend=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

crop(x, y, snap="near", extend=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

crop(x, y, snap="near", extend=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

crop(x, y, ext=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatGraticule'

crop(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
y SpatRaster, SpatVector, SpatExtent, or any other object that has a SpatExtent
(ext returns a SpatExtent)
snap character. One of "near", "in", or "out". Used to align y to the geometry of x
mask logical. Should y be used to mask? Only used if y is a SpatVector, SpatRaster
or sf
touches logical. If TRUE and mask=TRUE, all cells touched by lines or polygons will be
masked, not just those on the line render path, or whose center point is within
the polygon
82 crosstab

extend logical. Should rows and/or columns be added if y is beyond the extent of x?
Also see extend
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
ext logical. Use the extent of y instead of y. This also changes the behavior when y
is an extent in two ways: (1) points that are on the extent boundary are removed
and (2) lon/lat extents that go beyond -180 or 180 degrees longitude are wrapped
around the earth to include areas at the other end of the dateline

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
intersect, extend
See window for a virtual and sometimes more efficient way to crop a dataset.

Examples
r <- rast(xmin=0, xmax=10, ymin=0, ymax=10, nrows=25, ncols=25)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
e <- ext(-5, 5, -5, 5)
rc <- crop(r, e)

# crop and mask

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
cm <- crop(r, v[9:12,], mask=TRUE)
plot(cm)
lines(v)

# crop vector
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
e <- ext(6.15, 6.3, 49.7, 49.8)
x <- crop(v, e)
plot(x, "NAME_1")

crosstab Cross-tabulate

Description
Cross-tabulate the layers of a SpatRaster to create a contingency table.
crs 83

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,missing'
crosstab(x, digits=0, long=FALSE, useNA=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
digits integer. The number of digits for rounding the values before cross-tabulation
long logical. If TRUE the results are returned in ’long’ format [Link] instead of a
table
useNA logical, indicting if the table should includes counts of NA values

Value
A table or [Link]

See Also
freq, zonal

Examples
r <- s <- rast(nc=5, nr=5)
[Link](1)
values(r) <- runif(ncell(r)) * 2
values(s) <- runif(ncell(r)) * 3
x <- c(r, s)

crosstab(x)

rs <- r/s
r[1:5] <- NA
s[20:25] <- NA
x <- c(r, s, rs)
crosstab(x, useNA=TRUE, long=TRUE)

crs Get or set a coordinate reference system

Description
Get or set the coordinate reference system (CRS), also referred to as a "projection", of a SpatRaster
or SpatVector.
Setting a new CRS does not change the data itself, it just changes the label. So you should only set
the CRS of a dataset (if it does not come with one) to what it *is*, not to what you would *like it to
be*. See project to *transform* an object from one CRS to another.
84 crs

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
crs(x, proj=FALSE, describe=FALSE, parse=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

crs(x, proj=FALSE, describe=FALSE, parse=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'character'

crs(x, proj=FALSE, describe=FALSE, parse=FALSE)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

crs(x, warn=FALSE)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector'

crs(x, warn=FALSE)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
proj logical. If TRUE the crs is returned in PROJ-string notation
describe logical. If TRUE the name, EPSG code, and the name and extent of the area of
use are returned if known
warn logical. If TRUE, a message is printed when the object already has a non-empty
crs
value character string describing a coordinate reference system. This can be in a WKT
format, as a <authority:number> code such as "EPSG:4326", or a PROJ-string
format such as "+proj=utm +zone=12" (see Note)
parse logical. If TRUE, wkt parts are parsed into a vector (each line becomes an ele-
ment)

Value
character or modified SpatRaster/Vector

Note
Projections are handled by the PROJ/GDAL libraries. The PROJ developers suggest to define a CRS
with the WKT2 or <authority>:<code> notation. It is not practical to define one’s own custom CRS
with WKT2, and the the <authority>:<code> system only covers a handful of (commonly used)
CRSs. To work around this problem it is still possible to use the deprecated PROJ-string notation
(+proj=...) with one major caveat: the datum should be WGS84 (or the equivalent NAD83) – if
you want to transform your data to a coordinate reference system with a different datum. Thus as
long as you use WGS84, or an ellipsoid instead of a datum, you can safely use PROJ-strings to
represent your CRS; including to define your own custom CRS.
You can also set the crs to "local" to get an informal coordinate system on an arbitrary Euclidean
(Cartesian) plane with units in meter.
datatype 85

Examples
r <- rast()
crs(r)
crs(r, describe=TRUE, proj=TRUE)

crs(r) <- "+proj=lcc +lat_1=48 +lat_2=33 +lon_0=-100 +ellps=WGS84"

crs(r)

# You can use epsg codes

crs(r) <- "epsg:25831"
crs(r, describe=TRUE)$area

crs("epsg:25831", describe=TRUE)

datatype Data type of a SpatRaster or SpatVector

Description
Get the data types of the fields (attributes, variables) of a SpatVector or of the file(s) associated with
a SpatRaster. A (layer of a) SpatRaster has no datatype if it has no values, or if the values are in
memory.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
datatype(x, bylyr=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

datatype(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
bylyr logical. If TRUE a value is returned for each layer. Otherwise, a value is returned
for each data source (such as a file)

Details
Setting the data type is useful if you want to write values to disk with writeRaster. In other cases
you can use functions such as round and floor, or [Link]
raster datatypes are described by 5 characters. The first three indicate whether the values are integer
or decimal values. The fourth character indicates the number of bytes used to save the values on
disk, and the last character indicates whether the numbers are signed (that is, can be negative and
positive values) or not (only zero and positive values allowed)
The following raster datatypes are available:
86 datatype

Datatype definition minimum possible value maximum possible value

INT1U 0 255
INT2U 0 65,535
INT4U 0 4,294,967,296
INT8U 0 18,446,744,073,709,551,616
INT1S -128 128
INT2S -32,767 32,767
INT4S -2,147,483,647 2,147,483,647
INT8S -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 9,223,372,036,854,775,808
FLT4S -3.4e+38 3.4e+38
FLT8S -1.7e+308 1.7e+308

For all integer and byte types the lowest (signed) or highest (unsigned) value is used to store NA. For
float types NaN is used (following the IEEE 754 standard).
Note that very large integer numbers may be imprecise as they are internally represented as decimal
numbers.
Also note that NaN may not be equally supported by all implementations. For example OGR SQL
and SQLite queries generally convert NaN values to NULL.
INT4U and INT8U are available but they are best avoided as R does not support 32-bit or 64-bit
unsigned integers. INT8U is a special case where the NA store value is 18446744073709549568
(UINT64_MAX - 1101) because of precision in decimal representation.
INT8U and INT8S require GDAL version 3.5 or higher. INT1S requires GDAL version 3.7 or higher.

Value

character

See Also

Raster data types to check / set the type of SpatRaster values.

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
datatype(v)

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
datatype(r)

# no data type
datatype(rast())
deepcopy 87

deepcopy Deep copy

Description
Make a deep copy of a SpatRaster or SpatVector. This is occasionally useful when using an in-place
replacement function that does not make copy, such as [Link].

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
deepcopy(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

deepcopy(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector

Value
Same as x

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, nl=3)
x <- r
y <- deepcopy(r)
ext(r)
[Link](x, c(0,10,0,10))
ext(x)
ext(r)
ext(y)

densify Add additional nodes to lines or polygons

Description
Add additional nodes to lines or polygons. This can be useful to do prior to using project such
that the path does not change too much.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
densify(x, interval, equalize=TRUE, flat=FALSE)
88 densify

Arguments

x SpatVector
interval positive number, specifying the desired minimum distance between nodes. The
unit is meter for lonlat data, and in the linear unit of the crs for planar data
equalize logical. If TRUE, new nodes are spread at equal intervals between old nodes
flat logical. If TRUE, the earth’s curvature is ignored for lonlat data, and the distance
unit is degrees, not meter

Value

SpatVector

See Also

simplifyGeom

Examples

v <- vect(rbind(c(-120,-20), c(-80,5), c(-40,-60), c(-120,-20)),

type="polygons", crs="+proj=longlat")
vd <- densify(v, 200000)

p <- project(v, "+proj=robin")

pd <- project(vd, "+proj=robin")

# good
plot(pd, col="gray", border="red", lwd=10)
points(pd, col="gray")

# bad
lines(p, col="blue", lwd=3)
points(p, col="blue", cex=2)
plot(p, col="blue", alpha=.1, add=TRUE)
legend("topright", c("good", "bad"), col=c("red", "blue"), lty=1, lwd=3)

## the other way around does not work

## unless the original data was truly planar (e.g. derived from a map)
x <- densify(p, 250000)
y <- project(x, "+proj=longlat")
# bad
plot(y)
# good
lines(vd, col="red")
density 89

density Density plot

Description
Create density plots of the cell values of a SpatRaster

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
density(x, maxcells=100000, plot=TRUE, main, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
maxcells the maximum number of (randomly sampled) cells to be used for creating the
plot
plot if TRUE produce a plot, else return a density object
main character. Caption of plot(s)
... additional arguments passed to plot

Value
density plot (and a density object, returned invisibly if plot=TRUE)

Examples
logo <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
density(logo)

deprecated deprecated methods

Description
This method is no longer available. Use gridDist instead

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
gridDistance(x, ...)

Arguments
x object
... additional arguments
90 depth

depth depth of SpatRaster layers

Description
Get or set the depth of the layers of a SpatRaster. Experimental.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
depth(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

depth(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

depthName(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

depthName(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

depthUnit(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

depthUnit(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value numeric vector (depth), or character (depthName and depthUnit)

Value
numeric or SpatRaster

See Also
time

Examples
s <- rast(nlyr=3)

depth(s) <- c(0, pi/2, pi)

depth(s)

depthName(s) <- "angle"

describe 91

depthUnit(s) <- "radians"

s

describe describe

Description
Describe the properties of spatial data in a file as generated with the "GDALinfo" tool.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'character'
describe(x, sds=FALSE, meta=FALSE, parse=FALSE, options="", print=FALSE, open_opt="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

describe(x, source, ...)

Arguments
x character. The name of a file with spatial data. Or a fully specified subdataset
within a file such as "NETCDF:\"[Link]\":NDVI"
sds logical. If TRUE the description or metadata of the subdatasets is returned (if
available)
meta logical. Get the file level metadata instead
parse logical. If TRUE, metadata for subdatasets is parsed into components (if meta=TRUE)
options character. A vector of valid options (if meta=FALSE) including "json", "mm",
"stats", "hist", "nogcp", "nomd", "norat", "noct", "nofl", "checksum", "proj4",
"listmdd", "mdd <value>" where <value> specifies a domain or ’all’, "wkt_format
<value>" where value is one of ’WKT1’, ’WKT2’, ’WKT2_2015’, or ’WKT2_2018’,
"sd <subdataset>" where <subdataset> is the name or identifier of a sub-dataset.
See [Link] Ignored if sds=TRUE
print logical. If TRUE, print the results
open_opt character. Driver specific open options
source positive integer between 1 and nsrc(x)
... additional arguments passed to the describe<character> method

Value
character (invisibly, if print=FALSE)

See Also
ar_info
92 diff

Examples

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

describe(f)
describe(f, meta=TRUE)
#g <- describe(f, options=c("json", "nomd", "proj4"))
#head(g)

diff Lagged differences

Description

Compute the difference between consecutive layers in a SpatRaster.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

diff(x, lag=1, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
lag positive integer indicating which lag to use
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

Examples

s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

d <- diff(s)
dimensions 93

dimensions Dimensions of a SpatRaster or SpatVector and related objects

Description
Get the number of rows (nrow), columns (ncol), cells (ncell), layers (nlyr), sources (nsrc), the
size size (nlyr(x)*ncell(x)), or spatial resolution of a SpatRaster.
length returns the number of sub-datasets in a SpatRasterDataset or SpatVectorCollection.
For a SpatVector length(x) is the same as nrow(x).
You can also set the number of rows or columns or layers. When setting dimensions, all cell values
are dropped.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
ncol(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

nrow(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

nlyr(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

ncell(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

nsrc(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

ncol(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

nrow(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

nlyr(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

res(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

res(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

xres(x)
94 dimensions

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

yres(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

ncol(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

nrow(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

length(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector or related objects
value For ncol and nrow: positive integer. For res: one or two positive numbers

Value
integer

See Also
ext

Examples
r <- rast()
ncol(r)
nrow(r)
nlyr(r)
dim(r)
nsrc(r)
ncell(r)

rr <- c(r,r)
nlyr(rr)
nsrc(rr)
ncell(rr)

nrow(r) <- 18
ncol(r) <- 36
# equivalent to
dim(r) <- c(18, 36)

dim(r)
dim(r) <- c(10, 10, 5)
dim(r)
direction 95

xres(r)
yres(r)
res(r)

res(r) <- 1/120

# different xres and yres
res(r) <- c(1/120, 1/60)

direction Direction

Description

The direction (azimuth) to or from the nearest cell that is not NA. The direction is expressed in
radians, unless you use argument degrees=TRUE.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

direction(x, from=FALSE, degrees=FALSE, method="cosine", filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
from Logical. Default is FALSE. If TRUE, the direction from (instead of to) the nearest
cell that is not NA is returned
degrees Logical. If FALSE (the default) the unit of direction is radians.
method character. Should be "geo", or "cosine". With "geo" the most precise but slower
geodesic method of Karney (2003) is used. The "cosine" method is faster but
less precise
filename Character. Output filename (optional)
... Additional arguments as for writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

distance
96 disagg

Examples
r <- rast(ncol=36,nrow=18, crs="+proj=merc")
values(r) <- NA
r[306] <- 1
b <- direction(r, degrees=TRUE)
plot(b)

crs(r) <- "+proj=longlat"

b <- direction(r)
plot(b)

disagg Disaggregate raster cells or vector geometries

Description
SpatRaster: Create a SpatRaster with a higher resolution (smaller cells). The values in the new
SpatRaster are the same as in the larger original cells.
SpatVector: Separate multi-objects (points, lines, polygons) into single objects; or further into
segments (for lines or polygons).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
disagg(x, fact, method="near", filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

disagg(x, segments=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
fact positive integer. Aggregation factor expressed as number of cells in each di-
rection (horizontally and vertically). Or two integers (horizontal and vertical
aggregation factor) or three integers (when also aggregating over layers)
method character. Either "near" for nearest or "bilinear" for bilinear interpolation
segments logical. Should (poly-)lines or polygons be disaggregated into their line-segments?
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
distance 97

See Also
aggregate, resample

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
rd <- disagg(r, fact=c(10, 2))
ncol(rd)
nrow(rd)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
rd <- disagg(r, fact=c(4, 2))

distance Geographic distance

Description
If x is a SpatRaster:
If y is missing this method computes the distance, for all cells that are NA in SpatRaster x to the
nearest cell that is not NA (or other values, see arguments "target" and "exclude").
If y is a numeric value, the cells with that value are ignored. That is, distance to or from these cells
is not computed.
If y is a SpatVector, the distance to that SpatVector is computed for all cells, optionally after raster-
ization.
The distance is always expressed in meter if the coordinate reference system is longitude/latitude,
and in map units otherwise. Map units are typically meter, but inspect crs(x) if in doubt.
Results are more precise, sometimes much more precise, when using longitude/latitude rather than
a planar coordinate reference system, as these distort distance.
If x is a SpatVector:
If y is missing, a distance matrix between all objects in x is computed. A distance matrix object of
class "dist" is returned.
If y is a SpatVector, the geographic distance between all objects is computed (and a matrix is
returned). If both sets have the same number of points, and pairwise=TRUE, the distance between
each pair of objects is computed, and a vector is returned.
If x is a matrix:
x should consist of two columns, the first with "x" (or longitude) and the second with "y" coordinates
(or latitude). If y is a also a matrix, the distance between each point in x and all points in y is
computed, unless pairwise=TRUE
If y is missing, the distance between each point in x with all other points in x is computed, unless
sequential=TRUE
98 distance

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,missing'
distance(x, y, target=NA, exclude=NULL, unit="m", method="haversine",
maxdist=NA, values=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'

distance(x, y, unit="m", rasterize=FALSE, method="haversine", filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

distance(x, y, pairwise=FALSE, unit="m", method="haversine",
use_nodes=FALSE, names=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,ANY'

distance(x, y, sequential=FALSE, pairs=FALSE, symmetrical=TRUE, unit="m",
method="haversine", use_nodes=FALSE, names=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'matrix,matrix'

distance(x, y, lonlat, pairwise=FALSE, unit="m", method="geo")

## S4 method for signature 'matrix,missing'

distance(x, y, lonlat, sequential=FALSE, pairs=FALSE, symmetrical=TRUE,
unit="m", method="geo")

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector, or two-column matrix with coordinates (x,y or lon,lat)
y missing, numeric, SpatVector, or two-column matrix
target numeric. The value of the cells for which distances to cells that are not NA should
be computed
exclude numeric. The value of the cells that should not be considered for computing
distances
unit character. Can be either "m" or "km"
method character. One of "geo", "cosine" or "haversine". With "geo" the most precise
but slower method of Karney (2003) is used. The other two methods are faster
but less precise
maxdist numeric. Distances above this value are set to NA
values logical. If TRUE, the value of the nearest non-target cell is returned instead of the
distance to that cell
rasterize logical. If TRUE distance is computed from the cells covered by the geometries
after rasterization. This can be much faster in some cases
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
sequential logical. If TRUE, the distance between sequential geometries is returned
pairwise logical. If TRUE and if x and y have the same size (number of rows), the pairwise
distances are returned instead of the distances between all elements
distance 99

lonlat logical. If TRUE the coordinates are interpreted as angular (longitude/latitude).

If FALSE they are interpreted as planar
pairs logical. If TRUE a "from", "to", "distance" matrix is returned
symmetrical logical. If TRUE and pairs=TRUE, the distance between a pair is only included
once. The distance between geometry 1 and 3 is included, but the (same) dis-
tance between 3 and 1 is not
use_nodes logical. If TRUE and the crs is longitude/latitude, the nodes (vertices) of lines or
polygons are used to compute distances, instead of the lines that connect them.
This is faster, but can be less precise if the nodes are far apart
names character. One (or two) variable names in x (and y) to label the distance matrix

Value
SpatRaster, numeric, matrix, or a distance matrix (object of class "dist")

Note
A distance matrix can be coerced into a regular matrix with [Link]

References
Karney, C.F.F., 2013. Algorithms for geodesics, J. Geodesy 87: 43-55. doi:10.1007/s00190-012-
0578-z.

See Also
nearest, nearby, gridDist, costDist

Examples
#lonlat
r <- rast(ncols=36, nrows=18, crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")
r[500] <- 1
d <- distance(r, unit="km")
plot(d / 1000)

#planar
rr <- rast(ncols=36, nrows=18, crs="+proj=utm +zone=1 +datum=WGS84")
rr[500] <- 1
d <- distance(rr)

rr[3:10, 3:10] <- 99

e <- distance(rr, exclude=99)

p1 <- vect(rbind(c(0,0), c(90,30), c(-90,-30)), crs="lonlat")

values(p1) <- [Link](ID=LETTERS[1:3])
dp <- distance(r, p1)

d <- distance(p1)
d
100 divide

[Link](d)

p2 <- vect(rbind(c(30,-30), c(25,40), c(-9,-3)), crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")

values(p2) <- [Link](ID=letters[1:3])
dd <- distance(p1, p2, names=c("ID", "ID"))
dd
pd <- distance(p1, p2, pairwise=TRUE)
pd
pd == diag(dd)

# polygons, lines
crs <- "+proj=utm +zone=1"
p1 <- vect("POLYGON ((0 0, 8 0, 8 9, 0 9, 0 0))", crs=crs)
p2 <- vect("POLYGON ((5 6, 15 6, 15 15, 5 15, 5 6))", crs=crs)
p3 <- vect("POLYGON ((2 12, 3 12, 3 13, 2 13, 2 12))", crs=crs)
p <- rbind(p1, p2, p3)
L1 <- vect("LINESTRING(1 11, 4 6, 10 6)", crs=crs)
L2 <- vect("LINESTRING(8 14, 12 10)", crs=crs)
L3 <- vect("LINESTRING(1 8, 12 14)", crs=crs)
lns <- rbind(L1, L2, L3)
pts <- vect(cbind(c(7,10,10), c(3,5,6)), crs=crs)

distance(p1,p3)
distance(p)
distance(p,pts)
distance(p,lns)
distance(pts,lns)

divide Subdivide a raster or polygons

Description
Divide a SpatRaster into n parts with approximately the same sum of weights (cell values).
Divides a SpatVector of polygons into n compact and approximately equal area parts. The results
are not deterministic so you should use [Link] to be able to reproduce your results. If you get
a warning about non-convergence, you can increase the number of iterations used with additional
argument [Link]

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
divide(x, n=2, start="ns", [Link]=FALSE, [Link]=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

divide(x, n=5, w=NULL, alpha=1, ...)
divide 101

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatVector of polygons

n numeric. Can be a single positive integer to indicate the number of parts (SpatVec-
tor) or the number of splits (SpatRaster).
If x is a SpatRaster, it can also be a vector with values -2, -1, 1, or 2. Where
1 means one split and 2 means two splits, and the negative sign indicates an
East-West (vertical) split as opposed to a North-South split.
If x is a SpatVector it can be a list with at least one of these elements: horizontal
and vertical that specify the proportions of the area that splits should cover.
This can either be a single fraction such as 1/3, or a sequence of fractions in
ascending order such as c(1/4, 1/2, 1)
start character. To indicate the initial direction of splitting the raster. "ns" for North-
South (horizontal) or "ew" for East-West (vertical)
[Link] logical. If FALSE a SpatVector is returned. If FALSE, a SpatRaster is returned. If
NA a list with a SpatRaster and a SpatVector is returned
[Link] logical. If TRUE cells in x that are NA are not included in the output
w SpatRaster with, for example, environmental data
alpha numeric. One or two numbers that act as weights for the x and y coordinates
... additional arguments such as [Link] passed on to kmeans

Value

SpatVector or SpatRaster, or a list with both

See Also

thresh; makeTiles

Examples

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
x <- divide(r, 3)
# plot(r); lines(x)

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
d <- divide(v, 3)
dv <- divide(v, list(h=.5))
102 dots

dots Make a dot-density map

Description

Create the dots for a dot-density map and add these to the current map. Dot-density maps are made
to display count data. For example of population counts, where each dot represents n persons. The
dots are returned as a SpatVector. It there is an active graphics device, the dots are added to it with
points.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

dots(x, field, size, ...)

Arguments

x SpatVector
field character of numeric indicating field name. Or numeric vector of the same length
as x
size positive number indicating the number of cases associated with each dot
... graphical arguments passed to points

Value

SpatVector (invisibly)

See Also

plot, cartogram, points

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
v$population <- 1000*(1:12)^2
plot(v, lwd=3, col="light gray", border="white")
d <- dots(v, "population", 1000, col="red", cex=.75)
lines(v)
d
draw 103

draw Draw a polygon, line, extent, or points

Description

Draw on a plot (map) to get a SpatVector or SpatExtent object for later use. After calling the
function, start clicking on the map. When you are done, press ESC. You can also preset the maximum
number of clicks.
Note that for many installations this does to work well on the default RStudio plotting device. To
work around that, you can first run [Link](noRStudioGD = TRUE) which will create a separate
window for plotting, then use plot() followed by draw() and clicking on the map. It may also
help to set your RStudio "Tools/Global Options/Appearance/Zoom" to 100

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'character'

draw(x="extent", col="red", lwd=2, id=FALSE, n=1000, xpd=TRUE, ...)

Arguments

x character. The type of object to draw. One of "extent", "polygon", "line", or

"points"
col the color to be used
lwd the width of the lines to be drawn
id logical. If TRUE, a numeric ID is shown on the map
n the maximum number of clicks (does not apply when x=="extent" in which
case n is always 2)
xpd logical. If TRUE, you can draw outside the current plotting area
... additional graphics arguments for drawing

Value

SpatVector or SpatExtent

See Also

click
104 elongate

elongate elongate lines

Description

Elongate SpatVector lines

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

elongate(x, length=1, flat=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatVector
length positive number indicating how much the lines should be elongated at each end.
The unit is meter is the crs is lonlat and it is the same as the linear unit of the crs
on other cases (also meter in most cases)
flat logical. If TRUE, the earth’s curvature is ignored for lonlat data, and the distance
unit is degrees, not meter

Value

SpatVector

See Also

buffer, crop, erase, extend

Examples

v <- vect(cbind(c(0,1,2), c(0,0,2)), "lines", crs="lonlat")

e <- elongate(v, 100000)
plot(e)
points(e)
geom(e)
erase 105

erase Erase parts of a SpatVector object

Description

Erase parts of a SpatVector with another SpatVector or with a SpatExtent. You can also erase (parts
of) polygons with the other polygons of the same SpatVector.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

erase(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,missing'

erase(x, sequential=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatExtent'

erase(x, y)

Arguments

x SpatVector
y SpatVector or SpatExtent
sequential logical. Should areas be erased sequentially? See Details

Details

If polygons are erased sequentially, everything that is covered by the first polygon is removed from
all other polygons, then everything that is covered by (what is remaining of) the second polygon is
removed, etc.
If polygons are not erased sequentially, all overlapping areas are erased and only the areas covered
by a single geometry are returned.

Value

SpatVector or SpatExtent

See Also

crop and intersect for the inverse.

The equivalent for SpatRaster is mask
106 expanse

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)

# polygons with polygons or extent

e <- ext(5.6, 6, 49.55, 49.7)

x <- erase(v, e)

p <- vect("POLYGON ((5.8 49.8, 6 49.9, 6.15 49.8, 6 49.6, 5.8 49.8))")
y <- erase(v, p)

# lines with polygons

lns <- [Link](rast(v, ncol=10, nrow=10))[12:22]
eln <- erase(lns, v)
plot(v)
lines(lns, col='blue', lwd=4, lty=3)
lines(eln, col='red', lwd=2)

## self-erase
h <- convHull(v[-12], "NAME_1")
he <- erase(h)
plot(h, lwd=2, border="red", lty=2)
lines(he, col="gray", lwd=3)

expanse Get the expanse (area) of individual polygons or for all (summed)
raster cells

Description
Compute the area covered by polygons or for all raster cells that are not NA.
This method computes areas for longitude/latitude rasters, as the size of the cells is constant in
degrees, but not in square meters. But it can also be important if the coordinate reference system is
planar, but not equal-area.
For vector data, the best way to compute area is to use the longitude/latitude CRS. This is contrary
to (erroneous, but popular) belief that you should use a planar coordinate reference system. Where
applicable, the transformation to lon/lat is done automatically, if transform=TRUE.
Note that it is important that polygon geometries are valid. If they are not valid, the computed area
may be wrong. You can check for validity with [Link] and fix some problems with makeValid

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
expanse(x, unit="m", transform=TRUE, byValue=FALSE,
zones=NULL, wide=FALSE, usenames=FALSE)
expanse 107

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

expanse(x, unit="m", transform=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
unit character. Output unit of area. One of "m", "km", or "ha"
transform logical. If TRUE, planar CRS are transformed to lon/lat for accuracy
byValue logical. If TRUE, the area for each unique cell value is returned
zones NULL or SpatRaster with the same geometry identifying zones in x
wide logical. Should the results be in "wide" rather than "long" format?
usenames logical. If TRUE layers are identified by their names instead of their numbers

Value
SpatRaster: [Link] with at least two columns ("layer" and "area") and possibly also "value"
(if byValue is TRUE), and "zone" (if zones is TRUE). If x has no values, the total area of all cells is
returned. Otherwise, the area of all cells that are not NA is returned.
SpatVector: numeric (one value for each (multi-) polygon geometry.

See Also
cellSize for a the size of individual cells of a raster, that can be summed with global or with
zonal to get the area for different zones; surfArea for a raster with elevation values, taking into
account the sloping nature of the surface.

Examples
### SpatRaster
r <- rast(nrows=18, ncols=36)
v <- 1:ncell(r)
v[200:400] <- NA
values(r) <- v

# summed area in km2

expanse(r, unit="km")

# all cells
expanse(rast(r), unit="km")

r <- rast(ncols=90, nrows=45, ymin=-80, ymax=80)

m <- project(r, "+proj=merc")

expanse(m, unit="km")
expanse(m, unit="km", transform=FALSE)

m2 <- c(m, m)
values(m2) <- cbind(c(1,2,NA,NA), c(11:14))
expanse(m2, unit="km", byValue=TRUE, wide=TRUE)
108 ext

v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
r <- round((r-50)/100)
levels(r) <- [Link](id=1:5, name=c("forest", "water", "urban", "crops", "grass"))
expanse(r, byValue=TRUE)

g <- rasterize(v, r, "NAME_1")

expanse(r, byValue=TRUE, zones=g, wide=TRUE)

### SpatVector
v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

a <- expanse(v)
a
sum(a)

ext Create, get or set a SpatExtent

Description

Get a SpatExtent of a SpatRaster, SpatVector, or other spatial objects. Or create a SpatExtent from
four numbers (xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax).
You can set the extent of a SpatRaster, but you cannot set the extent of a SpatVector (see rescale
for that). See [Link] to set the extent in place.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

ext(x, cells=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

ext(x)

## S4 method for signature 'numeric'

ext(x, ..., xy=FALSE)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatExtent'

ext(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

ext(x)<-value
extend 109

Arguments

x SpatRaster, SpatVector, a numeric vector of length four (xmin, xmax, ymin,

ymax), a single numeric (xmin; see additional arguments under...), or missing
(in which case the output is the global extent in lon-lat coordinates)
cells positive integer (cell) numbers to subset the extent to area covered by these cells
value SpatExtent, or numeric vector of length four (xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax)
... if x is a single numeric value, additional numeric values for xmax, ymin, and
ymax
xy logical. Set this to TRUE to indicate that coordinates are in (xmin, ymin, xmax,
ymax) order, instead of in the terra standard order of (xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax)

Value

A SpatExtent object.

See Also

xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax

Examples
ext()

r <- rast()
e <- ext(r)
[Link](e)
[Link](e)

ext(r) <- c(0, 2.5, 0, 1.5)

r
er <- ext(r)

round(er)
# go "in"
floor(er)
# go "out"
ceiling(er)

ext(r) <- e

extend Extend
110 extend

Description
Enlarge the spatial extent of a SpatRaster. See crop if you (also) want to remove rows or columns.
Note that you can only enlarge SpatRasters with entire rows and columns. Therefore, the extent of
the output SpatRaster may not be exactly the same as the requested. Depending on argument snap
it may be a bit smaller or larger.
You can also enlarge a SpatExtent with this method, or with an algebraic notation (see examples)

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
extend(x, y, snap="near", fill=NA, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

extend(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatExtent
y If x is a SpatRaster, y should be a SpatExtent, or an object from which it can be
extracted (such as SpatRaster and SpatVector objects). Alternatively, you can
provide one, two or four non-negative integers indicating the number of rows
and columns that need to be added at each side (a single positive integer when the
number of rows and columns to be added is equal; or 2 number (columns, rows),
or four (left column, right column, bottom row, top row). If x is a SpatExtent, y
should likewise be a numeric vector of 1, 2, or 4 elements
snap character. One of "near", "in", or "out". Used to align y to the geometry of x
fill numeric. The value used to for the new raster cells
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster or SpatExtent

See Also
trim, crop, merge, ext, resample, elongate

Examples
r <- rast(xmin=-150, xmax=-120, ymin=30, ymax=60, ncols=36, nrows=18)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
e <- ext(-180, -100, 40, 70)
re <- extend(r, e)

# extend with a number of rows and columns (at each side)

extract 111

re2 <- extend(r, c(2,10))

# SpatExtent
e <- ext(r)
e
extend(e, 10)
extend(e, c(10, -10, 0, 20))

# add 10 columns / rows on all sides

e + 10
# double extent
e * 2
# increase extent by 25%
e * 1.25

extract Extract values from a SpatRaster

Description
Extract values from a SpatRaster for a set of locations. The locations can be a SpatVector (points,
lines, polygons), a [Link] or matrix with (x, y) or (longitude, latitude – in that order!) coordi-
nates, or a vector with cell numbers.
When argument y is a SpatVector the first column has the ID (record number) of the SpatVector
used (unless you set ID=FALSE).
Alternatively, you can use zonal after using rasterize with a SpatVector (this may be more
efficient in some cases).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'
extract(x, y, fun=NULL, method="simple", cells=FALSE, xy=FALSE,
ID=TRUE, weights=FALSE, exact=FALSE, touches=[Link](y), small=TRUE,
layer=NULL, bind=FALSE, raw=FALSE, search_radius=0, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatExtent'

extract(x, y, cells=FALSE, xy=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,matrix'

extract(x, y, cells=FALSE, method="simple")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

extract(x, y, xy=FALSE, raw=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

extract(x, y, count=FALSE)
112 extract

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector of polygons
y SpatVector (points, lines, or polygons). Alternatively, for points, a 2-column
matrix or [Link] (x, y) or (lon, lat). Or a vector with cell numbers
fun function to summarize the extracted data by line or polygon geometry. You can
use fun=table to tabulate raster values for each line or polygon geometry. If
weights=TRUE or exact=TRUE only mean, sum, min, max and table are accepted
— and these functions will consider the fraction of a cell that is covered when
computing the mean or the sum). Ignored if y has point geometry
method character. method for extracting values with points ("simple" or "bilinear").
With "simple" values for the cell a point falls in are returned. With "bilinear"
the returned values are interpolated from the values of the four nearest raster
cells
cells logical. If TRUE the cell numbers are also returned, unless fun is not NULL. Also
see cells
xy logical. If TRUE the coordinates of the cells are also returned, unless fun is not
NULL. See xyFromCell
ID logical. Should an ID column be added? If so, the first column returned has the
IDs (record numbers) of y
weights logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the approximate fraction of each cell that is
covered is returned as well. This changes the effect of argument fun
exact logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the exact fraction of each cell that is covered
is returned as well. This changes the effect of argument fun
touches logical. If TRUE, values for all cells touched by lines or polygons are extracted,
not just those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the poly-
gon. Not relevant for points; and always considered TRUE when weights=TRUE
or exact=TRUE
small logical. If TRUE, values for all cells in touched polygons are extracted if none of
the cells center points is within the polygon; even if touches=FALSE
layer character or numeric to select the layer to extract from for each geometry. If
layer is a character it can be a name in y or a vector of layer names. If it is
numeric, it must be integer values between 1 and nlyr(x)
bind logical. If TRUE, a SpatVector is returned consisting of the input SpatVector y
and the cbind-ed extracted values
raw logical. If TRUE, a matrix is returned with the "raw" numeric cell values. If
FALSE, a [Link] is returned and the cell values are transformed to factor,
logical, or integer values, where appropriate
search_radius positive number. A search-radius that is used when y has point geometry. If this
value is larger than zero, it is the maximum distance used to find the a cell with a
value that is nearest to the cell that the point falls in if that cell that has a missing
(NA) value. The value of this nearest cell, the distance to the original cell, and the
new cell number are returned. The radius should be expressed in m if the data
have lon/lat coordinates or in the distance unit of the crs in other cases (typically
also m). For lon/lat data, the mean latitude of the points is used to compute the
distances, so this may be imprecise for data with a large latitudinal range
extract 113

... additional arguments to fun if y is a SpatVector. For example [Link]=TRUE. Or

arguments passed to the SpatRaster,SpatVector method if y is a matrix (such
as the method and cells arguments)
count logical. If TRUE and x has polygons geometry and y has points geometry, the
number of points in polygons is returned

Value
[Link], matrix or SpatVector

See Also
values, zonal, extractAlong, extractRange, rapp

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, xmin=0, xmax=5, ymin=0, ymax=5)
values(r) <- 1:25
xy <- cbind(lon=c(0.5,2.5), lat=c(0.5,2.5))
p <- vect(xy, crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")

extract(r, xy)
extract(r, p)

r[1,]
r[5]
r[,5]

r[c(0:2, 99:101)]

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)

xy <- cbind(179000, 330000)

xy <- rbind(xy-100, xy, xy+1000)
extract(r, xy)

p <- vect(xy)
g <- geom(p)
g

extract(r, p)

x <- r + 10
extract(x, p)

i <- cellFromXY(r, xy)

x[i]
r[i]

y <- c(x,x*2,x*3)
y[i]
114 extractAlong

## extract with a polygon

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
v <- v[1:2,]

rf <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

x <- rast(rf)
extract(x, v, mean, [Link]=TRUE)

z <- rast(v, resolution=.1, names="test")

values(z) <- 1:ncell(z)
e <- extract(z, v, ID=TRUE)
e
tapply(e[,2], e[,1], mean, [Link]=TRUE)

x <- c(z, z*2, z/3)

names(x) <- letters[1:3]

e <- extract(x, v, ID=TRUE)

de <- [Link](e)
aggregate(de[,2:4], de[,1,drop=FALSE], mean)

extractAlong extract values along lines

Description
Extract raster values along a line. That is, the returned values are ordered along the line. That is not
the case with extract

Usage
extractAlong(x, y, ID=TRUE, cells=FALSE, xy=FALSE, online=FALSE, bilinear=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatVector with lines geometry
ID logical. Should an ID column be added? If so, the first column returned has the
IDs (record numbers) of input SpatVector y
cells logical. If TRUE the cell numbers are also returned
xy logical. If TRUE the coordinates of the cells traversed by y are also returned. See
xyFromCell
online logical. If TRUE the returned coordinates are snapped to y
bilinear logical. If TRUE the returned raster values computed with bilinear interpolation
from the nearest four cells. Only relevant if online=TRUE
extractRange 115

Value
[Link]

See Also
extract

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=36, nrows=18, vals=1:(18*36))
cds1 <- rbind(c(-50,0), c(0,60), c(40,5), c(15,-45), c(-10,-25))
cds2 <- rbind(c(80,20), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55))
lines <- vect(list(cds1, cds2), "lines")

extractAlong(r, lines)

extractRange Extract values for a range of layers from a SpatRaster

Description
Extract values from a SpatRaster for a set of locations and a range of layers. To extract values for a
single or all layers, use extract

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
extractRange(x, y, first, last, lyr_fun=NULL,
geom_fun=NULL, ID=FALSE, [Link]=TRUE, bind=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatVector (points, lines, or polygons). Alternatively, for points, a 2-column
matrix or [Link] (x, y) or (lon, lat). Or a vector with cell numbers
first layer name of number, indicating the first layer in the range of layers to be
considered
last layer name or number, indicating the last layer in the range to be considered
lyr_fun function to summarize the extracted data across layers
geom_fun function to summarize the extracted data for each line or polygon geometry.
Ignored if y has point geometry
ID logical. Should an ID column be added? If so, the first column returned has the
IDs (record numbers) of y
[Link] logical. Should missing values be ignored?
bind logical. If TRUE, the extracted values are cbind-ed to y
... additional arguments passed to extract
116 extremes

Value
numeric or [Link]

See Also
extract

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
xy <- [Link](x=c(50,80), y=c(30, 60))
extract(r, xy)
extract(r, xy, layer=c("red", "green"))

extractRange(r, xy, first=1:2, last=3:2)

extractRange(r, xy, first=1:2, last=3:2, lyr_fun=sum)

extremes Get or compute the minimum and maximum cell values

Description
The minimum and maximum value of a SpatRaster are returned or computed (from a file on disk if
necessary) and stored in the object.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
minmax(x, compute=FALSE)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
hasMinMax(x)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
setMinMax(x, force=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
compute logical. If TRUE min and max values are computed if they are not available
force logical. If TRUE min and max values are recomputed even if already available

Value
minmax: numeric matrix of minimum and maximum cell values by layer
hasMinMax: logical indicating whether the min and max values are available.
setMinMax: nothing. Used for the side-effect of computing the minimum and maximum values of
a SpatRaster
factors 117

See Also
[Link], [Link]

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
minmax(r)

factors Categorical rasters

Description
A SpatRaster layer can represent a categorical variable (factor). Like factors, SpatRaster cate-
gories are stored as integers that have an associated label.
The categories can be inspected with levels and cats. They are represented by a [Link]
that must have two or more columns, the first one identifying the (integer) cell values and the other
column(s) providing the category labels.
If there are multiple columns with categories, you can set the "active" category to choose the one
you want to use.
cats returns the entire [Link], whereas levels only return two columns: the index and the
active category.
To set categories for the first layer of a SpatRaster, you can provide levels<- with a [Link] or
a list with a [Link]. To set categories for multiple layers you can provide levels<- with a list
with one element (that either has a [Link] or is NULL) for each layer. Use categories to set
the categories for a specific layer or specific layers.
droplevels removes categories that are not used (declared but not present as values in the raster)
if levels=NULL.
simplifyLevels combines duplicate levels into one.
addCats adds additional categories to a layer that already is categorical. It adds new variables, not
new levels of an existing categorical variable.
combineLevels combines the levels of all layers of x and sets them to all layers. That fails if there
are labeling conflicts between layers

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
levels(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

levels(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

cats(x, layer)
118 factors

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

categories(x, layer=1, value, active=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

droplevels(x, level=NULL, layer=1)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

simplifyLevels(x, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

addCats(x, value, merge=FALSE, layer=1)

combineLevels(x, assign=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
layer the layer name or number (positive integer); or 0 for all layers
value a [Link] (ID, category) that define the categories. Or NULL to remove them
active positive integer, indicating the column in value to be used as the active category
(zero based to skip the first column with the cell values; that is 1 is the second
column in value)
level the categories to remove for the layer specified with layer
merge logical. If TRUE, the categories are combined with merge using the first column
of value as ID. If FALSE the categories are combined with cbind
assign logical. Assign the combined levels to all layers of x? If FALSE, the levels are
returned
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster, [Link], list of [Link] (levels, cats), or logical ([Link])

See Also
activeCat, catalyze, [Link], [Link], [Link]

Examples
[Link](0)
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r) <- sample(3, ncell(r), replace=TRUE)
[Link](r)
fillHoles 119

cls <- [Link](id=1:3, cover=c("forest", "water", "urban"))

levels(r) <- cls
[Link](r)
r

plot(r, col=c("green", "blue", "light gray"))

text(r, digits=3, cex=.75, halo=TRUE)

levels(r) <- [Link](id=1:3, cover=c("forest", "water", "forest"))

levels(simplifyLevels(r))

# raster starts at 3
x <- r + 2
[Link](x)

# Multiple categories
d <- [Link](id=3:5, cover=cls[,2], letters=letters[1:3], value=10:12)
levels(x) <- d
x

# get current index

activeCat(x)
# set index
activeCat(x) <- 3
activeCat(x)
activeCat(x) <- "letters"
plot(x, col=c("green", "blue", "light gray"))
text(x, digits=3, cex=.75, halo=TRUE)

r <- [Link](x)
r

p <- [Link](x)
plot(p, "letters", col=c("green", "blue", "light gray"))

fillHoles Remove or extract holes from polygons, or fill holes in raster data

Description
Remove the holes in SpatVector polygons. If inverse=TRUE the holes are returned (as polygons).
Or remove "holes" in SpatRasters.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
fillHoles(x, inverse=FALSE)
120 fillHoles

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

fillHoles(x, nearest=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatVector
inverse logical. If TRUE the holes are returned as polygons
nearest logical. If FALSE only holes that are surrounded by cells with the same value are
filled. Otherwise, the values of the nearest cell that is not NA is assigned

Value
SpatVector

See Also
snap, gaps

Examples
x <- rbind(c(50,0), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55))
hole <- rbind(c(80,0), c(105,13), c(120,2), c(105,-13))

z <- rbind(cbind(object=1, part=1, x, hole=0),

cbind(object=1, part=1, hole, hole=1))
colnames(z)[3:4] <- c('x', 'y')
p <- vect(z, "polygons", atts=[Link](id=1), crs="local")
p

f <- fillHoles(p)
g <- fillHoles(p, inverse=TRUE)

plot(p, lwd=16, border="gray", col="light yellow")

polys(f, border="blue", lwd=3, density=4, col="orange")
polys(g, col="white", lwd=3)

## SpatRaster
v <- vect(c("POLYGON ((81.572 36.629, 98.508 9.624, 80 0, 99.902 -10.349,
84.662 -34.709, 50 0, 81.572 36.629))", "POLYGON ((140 60, 160 0,
140 -55, 84.662 -34.709, 99.902 -10.349, 105 -13, 120 2, 105 13,
98.508 9.624, 81.572 36.629, 140 60))"))
v <- rbind(v, shift(p ,-120))
v$ID <- 1:nrow(v)
r <- rasterize(v, rast(xmin=-80, crs="local"), "ID")

f1 <- fillHoles(r)
f2 <- fillHoles(r, nearest=TRUE)
fillTime 121

fillTime Fill time gaps in a SpatRaster

Description

Add empty layers in between existing layers such that the time step between each layer is the same.
See approximate to estimate values for these layer (and other missing values)

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

fillTime(x, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
... list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

approximate

Examples

r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

s <- c(r, r)
time(s) <- [Link]("2001-01-01") + c(0:2, 5:7)
time(s)
ss <- fillTime(s)
time(ss)

a <- approximate(ss)
122 flip

flip Flip or reverse a raster

Description
Flip the values of a SpatRaster by inverting the order of the rows (vertical=TRUE) or the columns
(vertical=FALSE).
rev is the same as a horizontal *and* a vertical flip.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
flip(x, direction="vertical", filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

flip(x, direction="vertical")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rev(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
direction character. Should (partially) match "vertical" to flip by rows, or "horizontal" to
flip by columns
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
trans, rotate

Examples
r <- rast(nrow=18, ncol=36)
m <- matrix(1:ncell(r), nrow=18)
values(r) <- [Link](t(m))
rx <- flip(r, direction="h")

values(r) <- [Link](m)

ry <- flip(r, direction="v")

v <- rev(r)
flowAccumulation 123

flowAccumulation Flow accumulation

Description

Computes flow accumulation or the total contributing area in terms of numbers of cells upstream of
each cell.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

flowAccumulation(x, weight=NULL, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster with flow direction, see terrain.

weight SpatRaster with weight/score daa. For example, cell area or precipitation
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Details

The algorithm is an adaptation of the one proposed by Zhou at al, 2019.

Value

SpatRaster

Author(s)

Emanuele Cordano

References

Zhou, G., Wei, H. & Fu, S. A fast and simple algorithm for calculating flow accumulation matrices
from raster digital elevation. Front. Earth Sci. 13, 317–326 (2019). doi:10.1007/s11707-018-0725-
9. Also see: [Link]

See Also

terrain,watershed, NIDP
124 flowAccumulation

Examples

elev1 <- array(NA,c(9,9))

elev2 <- elev1
dx <- 1
dy <- 1
for (r in 1:nrow(elev1)) {
y <- (r-5)*dx
for (c in 1:ncol(elev1)) {

x <- (c-5)*dy
elev1[r,c] <- 5*(x^2+y^2)
elev2[r,c] <- 10+5*(abs(x))-0.001*y
}
}

## Elevation raster
elev1 <- rast(elev1)
elev2 <- rast(elev2)

t(array(elev1[],rev(dim(elev1)[1:2])))
t(array(elev2[],rev(dim(elev2)[1:2])))

plot(elev1)
plot(elev2)

## Flow direction raster

flowdir1<- terrain(elev1,v="flowdir")
flowdir2<- terrain(elev2,v="flowdir")

t(array(flowdir1[],rev(dim(flowdir1)[1:2])))
t(array(flowdir2[],rev(dim(flowdir2)[1:2])))

plot(flowdir1)
plot(flowdir2)

##
flow_acc1 <- flowAccumulation((flowdir1))
flow_acc2 <- flowAccumulation((flowdir2))

weight <- elev1*0+10

flow_acc1w <- flowAccumulation(flowdir1,weight)

flow_acc2w <- flowAccumulation(flowdir2,weight)

t(array(flow_acc1w[],rev(dim(flow_acc1w)[1:2])))
t(array(flow_acc2w[],rev(dim(flow_acc2w)[1:2])))

plot(flow_acc1w)
plot(flow_acc2w)
focal 125

## Application wth example elevation data

elev <- rast([Link]('ex/[Link]',package="terra"))

flowdir <- terrain(elev,"flowdir")

weight <- cellSize(elev,unit="km")

flowacc_weight <- flowAccumulation(flowdir,weight)
flowacc <- flowAccumulation(flowdir)

focal Focal values

Description
Calculate focal ("moving window") values for each cell.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
focal(x, w=3, fun="sum", ..., [Link]="all", fillvalue=NA,
expand=FALSE, silent=TRUE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
w window. The window can be defined as one (for a square) or two numbers (row,
col); or with an odd-sized weights matrix. See Details.
fun function that takes multiple numbers, and returns a numeric vector (one or mul-
tiple numbers). For example, mean, modal, min or max
... additional arguments passed to fun such as [Link]
[Link] character. Can be used to determine the cells of x for which focal values should
be computed. Must be one of "all" (compute for all cells), "only" (only for
cells that are NA) or "omit" (skip cells that are NA). Note that the value of this
argument does not affect which cells around each focal cell are included in the
computations (use [Link]=TRUE to ignore cells that are NA for that)
fillvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside of the
raster
expand logical. If TRUE, the value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside
of the raster are set to be the same as the value on the border. Only available for
"build-in" funs such as mean, sum, min and max
silent logical. If TRUE error messages are printed that may occur when trying fun to
determine the length of the returned value. This can be useful in debugging a
fun that does not work
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
126 focal

Details
focal The window used must have odd dimensions. If you need even sides, you can use a matrix
and add a column or row of NA’s to mask out values.
Window values are typically 1 or NA to indicate whether a value is used or ignored in computations,
respectively. NA values in w can be useful for creating non-rectangular (e.g. circular) windows.
A weights matrix of numeric values can also be supplied to w. In the case of a weights matrix, cells
with NA weights will be ignored, and the rest of the values in the focal window will be multiplied
by the corresponding weight prior to ‘fun‘ being applied. Note, [Link] does not need to be TRUE if
w contains NA values as these cells are ignored in computations.
The "mean" function is a special case, where supplying weights to w will instead calculate a
weighted mean.
The "sum" function returns NA if all focal cells are NA and [Link]=TRUE. R would normally return a
zero in these cases. See the difference between focal(x, fun=sum, [Link]=TRUE) and focal(x,
fun=\(i) sum(i, [Link]=TRUE))
Example weight matrices
Laplacian filter: filter=matrix(c(0,1,0,1,-4,1,0,1,0), nrow=3)
Sobel filters (for edge detection):
fx=matrix(c(-1,-2,-1,0,0,0,1,2,1), nrow=3)
fy=matrix(c(1,0,-1,2,0,-2,1,0,-1), nrow=3)

Value
SpatRaster

Note
When using global lon/lat rasters, the focal window "wraps around" the date-line.

See Also
focalMat, focalValues, focal3D, focalPairs, focalReg, focalCpp

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, ext(0, 10, 0, 10))
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

f <- focal(r, w=3, fun=function(x, ...) quantile(x, c(.25, .5, .75), ...), [Link]=TRUE)

f <- focal(r, w=3, fun="mean")

# the following two statements are equivalent:

a <- focal(r, w=matrix(1/9, nc=3, nr=3))
b <- focal(r, w=3, fun=mean, [Link]=FALSE)

# but this is different

d <- focal(r, w=3, fun=mean, [Link]=TRUE)
focal3D 127

## illustrating the effect of different

## combinations of [Link] and [Link]
v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
r[45:50, 45:50] <- NA

# also try "mean" or "min"

f <- "sum"
# [Link]=FALSE
plot(focal(r, 5, f), fun=lines(v))

# [Link]=TRUE
plot(focal(r, 5, f, [Link]=TRUE), fun=lines(v))

# only change cells that are NA

plot(focal(r, 5, f, [Link]="only", [Link]=TRUE), fun=lines(v))

# do not change cells that are NA

plot(focal(r, 5, f, [Link]="omit", [Link]=TRUE), fun=lines(v))

# does not do anything

# focal(r, 5, f, [Link]="only", [Link]=FALSE)

focal3D Three-dimensional focal values

Description
Calculate focal ("moving window") values for the three-dimensional neighborhood (window) of
focal cells. See focal for two-dimensional focal computation.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
focal3D(x, w=3, fun=mean, ..., [Link]="all", fillvalue=NA, pad=FALSE,
padvalue=fillvalue, expand=FALSE, silent=TRUE,
filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
w window. A rectangular prism (cuboid) defined by three numbers or by a three-
dimensional array. The values are used as weights, and are usually zero, one,
NA, or fractions. The window used must have odd dimensions. If you desire
to use even sides, you can use an array, and pad the values with rows and/or
columns that contain only NAs.
fun function that takes multiple numbers, and returns one or multiple numbers for
each focal area. For example mean, modal, min or max
128 focalCpp

... additional arguments passed to fun such as [Link]

[Link] character. Can be used to determine the cells of x, in the central layer, for which
focal values should be computed. Must be one of "all" (compute for all cells),
"only" (only for cells that are NA) or "omit" (skip cells that are NA). Note that
the value of this argument does not affect which cells around each focal cell are
included in the computations (use [Link]=TRUE to ignore cells that are NA in the
computation of the focal value)
fillvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside of the
raster
pad logical. Add virtual layers before the first and after the last layer
padvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual layers
expand logical. Add virtual layers before the first or after the last layer that are the same
as the first or last layers. If TRUE, arguments pad and padvalue are ignored
silent logical. If TRUE error messages are printed that may occur when trying fun to
determine the length of the returned value. This can be useful in debugging a
function passed to fun that does not work
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
focal

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
x <- focal3D(r, c(5,5,3), [Link]=TRUE)

a <- array(c(0,1,0,1,1,1,0,1,0, rep(1,9), 0,1,0,1,1,1,0,1,0), c(3,3,3))

a[a==0] <- NA
z <- focal3D(r, a, [Link]=TRUE)

focalCpp Compute focal values with an iterating C++ function

Description
Calculate focal values with a C++ function that iterates over cells to speed up computations by
avoiding an R loop (with apply).
See focal for an easier to use method.
focalCpp 129

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
focalCpp(x, w=3, fun, ..., fillvalue=NA,
silent=TRUE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
w window. The window can be defined as one (for a square) or two numbers (row,
col); or with an odd-sized weights matrix. See the Details section in focal
fun cppFunction that iterates over cells. For C++ functions that operate on a single
focal window, or for R functions use focal instead. The function must have at
least three arguments. The first argument can have any name, but it must be a
Rcpp::NumericVector, Rcpp::IntegerVector or a std::vector<double>.
This is the container that receives the focal values. The other two arguments
ni and wi must be of type size_t. ni represents the number of cells and nw
represents the size of (number of elements in) the window
... additional arguments to fun
fillvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside of the
raster
silent logical. If TRUE error messages are printed that may occur when trying fun to
determine the length of the returned value. This can be useful in debugging a
fun that does not work
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
focal, focalValues

Examples
## Not run:
library(Rcpp)
cppFunction(
'NumericVector sum_and_multiply(NumericVector x, double m, size_t ni, size_t nw) {
NumericVector out(ni);
// loop over cells
size_t start = 0;
for (size_t i=0; i<ni; i++) {
size_t end = start + nw;
// compute something for a window
130 focalMat

double v = 0;
// loop over the values of a window
for (size_t j=start; j<end; j++) {
v += x[j];
}
out[i] = v * m;
start = end;
}
return out;
}'
)

nr <- nc <- 10
r <- rast(ncols=nc, nrows=nr, ext= c(0, nc, 0, nr))
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

raw <- focalCpp(r, w=3, fun=sum_and_multiply, fillvalue=0, m=10)

# same as
f1 <- focal(r, w=3, fun=sum, fillvalue=0) *10
all(values(f1) == values(raw))

# and as
ffun <- function(x, m) { sum(x) * m }
f2 <- focal(r, w=3, fun=ffun, fillvalue=0, m=10)

# You can also use an R function with focalCpp but this

# is not recommended

R_sm_iter <- function(x, m, ni, nw) {

out <- NULL
for (i in 1:ni) {
start <- (i-1) * nw + 1
out[i] <- sum(x[start:(start+nw-1)]) * m
}
out
}

fr <- focalCpp(r, w=3, fun=R_sm_iter, fillvalue=0, m=10)

## End(Not run)

focalMat Focal weights matrix

Description
Make a focal ("moving window") weight matrix for use in the focal function. The sum of the
values adds up to one.
focalPairs 131

Usage

focalMat(x, d, type=c('circle', 'Gauss', 'rectangle'), fillNA=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
d numeric. If type=circle, the radius of the circle (in units of the crs). If
type=rectangle the dimension of the rectangle (one or two numbers). If type=Gauss
the size of sigma, and optionally another number to determine the size of the
matrix returned (default is 3*sigma)
type character indicating the type of filter to be returned
fillNA logical. If TRUE, zeros are set to NA such that they are ignored in the computa-
tions. Only applies to type="circle"

Value

matrix that can be used with focal

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=180, nrows=180, xmin=0)
focalMat(r, 2, "circle")

focalMat(r, c(2,3), "rect")

# Gaussian filter for square cells

gf <- focalMat(r, 1, "Gauss")

focalPairs Focal function across two layers

Description

Calculate values such as a correlation coefficient for focal regions in two neighboring layers. A
function is applied to the first and second layer, then to the second and third layer, etc.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

focalPairs(x, w=3, fun, ..., fillvalue=NA,
filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())
132 focalPairs

Arguments

x SpatRaster with at least two layers

w numeric or matrix to define the focal window. The window an be defined as one
(for a square) or two numbers (row, col); or with an odd-sized weights matrix.
See the Details section in focal. Note that if a matrix with numbers other than
zero or one are used, the values are used as weights. For this to work, fun must
have an argument weights
fun a function with at least two arguments (one for each layer). There is a built-in
function "pearson" (for both the weighted and the unweighted Pearson correla-
tion coefficient. This function has an additional argument [Link]=FALSE
... additional arguments for fun
fillvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside of the
raster
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

layerCor, focalReg, focal, focal3D

Examples

r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

[Link](0)
r[[1]] <- flip(r[[1]], "horizontal")
r[[2]] <- flip(r[[2]], "vertical") + init(rast(r,1), runif)
r[[3]] <- init(rast(r,1), runif)

x <- focalPairs(r, w=5, "pearson", [Link]=TRUE)

plot(x)

# suppress warning "the standard deviation is zero"

suppressWarnings(x <- focalPairs(r, w=5, "pearson", use="[Link]"))

z <- focalPairs(r, w=9, function(x, y) mean(x) + mean(y))

focalReg 133

focalReg Focal regression

Description
Calculate values for a moving-window by comparing the value in one layers with the values in
one to many other layers. A typical case is the computation of the coefficients for a focal linear
regression model.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
focalReg(x, w=3, fun="ols", ..., fillvalue=NA, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster with at least two layers. The first is the "Y" (dependent) variable and
the remainder are the "X" (independent) variables
w numeric or matrix to define the focal window. The window an be defined as one
(for a square) or two numbers (row, col); or with an odd-sized weights matrix.
See the Details section in focal. Note that if a matrix with numbers other than
zero or one are used, the values are used as weights. For this to work, fun must
have an argument weights
fun a function with at least two arguments (one for each layer). There is a built-in
function "ols" for both the weighted and unweighted Ordinary Least Square re-
gression. This function has an additional argument [Link]=FALSE and intercept=TRUE
... additional arguments for fun
fillvalue numeric. The value of the cells in the virtual rows and columns outside of the
raster
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
focal, focal3D, focalValues

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, ext(0, 10, 0, 10))
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
x <- c(r, init(r, runif) * r)
f <- focalReg(x, 3)
134 forceCCW

focalValues Get focal values

Description
Get a matrix in which each row had the focal values of a cell. These are the values of a cell and a
rectangular window around it.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
focalValues(x, w=3, row=1, nrows=nrow(x), fill=NA)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
w window. The window can be defined as one (for a square) or two odd numbers
(row, col); or with an odd sized matrix
row positive integer. Row number to start from, should be between 1 and nrow(x)
nrows positive integer. How many rows?
fill numeric used as values for imaginary cells outside the raster

Value
matrix

Examples
r <- rast(ncol=4, nrow=4, crs="+proj=utm +zone=1 +datum=WGS84")
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
focalValues(r)

forceCCW force counter-clockwise polygons

Description
Assure that the nodes of outer rings of polygons are in counter-clockwise order.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
forceCCW(x)
freq 135

Arguments
x SpatVector of polygons

Value
SpatVector

Examples
p <- vect("POLYGON ((2 45, 2 55, 18 55, 18 45, 2 45))")
pcc <- forceCCW(p)
geom(pcc, wkt=TRUE)

freq Frequency table

Description
Frequency table of the values of a SpatRaster. NAs are not counted unless value=NA.
You can provide a SpatVector or additional SpatRaster to define zones for which to do tabulations.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
freq(x, digits=0, value=NULL, bylayer=TRUE, usenames=FALSE,
zones=NULL, wide=FALSE, touches=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
digits integer. Used for rounding the values before tabulation. Ignored if NA
value numeric. An optional single value to only count the number of cells with that
value. This value can be NA
bylayer logical. If TRUE tabulation is done by layer
usenames logical. If TRUE layers are identified by their names instead of their numbers
Only relevant if bylayer is TRUE
zones SpatRaster or SpatVector to define zones for which the tabulation should be done
wide logical. Should the results by "wide" instead of "long"?
touches logical. If TRUE, all cells touched by lines or polygons will be included, not just
those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the polygon. Only
relevant if zones is a SpatVector

Value
A [Link] with 3 columns (layer, value, count) unless bylayer=FALSE in which case [Link]
with two columns is returned (value, count).
136 gaps

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
[Link](2)
values(r) <- sample(5, ncell(r), replace=TRUE)

freq(r)

x <- c(r, r/3)

freq(x, bylayer=FALSE)
freq(x)

freq(x, digits=1)
freq(x, digits=-1)

freq(x, value=5)

gaps Find gaps between polygons

Description
Get the gaps between polygons of a SpatVector

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
gaps(x)

Arguments
x SpatVector

Value
SpatVector

See Also
sharedPaths, topology, and fillHoles to get or remove polygon holes

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
h <- convHull(v[-12], "NAME_1")
g <- gaps(h)
gdal 137

gdal GDAL version, supported file formats, cache size, and PROJ coordi-
nate transformation control

Description
Set the GDAL warning level or get a [Link] with the available GDAL drivers (file formats), or,
if warn=NA and drivers=FALSE, you get the version numbers of one or all of the GDAL, PROJ and
GEOS libraries.
GDAL is the software library that terra builds on to read and write spatial data and for some raster
data processing. PROJ is used for transformation of coordinates ("projection") and GEOS is used for
geometric operations with vector data.
The current GDAL configuration options and obtained with getGDALconfig and changed with setGDALconfig.
proj_ok checks if the PROJ database with CRS definitions can be found.
projNetwork controls whether PROJ can access network resources for coordinate transformations.
By default, network access is enabled to provide high-accuracy grid-based datum transformations
where available. When disabled, PROJ falls back to "ballpark transformations" (of unknown ac-
curacy) which could lead to errors of hundreds of meters in some cases. When enabled, PROJ
downloads transformation grids from [Link] requiring network connectivity and
valid SSL certificates. After a successful run, the files are cached locally.
projPaths gets or sets the search paths that PROJ uses to find coordinate system definitions and
transformation grids. This allows users to specify custom locations for PROJ data files, such as
when using offline installations or custom grid files. By default, it operates on PROJ search paths,
but can also set GDAL search paths when with_proj=FALSE.

Usage
gdal(warn=NA, drivers=FALSE, ...)
gdalCache(size=NA)
setGDALconfig(option, value="")
getGDALconfig(option)
clearVSIcache()
libVersion(lib="all", parse=FALSE)
unloadGDALdrivers(x)
proj_ok()
projNetwork(enable, url="")
projPaths(paths, with_proj = TRUE)

Arguments
warn If NA and drivers=FALSE, the version of the library specified by lib is returned.
Otherwise, the value should be an integer between 1 and 4 representing the level
of GDAL warnings and errors that are passed to R. 1 = warnings and errors; 2 =
errors only (recoverable errors as a warning); 3 = irrecoverable errors only; 4 =
ignore all errors and warnings. The default setting is 2
138 gdal

drivers logical. If TRUE a [Link] with the raster and vector data formats that are
available.
... additional arguments (for backwards compatibility only)
size numeric. The new cache size in MB
option character. GDAL configuration option name, or a "name=value" string (in which
case the value argument is ignored
value character. value for GDAL configuration option. Use "" to reset it to its default
value
lib character. "gdal", "proj", or "geos", or any other value to get the versions num-
bers of all three
parse logical. Should the version be parsed into three numerical values (major, minor
and sub versions)?
x character. Drivers names such as "GTiff" to be unloaded. Or "" to reload all
drivers
enable logical. If TRUE, enable PROJ network access for high-accuracy grid-based
transformations. If FALSE, disable network access and use ballpark transfor-
mations. If missing, return the current network status
url character. Optional URL for PROJ network endpoint. If empty string (default),
uses PROJ’s default network settings ([Link]
paths character. Vector of file paths to directories containing PROJ data files. If miss-
ing, returns the current search paths
with_proj logical. If TRUE (default), set PROJ search paths. If FALSE, set GDAL search
paths

Value

character vector of search paths. When setting paths, the result is returned invisibly.

Note

While some spatial analyses may not be greatly affected by PROJ network settings (ballpark vs.
grid-based transformations), the differences can be significant, especially when a transformation
involves a shift in datum between different coordinate reference systems. For applications requiring
high positional accuracy, ensure network access is enabled or grids are locally available. Grids can
be pre-downloaded using the projsync utility or installed via system packages, such as proj-data
on Ubuntu/Debian systems. Downloaded grids are cached locally and then reused for subsequent
transformations.

See Also

describe for file-level metadata "GDALinfo"

geom 139

Examples
gdal()
gdal(2)
head(gdal(drivers=TRUE))
libVersion("all", TRUE)
projNetwork()
projPaths()
projPaths(c("/custom/proj/path"))

geom Get the geometry (coordinates) of a SpatVector

Description
Get the geometry of a SpatVector. If wkt=FALSE, this is a five-column matrix or [Link]: the
vector object ID, the IDs for the parts of each object (e.g. five polygons that together are one spatial
object), the x (longitude) and y (latitude) coordinates, and a flag indicating whether the part is a
"hole" (only relevant for polygons).
If wkt=TRUE, the "well-known text" representation is returned as a character vector. If hex=TRUE,
the "hexadecimal" representation is returned as a character vector. If wkb=TRUE, the "well-known
binary" representation is returned as a list of raw vectors.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
geom(x, wkt=FALSE, hex=FALSE, wkb=FALSE, df=FALSE, list=FALSE, xnm="x", ynm="y")

Arguments
x SpatVector
wkt logical. If TRUE the WKT geometry is returned (unless hex is also TRUE)
hex logical. If TRUE the hexadecimal geometry is returned
wkb logical. If TRUE the raw WKB geometry is returned (unless either of hex or wkt
is also TRUE)
df logical. If TRUE a [Link] is returned instead of a matrix (only if wkt=FALSE,
hex=FALSE, and list=FALSE)
list logical. If TRUE a nested list is returned with [Link] of coordinates
xnm character. If list=TRUE the "x" column name for the coordinates [Link]
ynm character. If list=TRUE the "y" column name for the coordinates [Link]

Value
matrix, vector, [Link], or list
140 geomtype

See Also
crds, xyFromCell

Examples
x1 <- rbind(c(-175,-20), c(-140,55), c(10, 0), c(-140,-60))
x2 <- rbind(c(-125,0), c(0,60), c(40,5), c(15,-45))
x3 <- rbind(c(-10,0), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55))
x4 <- rbind(c(80,0), c(105,13), c(120,2), c(105,-13))
z <- rbind(cbind(object=1, part=1, x1), cbind(object=2, part=1, x2),
cbind(object=3, part=1, x3), cbind(object=3, part=2, x4))
colnames(z)[3:4] <- c('x', 'y')
z <- cbind(z, hole=0)
z[(z[, "object"]==3 & z[,"part"]==2), "hole"] <- 1

p <- vect(z, "polygons")

geom(p)

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
g <- geom(v)
head(g)

w <- geom(v, wkt=TRUE)

substr(w, 1, 60)

geomtype Geometry type of a SpatVector

Description
Get the geometry type (points, lines, or polygons) of a SpatVector. See datatype for the data types
of the fields (attributes, variables) of a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
geomtype(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

[Link](x)
global 141

Arguments
x SpatVector

Value
character

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)

geomtype(v)
[Link](v)
[Link](v)
[Link](v)

names(v)
datatype(v)

global global statistics

Description
Compute global statistics, that is summarized values of an entire SpatRaster.
If x is very large global can fail, except when fun is one of these built-in functions "mean", "min",
"max", "sum", "prod", "range" (min and max), "rms" (root mean square), "sd" (sample standard
deviation), "std" (population standard deviation), "isNA" (number of cells that are NA), "notNA"
(number of cells that are not NA), "anyNA", "anynotNA". Note that "anyNA" and "anynotNA"
cannot be combined with other functions.
The reason that this can fail with large raster and a custom function is that all values need to be
loaded into memory. To circumvent this problem you can run global with a sample of the cells.
You can compute a weighted mean or sum by providing a SpatRaster with weights.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
global(x, fun="mean", weights=NULL, maxcell=Inf, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
fun function to be applied to summarize the values by zone. Either as one or more
of these built-in character values: "max", "min", "mean", "sum", "range", "rms"
(root mean square), "sd", "std" (population sd, using n rather than n-1), "isNA",
"notNA", "anyNA", "anynotNA"; or a proper R function (but these may fail for
very large SpatRasters unless you specify maxcell)
142 graticule

... additional arguments passed on to fun

weights NULL or SpatRaster
maxcell positive integer used to take a regular sample of x. Ignored by the built-in func-
tions.

Value
A [Link] with a row for each layer

See Also
zonal for "zonal" statistics, and app or Summary-methods for "local" statistics, and extract for
summarizing values for polygons. Also see focal for "focal" or "moving window" operations.

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
global(r, "sum")
global(r, "mean", [Link]=TRUE)
x <- c(r, r/10)
global(x, c("sum", "mean", "sd"), [Link]=TRUE)

global(x, function(i) min(i) / max(i))

graticule Create a graticule

Description
Create a graticule. That is, a grid of lon/lat lines that can be used to on a projected map.
The object returned, a SpatGraticule, can be plotted with plot and lines. There is also a crop
method.

Usage
graticule(lon=30, lat=30, crs="")

Arguments
lon numeric. Either a single number (the interval between longitudes), or a vector
with longitudes
lat numeric. Either a single number (the interval between latitudes), or a vector
with latitudes
crs character. The coordinate reference system to use
gridDist 143

Value
SpatGraticule

See Also
plot<SpatGraticule>.

Examples
g <- graticule(60, 30, crs="+proj=robin")
g

graticule(90, c(-90, -60, -23.5, 0, 23.5, 60, 90), crs="+proj=robin")

gridDist Distance on a grid

Description
The function calculates the distance to cells of a SpatRaster when the path has to go through the
centers of the eight neighboring raster cells.
The default distance (when scale=1, is meters if the coordinate reference system (CRS) of the Spa-
tRaster is longitude/latitude (+proj=longlat) and in the linear units of the CRS (typically meters)
in other cases.
Distances are computed by summing local distances between cells, which are connected with their
neighbors in 8 directions.
The shortest distance to the cells with the target value is computed for all cells that are not NA.
Cells that are NA cannot be traversed and are ignored, unless the target itself is NA, in which case the
distance to the nearest cell that is not NA is computed for all cells that are NA.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
gridDist(x, target=0, scale=1, maxiter=50, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
target numeric. value of the target cells (where to compute distance to)
scale numeric. Scale factor. For longitude/latitude data 1 = "m" and 1000 = "km". For
planar data that is also the case of the distance unit of the crs is "m"
maxiter numeric. The maximum number of iterations. Increase this number if you get
the warning that costDistance did not converge. Only relevant when target is
not NA
filename character. output filename (optional)
... additional arguments as for writeRaster
144 halo

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
See distance for "as the crow flies" distance, and costDist for distance across a landscape with
variable friction

Examples
# global lon/lat raster
r <- rast(ncol=10,nrow=10, vals=1)
r[48] <- 0
r[66:68] <- NA
d <- gridDist(r)
plot(d)

# planar
crs(r) <- "+proj=utm +zone=15 +ellps=GRS80 +datum=NAD83 +units=m +no_defs"
d <- gridDist(r)
plot(d)

# distance to cells that are not NA

rr <- classify(r, cbind(1, NA))
dd <- gridDist(rr, NA)

halo Add halo-ed text to a plot

Description
Add text to a plot that has a "halo". That is, a buffer around it to enhance visibility.

Usage
halo(x, y=NULL, labels, col="black", hc="white", hw=0.1, ...)

Arguments
x, y numeric. coordinates where the text labels should be written
labels character. The text to be written
col character. The main color to be used
hc character. The halo color
hw numeric. The halo width
... additional arguments to pass to text
headtail 145

See Also
text, plot

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=4, ncols=4)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
plot(r, col="blue", legend=FALSE)

text(-100, 20, "hello", cex=2)

halo(50, 20, "hello", cex=2)

halo(0, -20, "world", font=3, hc="light blue", cex=2, hw=.2)

halo(0, 90, "world", font=2, cex=2, hw=.2, xpd=TRUE, pos=2)
halo(0, 90, "world", col="white", font=2, hc="blue", cex=2, hw=.2, xpd=TRUE, pos=4)

headtail head and tail of a SpatRaster or SpatVector

Description
Show the head (first values) or tail (last values) of a SpatRaster or of the attributes of a SpatVector.

Usage
head(x, ...)
tail(x, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
... additional arguments passed on to other methods

Value
matrix (SpatRaster) or [Link] (SpatVector)

See Also
show, geom

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=25, ncols=25)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
head(r)
tail(r)
146 hist

hist Histogram

Description
Create a histogram of the values of a SpatRaster. For large datasets a sample of maxcell is used.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
hist(x, layer, maxcell=1000000, plot=TRUE, maxnl=16, main, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
layer positive integer or character to indicate layer numbers (or names). If missing,
all layers up to maxnl are used
maxcell integer. To regularly sample very large objects
plot logical. Plot the histogram or only return the histogram values
maxnl positive integer. The maximum number of layers to use. Ignored if layer is not
missing
main character. Main title(s) for the plot. Default is the value of names
... additional arguments. See hist

Value
This function is principally used for plotting a histogram, but it also returns an object of class
"histogram" (invisibly if plot=TRUE).

See Also
pairs, boxplot

Examples
r1 <- r2 <- rast(nrows=50, ncols=50)
values(r1) <- runif(ncell(r1))
values(r2) <- runif(ncell(r1))
rs <- r1 + r2
rp <- r1 * r2

opar <- par([Link] =TRUE)

par(mfrow=c(2,2))
plot(rs, main='sum')
plot(rp, main='product')
hist(rs)
a <- hist(rp)
hull 147

a
x <- c(rs, rp, sqrt(rs))
hist(x)
par(opar)

hull Convex, concave, rectangular and circular hulls

Description
Compute hulls around SpatVector geometries. This can be the convex hull, the minimal bounding
rotated rectangle, the minimal bounding circle, or a concave hull. The concaveness of the concave
hull can be specified in different ways.
The old method convHull is deprecated and will be removed in a future version.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
hull(x, type="convex", by="", param=1, allowHoles=TRUE, tight=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatVector
type character. One of "convex", "rectangle", "circle", "concave_ratio", "concave_length"
by character (variable name), to get a new geometry for groups of input geometries
param numeric between 0 and 1. For the "concave_*" types only. For type="concave_ratio"
this is the edge length ratio value, between 0 and 1. For type="concave_length"
this the maximum edge length (a value > 0). For type="concave_polygons"
this specifies the maximum Edge Length as a fraction of the difference between
the longest and shortest edge lengths between the polygons. This normalizes the
maximum edge length to be scale-free. A value of 1 produces the convex hull; a
value of 0 produces the original polygons
allowHoles logical. May the output polygons contain holes? For "concave_*" methods only
tight logical. Should the hull follow the outer boundaries of the input polygons? For
"concave_length" with polygon geometry only

Details
A concave hull is a polygon which contains all the points of the input. It can be a better representa-
tion of the input data (typically points) than the convex hull. There are many possible concave hulls
with different degrees of concaveness. These can be created with argument param.
The hull is constructed by removing the longest outer edges of the Delaunay Triangulation of the
space between the polygons, until the target criterion param is reached. If type="concave_ratio",
param expresses the ratio between the lengths of the longest and shortest edges. 1 produces the
convex hull; 0 produces a hull with maximum concaveness. If type="concave_length", param
specifies the maximm edge length. A large value produces the convex hull, 0 produces the hull of
maximum concaveness.
148 identical

Value
SpatVector

Examples
p <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
h <- hull(p)

plot(p)
lines(h, col="orange")

hh <- hull(p, "convex", by="NAME_1")

lines(hh, col="purple")

pts <- centroids(p)

plot(pts, ext=ext(p)+0.1)
lines(hull(pts, type="convex"), col="darkgreen")
lines(hull(pts, type="rect"), col="blue")
lines(hull(pts, type="circle"), col="red")

identical Compare two SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent objects for equal-

ity

Description
When, comparing two SpatRasters for equality, first the attributes of the objects are compared. If
these are the same, a the raster cells are compared as well. This can be time consuming, and you
may prefer to use a sample instead with [Link]

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
identical(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

identical(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatExtent'

identical(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector, or SpatExtent
y object of the same class as x
ifel 149

Value
single logical value

See Also
[Link], compareGeom

Examples
x <- sqrt(1:100)
mat <- matrix(x, 10, 10)
r1 <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, xmin=0, vals = x)
r2 <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, xmin=0, vals = t(mat))

identical(r1, r2)
identical(r1, r1*1)
identical(rast(r1), rast(r2))

ifel ifelse for SpatRasters

Description
Implementation of ifelse for SpatRasters. This method allows for a concise expression of what
can otherwise be achieved with a combination of classify, mask, and cover.
ifel is an R equivalent to the Con method in ArcGIS (arcpy).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
ifel(test, yes, no, filename="", ...)

Arguments
test SpatRaster with logical (TRUE/FALSE) values
yes SpatRaster or numeric
no SpatRaster or numeric
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
150 image

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=5, ncols=5, xmin=0, xmax=1, ymin=0, ymax=1)
values(r) <- c(-10:0, NA, NA, NA, 0:10)

x <- ifel(r > 1, 1, r)

# same as
a <- classify(r, cbind(1, Inf, 1))
# or
b <- app(r, fun=function(i) {i[i > 1] <- 1; i})
# or
d <- clamp(r, -Inf, 1)
# or (not recommended for large datasets)
e <- r
e[e>1] <- 1

## other examples
f <- ifel([Link](r), 100, r)

z <- ifel(r > -2 & r < 2, 100, 0)

# nested expressions
y <- ifel(r > 1, 1, ifel(r < -1, -1, r))

k <- ifel(r > 0, r+10, ifel(r < 0, r-10, 3))

image SpatRaster image method

Description
Plot (make a map of) the values of a SpatRaster via image. See plot if you need more fancy options
such as a legend.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
image(x, y=1, maxcell=500000, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y positive integer indicating the layer to be plotted, or a character indicating the
name of the layer
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
... additional arguments as for graphics::image

See Also
plot
impose 151

Examples

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
image(r)
image(r, col=rainbow(24))

impose Impose the geometry of a SpatRaster to those in a SpatRasterCollec-

tion.

Description

Warp the members of a SpatRasterCollection to match the geometry of a SpatRaster.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

impose(x, y, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRasterCollection
y SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
... list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

resample
152 initialize

initialize Initialize a SpatRaster with values

Description
Create a SpatRaster with values reflecting a cell property: "x", "y", "xy", "col", "row", "cell" or
"chess". Alternatively, a function can be used. In that case, cell values are initialized without
reference to pre-existing values. E.g., initialize with a random number (fun=runif). While there
are more direct ways of achieving this for small objects (see examples) for which a vector with all
values can be created in memory, the init function will also work for SpatRasters with many cells.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
init(x, fun, ..., filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
fun function to be applied. This must be a either single number, multiple numbers,
a function, or one of a set of known character values. A function must take the
number of cells as a single argument to return a vector of values with a length
equal to the number of cells, such as fun=runif. Allowed character values are
"x", "y", "row", "col", "cell", and "chess" to get the x or y coordinate or both,
row, col or cell number or a chessboard pattern (alternating 0 and 1 values)
... additional arguments passed to fun
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=5, xmin=0, xmax=10, ymin=0, ymax=5)
x <- init(r, fun="cell")
y <- init(r, fun=runif)

# initialize with a single value

z <- init(r, fun=8)
inplace 153

inplace Change values in-place

Description
These "in-place" replacement methods assign new value to an object without making a copy. That
is efficient, but if there is a copy of the object that you made by standard assignment (e.g. with y <-
x), that copy is also changed.
[Link] is the in-place replacement version of names<-.
[Link] is the in-place replacement version of ext<-
[Link] is the in-place replacement version of [<-.
[Link] is the in-place replacement version of categories
[Link] is the in-place replacement version of crs<-
[Link] is the in-place replacement version of window<-

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x, value, index=1:nlyr(x), validate=FALSE)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'
[Link](x, value, index=1:length(x), validate=FALSE)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
[Link](x, value, index=1:ncol(x), validate=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, value)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
[Link](x, value)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, value)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
[Link](x, value)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, cells, values, layer=0)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'
[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, layer=1, value, active=1)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, value, type="rgb")
154 inplace

Arguments

x SpatRaster
value character for [Link]. For [Link]: a [Link] with columns (value,
category) or vector with category names. For [Link] 3 or 4 numbers indicating
the RGB(A) layers
index positive integer indicating layer(s) to assign a name to
validate logical. Make names valid and/or unique?
cells cell numbers or missing
values replacement values or missing to load all values into memory
layer positive integer(s) indicating to which layer(s) to you want to assign these cat-
egories or to which you want to set these values. A number < 1 indicates "all
layers"
active positive integer indicating the active category (column number in value, but not
counting the first column
type character. The color space. One of "rgb" "hsv", "hsi" and "hsl"

Value

logical (invisibly)

Examples
s <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, nlyrs=3)
x <- s
names(s)
names(s) <- c("a", "b", "c")
names(s)
names(x)

x <- s
[Link](s, c("e", "f", "g"))
names(s)
names(x)

[Link](x, c(0,180,0,90))

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)

#values from file to memory

[Link](r)

# change values
[Link](r, 1:1000, 900)
inset 155

inset Make an inset map

Description
Make an inset map or scale the extent of a SpatVector

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
inset(x, e, loc="", scale=0.2, background="white",
perimeter=TRUE, box=NULL, pper, pbox, offset=0.1, add=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

inset(x, e, loc="", scale=0.2, background="white",
perimeter=TRUE, box=NULL, pper, pbox, offset=0.1, add=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

inext(x, e, y=NULL, gap=0)

Arguments
x SpatVector, SpatRaster
e SpatExtent to set the size and location of the inset. Or missing
loc character. One of "bottomright", "bottom", "bottomleft", "left", "topleft", "top",
"topright", "right", "center"
scale numeric. The relative size of the inset, used when x is missing
background color for the background of the inset. Use NA for no background color
perimeter logical. If TRUE a perimeter (border) is drawn around the inset
box SpatExtent or missing, to draw a box on the inset, e.g. to show where the map
is located in a larger area
pper list with graphical parameters (arguments) such as col and lwd for the perimeter
line
pbox list with graphical parameters (arguments) such as col and lwd for the box (line)
offset numeric. Value between 0.1 and 1 to indicate the relative distance between what
is mapped and the bounding box
add logical. Add the inset to the map?
... additional arguments passed to plot for the drawing of x
y SpatVector. If not NULL, y is scaled based with the parameters for x. This
is useful, for example, when x represent boundaries, and y points within these
boundaries
gap numeric to add space between the SpatVector and the SpatExtent
156 inset

Value
scaled and shifted SpatVector or SpatRaster (returned invisibly)

See Also
sbar, rescale, shift

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
x <- v[v$NAME_2 == "Diekirch", ]

plot(x, density=10, col="blue")

inset(v)

# more elaborate
plot(x, density=10, col="blue")
inset(v, col = "brown", border="lightgrey", perimeter=TRUE,
pper=list(col="orange", lwd=3, lty=2),
box=ext(x), pbox=list(col="blue", lwd=2))

cols <- rep("light grey", 12)

cols[2] <- "red"
e <- ext(c(6.2, 6.3, 49.9, 50))
b <- ext(x)+0.02
inset(v, e=e, col=cols, box=b)

# with a SpatRaster
ff <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(ff)
r <- crop(r, ext(x) + .01)
plot(r, type="int", mar=c(2,2,2,2), plg=list(x="topright"))
lines(v, lwd=1.5)
lines(x, lwd=2.5)
inset(v, col=cols, loc="topleft", scale=0.15)

# a more complex one

plot(r, plg=list(title="meter\n", shrink=.2, cex=.8))
lines(v, lwd=4, col="white")
lines(v, lwd=1.5)
lines(x, lwd=2.5)
text(x, "NAME_2", cex=1.5, halo=TRUE)
sbar(6, c(6.04, 49.785), type="bar", below="km", label=c(0,3,6), cex=.8)
s <- inset(v, col=cols, box=b, scale=.2, loc="topright", background="light yellow",
pbox=list(lwd=2, lty=5, col="blue"))

# note the returned inset SpatVector

s
lines(s, col="orange")
interpIDW 157

interpIDW Interpolate points using a moving window

Description
Interpolate points within a moving window using inverse distance weighting. The maximum num-
ber of points used can be restricted, optionally by selecting the nearest points.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'
interpIDW(x, y, field, radius, power=2, smooth=0,
maxPoints=Inf, minPoints=1, near=TRUE, fill=NA, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,matrix'

interpIDW(x, y, radius, power=2, smooth=0,
maxPoints=Inf, minPoints=1, near=TRUE, fill=NA, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatVector or matrix with three columns (x,y,z)
field character. field name in SpatVector y
radius numeric. The radius of the circle (single number). If near=FALSE, it is also
possible to use two or three numbers. Two numbers are interpreted as the radii
of an ellipse (x and y-axis). A third number should indicated the desired, counter
clockwise, rotation of the ellipse (in degrees)
power numeric. Weighting power
smooth numeric. Smoothing parameter
minPoints numeric. The minimum number of points to use. If fewer points are found in a
search ellipse it is considered empty and the fill value is returned
maxPoints numeric. The maximum number of points to consider in a search area. Addi-
tional points are ignored. If fewer points are found, the fill value is returned
near logical. Should the nearest points within the neighborhood be used if maxPoints
is reached?
fill numeric. value to use to fill empty cells
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster
158 interpNear

See Also
rasterizeWin, rasterize, interpNear, interpolate

Examples
r <- rast(ncol=100, nrow=100, crs="local", xmin=0, xmax=50, ymin=0, ymax=50)
[Link](100)
x <- runif(25, 5, 45)
y <- runif(25, 5, 45)
z <- sample(25)
xyz <- cbind(x,y,z)

x <- interpIDW(r, xyz, radius=5, power=1, smooth=1, maxPoints=5)

interpNear Nearest neighbor interpolation

Description
Nearest neighbor interpolation of points, using a moving window

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'
interpNear(x, y, field, radius, interpolate=FALSE, fill=NA, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,matrix'

interpNear(x, y, radius, interpolate=FALSE, fill=NA, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatVector or matrix with three columns (x,y,z)
field character. field name in SpatVector y
radius numeric. The radius of the circle (single number). If interpolate=FALSE it is
also possible to use two or three numbers. Two numbers are interpreted as the
radii of an ellipse (x and y-axis). A third number should indicated the desired,
counter clockwise, rotation of the ellipse (in degrees)
interpolate logical. Should the nearest neighbor values be linearly interpolated between
points?
fill numeric. value to use to fill empty cells
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
interpolation 159

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

rasterizeWin, rasterize, interpIDW, interpolate

Examples
r <- rast(ncol=100, nrow=100, crs="local", xmin=0, xmax=50, ymin=0, ymax=50)
[Link](100)
x <- runif(25, 5, 45)
y <- runif(25, 5, 45)
z <- sample(25)
xyz <- cbind(x,y,z)

x <- interpNear(r, xyz, radius=5)

p <- vect([Link](xyz), geom=c("x", "y"))

v <- voronoi(p)

plot(x, col=rainbow(25))
lines(v)

# plot(v, col=rainbow(25)); points(p)

interpolation Spatial interpolation

Description

Make a SpatRaster with interpolated values using a fitted model object of classes such as "gstat"
(gstat package) or "Krige" (fields package), or any other model that has location (e.g., "x" and
"y", or "longitude" and "latitude") as predictors (independent variables). If x and y are the only
predictors, it is most efficient if you provide an empty (no associated data in memory or on file)
SpatRaster for which you want predictions. If there are more spatial predictor variables, provide
these as a SpatRaster in the first argument of the function. If you do not have x and y locations as
implicit predictors in your model you should use predict instead.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

interpolate(object, model, fun=predict, ..., xyNames=c("x", "y"),
factors=NULL, const=NULL, index = NULL, cores=1, cpkgs=NULL,
[Link]=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())
160 interpolation

Arguments
object SpatRaster
model model object
fun function. Default value is "predict", but can be replaced with e.g. "[Link]"
(depending on the class of model), or a custom function (see examples)
... additional arguments passed to fun
xyNames character. variable names that the model uses for the spatial coordinates. E.g.,
c("longitude", "latitude")
factors list with levels for factor variables. The list elements should be named with
names that correspond to names in object such that they can be matched. This
argument may be omitted for some models from which the levels can be ex-
tracted from the model object
const [Link]. Can be used to add a constant for which there is no SpatRaster for
model predictions. This is particularly useful if the constant is a character-like
factor value
index positive integer or NULL. Allows for selecting of the variable returned if the
model returns multiple variables
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used
cpkgs character. The package(s) that need to be loaded on the nodes to be able to run
the [Link] function (see examples in predict)
[Link] logical. If TRUE, cells with NA values in the predictors are removed from the
computation. This option prevents errors with models that cannot handle NA
values. In most other cases this will not affect the output. An exception is
when predicting with a model that returns predicted values even if some (or all!)
variables are NA
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
predict, interpIDW, interpNear

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
ra <- aggregate(r, 10)
xy <- [Link](xyFromCell(ra, 1:ncell(ra)))
v <- values(ra)
i <- 
interpolation 161

xy <- xy[i,]
v <- v[i]

## Not run:
library(fields)
tps <- Tps(xy, v)
p <- rast(r)

# use model to predict values at all locations

p <- interpolate(p, tps)
p <- mask(p, r)
plot(p)

### change "fun" from predict to fields::predictSE to get the TPS standard error
## need to use "rast(p)" to remove the values
se <- interpolate(rast(p), tps, fun=predictSE)
se <- mask(se, r)
plot(se)

### another predictor variable, "e"

e <- (init(r, "x") * init(r, "y")) / 100000000
names(e) <- "e"

z <- [Link](extract(e, xy)[,-1])

## add as another independent variable

xyz <- cbind(xy, z)
tps2 <- Tps(xyz, v)
p2 <- interpolate(e, tps2, xyOnly=FALSE)

## as a linear covariate
tps3 <- Tps(xy, v, Z=z)

## Z is a separate argument in [Link], so we need a new function

## Internally (in interpolate) a matrix is formed of x, y, and elev (Z)

pfun <- function(model, x, ...) {

predict(model, x[,1:2], Z=x[,3], ...)
}
p3 <- interpolate(e, tps3, fun=pfun)

#### gstat examples

library(gstat)
library(sp)
data(meuse)

### inverse distance weighted (IDW)

r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
mg <- gstat(id = "zinc", formula = zinc~1, locations = ~x+y, data=meuse,
nmax=7, set=list(idp = .5))
z <- interpolate(r, mg, [Link]=0, index=1)
z <- mask(z, r)
162 intersect

## with a model built with an `sf` object you need to provide custom function

library(sf)
sfmeuse <- st_as_sf(meuse, coords = c("x", "y"), crs=crs(r))
mgsf <- gstat(id = "zinc", formula = zinc~1, data=sfmeuse, nmax=7, set=list(idp = .5))

interpolate_gstat <- function(model, x, crs, ...) {

v <- st_as_sf(x, coords=c("x", "y"), crs=crs)
p <- predict(model, v, ...)
[Link](p)[,1:2]
}

zsf <- interpolate(r, mgsf, [Link]=0, fun=interpolate_gstat, crs=crs(r), index=1)

zsf <- mask(zsf, r)

### kriging

### ordinary kriging

v <- variogram(log(zinc)~1, ~x+y, data=meuse)
mv <- [Link](v, vgm(1, "Sph", 300, 1))
gOK <- gstat(NULL, "[Link]", log(zinc)~1, meuse, locations=~x+y, model=mv)
OK <- interpolate(r, gOK, [Link]=0)

## universal kriging
vu <- variogram(log(zinc)~elev, ~x+y, data=meuse)
mu <- [Link](vu, vgm(1, "Sph", 300, 1))
gUK <- gstat(NULL, "[Link]", log(zinc)~elev, meuse, locations=~x+y, model=mu)
names(r) <- "elev"
UK <- interpolate(r, gUK, [Link]=0)

## co-kriging
gCoK <- gstat(NULL, '[Link]', log(zinc)~1, meuse, locations=~x+y)
gCoK <- gstat(gCoK, 'elev', elev~1, meuse, locations=~x+y)
gCoK <- gstat(gCoK, 'cadmium', cadmium~1, meuse, locations=~x+y)
gCoK <- gstat(gCoK, 'copper', copper~1, meuse, locations=~x+y)
coV <- variogram(gCoK)
plot(coV, type='b', main='Co-variogram')
[Link] <- [Link](coV, gCoK, vgm(model='Sph', range=1000))
[Link]
plot(coV, [Link], main='Fitted Co-variogram')
coK <- interpolate(r, [Link], [Link]=0)
plot(coK)

## End(Not run)

intersect Intersection
intersect 163

Description
You can intersect SpatVectors with each other or with a SpatExtent. Intersecting points with points
uses the extent of y to get the intersection. Intersecting of points and lines is not supported because
of numerical inaccuracies with that. You can use buffer, to create polygons from lines and use
these with intersect.
You can also intersect two SpatExtents.
When intersecting two SpatRasters these need to be aligned (have the same origin and spatial reso-
lution). The values of the returned SpatRaster are TRUE where both input rasters have values, FALSE
where one has values, and NA in all other cells.
When intersecting a SpatExtent and a SpatRaster, the SpatExtent is first aligned to the raster cell
boundaries.
See crop for the intersection of a SpatRaster with a SpatExtent (or the extent of a SpatRaster or
SpatVector) if you want a SpatRaster (not a SpatExtent) as output.
See [Link](x, y, "intersects") to find out which geometries of a SpatVector intersect.
You can spatially subset a SpatVector with another one with x[y].

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'
intersect(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatExtent'

intersect(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatVector'

intersect(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatExtent'

intersect(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

intersect(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatExtent'

intersect(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatRaster'

intersect(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatVector, SpatExtent, or SpatRaster
y SpatVector, SpatExtent, or SpatRaster

Value
Same as x
164 [Link]

See Also
union, crop, relate, [

Examples
e1 <- ext(-10, 10, -20, 20)
e2 <- ext(0, 20, -40, 5)
intersect(e1, e2)

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
e <- ext(5.6, 6, 49.55, 49.7)
x <- intersect(v, e)

p <- vect(c("POLYGON ((5.8 49.8, 6 49.9, 6.15 49.8, 6 49.6, 5.8 49.8))",
"POLYGON ((6.3 49.9, 6.2 49.7, 6.3 49.6, 6.5 49.8, 6.3 49.9))"), crs=crs(v))
values(p) <- [Link](pid=1:2, area=expanse(p))

y <- intersect(v, p)

r <- s <- rast(ncol=5, nrow=5, xmin=1, xmax=5, ymin=1, ymax=5)

r[5:20] <- 5:20
s[11:20] <- 11:20
rs <- intersect(r, s)

u <- shift(r, .8)

us <- intersect(u, s)

[Link] Raster value types

Description
The values in a SpatRaster layer are by default numeric, but they can also be set to be logical
(Boolean), integer, or categorical (factor).
For a SpatRaster, [Link] and isTRUE is equivalent to [Link]. isFALSE is equivalent to
![Link], and [Link] is the same as [Link].
[Link] and [Link] force the values into the correct range (e.g. whole integers) but in-memory
cell values are still stored as numeric. They will behave like the assigned types, though, and will be
written to files with that data type (if the file type supports it).
See levels and cats to create categorical layers by setting labels.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x)
[Link] 165

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, filename, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, filename, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
... list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

The as.* methods return a new SpatRaster, whereas the is.* methods return a logical value for
each layer in x.

See Also

levels and cats to create categorical layers (and set labels).

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, vals=1:100)
[Link](r)
z <- [Link](r)
[Link](z)

x <- r > 25
[Link](x)

rr <- r/2
[Link](rr)
[Link](round(rr))
166 [Link]

[Link] Check if a SpatExtent or SpatVector is empty

Description
An empty SpatExtent has no area
An empty SpatVector has no geometries.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'
[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

[Link](x)

Arguments
x SpatVector or SpatExtent

Value
logical

Examples
e <- ext(0,0,0,0)
[Link](e)
[Link](e)

v <- vect()
[Link](v)
[Link](v)

[Link] Is a SpatRaster is flipped

Description
Check if a SpatRaster is "flipped" vertically, and may need to be adjusted with flip before it can
be used.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x)
[Link] 167

Arguments
x SpatRaster

Value
logical. One value for each raster data *source*

See Also
flip, [Link]

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
[Link](r)

[Link] Check for longitude/latitude crs

Description
Test whether a SpatRaster or SpatVector has a longitude/latitude coordinate reference system (CRS),
or perhaps has one. That is, when the CRS is unknown ("") but the x coordinates are within -181
and 181 and the y coordinates are within -90.1 and 90.1. For a SpatRaster you can also test if it has
a longitude/latitude CRS and it is "global" (covers all longitudes).
A warning is given if the CRS is missing or if it is specified as longitude/latitude but the coordinates
do not match that.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x, perhaps=FALSE, warn=TRUE, global=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

[Link](x, perhaps=FALSE, warn=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'character'

[Link](x, perhaps=FALSE, warn=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
perhaps logical. If TRUE and the CRS is unknown, the method returns TRUE if the coor-
dinates are plausible for longitude/latitude
warn logical. If TRUE, a warning is given if the CRS is unknown but assumed to be
lon/lat and perhaps=TRUE
global logical. If TRUE, the method tests if the raster covers all longitudes (from -180
to 180 degrees) such that the extreme columns are in fact adjacent
168 [Link]

Value
logical or NA

Examples
r <- rast()
[Link](r)
[Link](r, global=TRUE)

crs(r) <- ""

[Link](r)
[Link](r, perhaps=TRUE, warn=FALSE)

crs(r) <- "+proj=lcc +lat_1=48 +lat_2=33 +lon_0=-100 +ellps=WGS84"

[Link](r)

[Link] Check for rotation

Description
Check if a SpatRaster is "rotated" and needs to be rectified before it can be used
See rectify

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster

Value
logical. One value for each raster data *source*

See Also
rectify, [Link]

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, vals=1:100)
[Link](r)
[Link] 169

[Link] Check or fix polygon or extent validity

Description
Check the validity of polygons or attempt to fix it. Or check the validity of a SpatExtent.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
[Link](x, messages=FALSE, [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

makeValid(x, buffer=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

[Link](x)

Arguments
x SpatVector or SpatExtent
messages logical. If TRUE the error messages are returned
[Link] logical. If TRUE, it is attempted to return locations where polygons are invalid as
a SpatVector or points
buffer logical. If TRUE the zero-width buffer method is used to create valid polygons.
Be careful when using this method because it may result in data loss. For exam-
ple, only a single part of a self-intersecting may be preserved. See the example
below

Value
logical

See Also
topology

Examples
w <- vect("POLYGON ((0 -5, 10 0, 10 -10, 0 -5))")
[Link](w)

w <- vect("POLYGON ((0 -5, 10 0, 10 -10, 4 -2, 0 -5))")

[Link](w)
[Link](w, TRUE)
v1 <- makeValid(w)
[Link](v1)
170 k_means

v2 <- makeValid(w, buffer=TRUE)

plot(disagg(v1), col=c("light blue", "gray"))

# valid but incomplete
lines(v2, col="red", lwd=3)

plot(w)
points(cbind(4.54, -2.72), cex=2, col="red")

e <- ext(0, 1, 0, 1)
[Link](e)

ee <- ext(0, 0, 0, 0)
[Link](ee)

k_means k_means

Description
Compute k-means clusters for a SpatRaster. For large SpatRasters (with ncell(x) > maxcell) this
is done in two steps. First a sample of the cells is used to compute the cluster centers. Then each
cell is assigned to a cluster by computing the distance to these centers.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
k_means(x, centers=3, ..., maxcell=1000000, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
centers either the number of clusters, or a set of initial (distinct) cluster centres. If a
number, a random set of (distinct) cells in x is chosen as the initial centres
... additional arguments passed to kmeans
maxcell positive integer. The size of the regular sample used if it is smaller than ncell(x)
filename character. Output filename (ignored if [Link]=FALSE)
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
kmeans
lapp 171

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package = "terra")
r <- rast(f)
km <- k_means(r, centers=5)
km

lapp Apply a function to layers of a SpatRaster, or sub-datasets of a Spa-

tRasterDataset

Description
Apply a function to a SpatRaster, using layers as arguments.
The number of arguments in function fun must match the number of layers in the SpatRaster (or the
number of sub-datasets in the SpatRasterDataset). For example, if you want to multiply two layers,
you could use this function: fun=function(x,y){return(x*y)} percentage: fun=function(x,y){return(100
* x / y)}. If you combine three layers you could use fun=function(x,y,z){return((x + y) *
z)}
Before you use the function, test it to make sure that it is vectorized. That is, it should work for
vectors longer than one, not only for single numbers. Or if the input SpatRaster(s) have multiple
layers, it should work for a matrix (multiple cells) of input data (or matrices in the case of a Spa-
tRasterDataSet). The function must return the same number of elements as its input vectors, or
multiples of that. Also make sure that the function is NA-proof: it should returns the same number
of values when some or all input values are NA. And the function must return a vector or a matrix,
not a [Link]. To test it, run it with [Link](fun, data) (see examples).
Use app for summarize functions such as sum, that take any number of arguments; and tapp to do
so for groups of layers.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
lapp(x, fun, ..., usenames=FALSE, cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

lapp(x, fun, ..., usenames=FALSE, recycle=FALSE,
cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset
fun a function that takes a vector and can be applied to each cell of x
... additional arguments to be passed to fun
usenames logical. Use the layer names (or dataset names if x is a SpatRasterDataset) to
match the function arguments? If FALSE, argument matching is by position
172 lapp

cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used. You can also supply a cluster object. The benefit of using
this option is often small, if it is even positive. Using a fast function fun can be
a much more effective way to speed things up
recycle logical. Recycle layers to match the subdataset with the largest number of layers
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

Note
Use sapp or lapply to apply a function that takes a SpatRaster as argument to each layer of a
SpatRaster (that is rarely necessary).

See Also
app, tapp, math

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")) + 1
ss <- s[[2:1]]

fvi <- function(x, y){ (x - y ) / (x + y) }

# test the function
data <- list(c(1:5,NA), 6:1)
[Link](fvi, data)

x <- lapp(ss, fun=fvi )

# which is the same as supplying the layers to "fun"

# in some cases this will be much faster
y <- fvi(s[[2]], s[[1]])

f2 <- function(x, y, z){ (z - y + 1) / (x + y + 1) }

p1 <- lapp(s, fun=f2 )

p2 <- lapp(s[[1:2]], f2, z=200)

# the usenames argument

fvi2 <- function(red, green){ (red - green ) / (red + green) }

names(s)
x1 <- lapp(s[[1:2]], fvi2, usenames=TRUE)
x2 <- lapp(s[[2:1]], fvi2, usenames=TRUE)
# x1 and x2 are the same, despite the change in the order of the layers
layerCor 173

# x4 is also the same, but x3 is not

x3 <- lapp(s[[2:1]], fvi2, usenames=FALSE)

# these fail because there are too many layers in s

# x4 <- lapp(s, fvi2, usenames=TRUE)
# x5 <- lapp(s, fvi2, usenames=FALSE)

pairs(c(x1, x2, x3))

## SpatRasterDataset
x <- sds(s, s[[1]]+50)
fun <- function(x, y) { x/y }

# test "fun"
data <- list(matrix(1:9, ncol=3), matrix(9:1, ncol=3))
[Link](fun, data)

lapp(x, fun, recycle=TRUE)

# the same, more concisely

z <- s / (s[[1]]+50)

layerCor Correlation and (weighted) covariance

Description
Compute correlation, (weighted) covariance, or similar summary statistics that compare the values
of all pairs of the layers of a SpatRaster.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
layerCor(x, fun, w, asSample=TRUE, use="everything", maxcell=Inf, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
fun character. The statistic to compute: either "cov" (covariance), "[Link]"
(weighted covariance), or "cor" (pearson correlation coefficient). You can also
supply your own function that takes two vectors as argument to compute a single
number
w SpatRaster with the weights to compute the weighted covariance. It should have
a single layer and the same geometry as x
asSample logical. If TRUE, the statistic for a sample (denominator is n-1) is computed,
rather than for the population (denominator is n). Only for the standard functions
174 layerCor

use character. To decide how to handle missing values. This must be (an ab-
breviation of) one of "everything", "[Link]", "[Link]",
"[Link]". With "[Link]", the value for a pair of layers
is computed for all cells that are not NA in that pair. Therefore, it may be that the
(number of) cells used varies between pairs. The benefit of this approach is that
all available data is used. Use "[Link]", if you want to only use the values
from cells that are not NA in any of the layers. By using "[Link]" you
indicate that all layers have NA values in the same cells
maxcell positive integer. The maximum number of cells to be used. If this is smaller
than ncell(x), a regular sample of x is used
... additional arguments for fun (if it is a proper function)

Value
If fun is one of the three standard statistics, you get a list with three items: the correlation or
(weighted) covariance matrix, the (weighted) means, and the number of data cells in each compari-
son. The means are also a matrix because they may depend on the combination of layers if different
cells have missing values and these are excluded from the computation. The rows of the mean ma-
trix represent the layer whose (weighted) mean is being calculated and the columns represent the
layer it is being paired with. Only cells with non-missing observations for both layers are used in
the calculation of the (weighted) mean. The diagonals of the mean and n matrices are set to missing.
If fun is a function, you get a single matrix.

References
For the weighted covariance:
• Canty, M.J. and A.A. Nielsen, 2008. Automatic radiometric normalization of multitemporal
satellite imagery with the iteratively re-weighted MAD transformation. Remote Sensing of
Environment 112:1025-1036.
• Nielsen, A.A., 2007. The regularized iteratively reweighted MAD method for change detec-
tion in multi- and hyperspectral data. IEEE Transactions on Image Processing 16(2):463-478.

See Also
global, [Link], [Link]

Examples
b <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
layerCor(b, "cor")

layerCor(b, "cov")

# weigh by column number

w <- init(b, fun="col")
layerCor(b, "[Link]", w=w)

# specify another function

layerCor(b, function(x, y) cor(x, y, method="spearman"))
linearUnits 175

linearUnits Linear units of the coordinate reference system

Description
Get the linear units of the coordinate reference system (crs) of a SpatRaster or SpatVector expressed
in m. The value returned is used internally to transform area and perimeter measures to meters. The
value returned for longitude/latitude crs is zero.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
linearUnits(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

linearUnits(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector

Value
numeric (meter)

See Also
crs

Examples
x <- rast()
crs(x) <- ""
linearUnits(x)

crs(x) <- "+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84"

linearUnits(x)

crs(x) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1 +units=cm"

linearUnits(x)

crs(x) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1 +units=km"

linearUnits(x)

crs(x) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1 +units=us-ft"

linearUnits(x)
176 lines

lines Add points, lines, or polygons to a map

Description
Add a vector geometries to a plot (map) with points, lines, or polys.
These are simpler alternatives for plot(x, add=TRUE)
These methods also work for a small(!) SpatRaster. Only cells that are not NA in the first layer are
used.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
points(x, col, cex=0.7, pch=16, alpha=1, jitter=0, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

lines(x, y=NULL, col, lwd=1, lty=1, arrows=FALSE, alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

polys(x, col, border="black", lwd=1, lty=1, alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

points(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

lines(x, mx=10000, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

polys(x, mx=10000, dissolve=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

points(x, col="black", alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

lines(x, col="black", alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

polys(x, col, alpha=1, ...)

Arguments
x SpatVector or SpatExtent
y missing or SpatVector. If both x and y have point geometry and the same number
of rows, lines are drawn between pairs of points
col character. Colors
makeTiles 177

border character. color(s) of the polygon borders. Use NULL or NA to not draw a border
cex numeric. point size magnifier. See par
pch positive integer, point type. See points. On some (linux) devices, the default
symbol "16" is a not a very smooth circle. You can use "20" instead (it takes a
bit longer to draw) or "1" for an open circle
alpha number between 0 and 1 to set transparency
jitter numeric. The amount of random noise used to adjust label positions, possibly
avoiding overlaps. See argument ’factor’ in jitter
lwd numeric, line-width. See par
lty positive integer, line type. See par
arrows logical. If TRUE and y is a SpatVector, arrows are drawn instead of lines. See
arrows for additional arguments
mx positive number. If the number of cells of SpatRaster x is higher, the method
will fail with an error message
dissolve logical. Should boundaries between cells with the same value be removed?
... additional graphical arguments such as lwd, cex and pch

Examples

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)

r <- rast(v)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
plot(r)
lines(v)
points(v)

makeTiles Make tiles or get their extents

Description

Divide a SpatRaster into "tiles". The cells of another SpatRaster (normally with a much lower
resolution) or a SpatVector with polygon geometry can be used to define the tiles. You can also
provide one or two numbers to indicate the number of rows and columns per tile.
getTileExtents returns the extents of the (virtual) tiles, while makeTiles creates files for the tiles
and returns their filenames.
178 makeTiles

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
makeTiles(x, y, filename="tile_.tif", extend=FALSE,
[Link]=FALSE, buffer=0, value="files", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

getTileExtents(x, y, extend=FALSE, buffer=0)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatRaster or SpatVector defining the zones; or a positive integer specifying the
number of rows and columns for each zone (or 2 numbers to differentiate the
number of rows and columns)
filename character. Output filename template. Filenames will be altered by adding the
tile number for each tile
extend logical. If TRUE, the extent of y is expanded to assure that it covers all of x
[Link] logical. If TRUE, tiles with only missing values are ignored
buffer integer. The number of additional rows and columns added to each tile. Can
be a single number, or two numbers to specify a separate number of rows and
columns. This allows for creating overlapping tiles that can be used for com-
puting spatial context dependent values with e.g. focal. The expansion is only
inside x, no rows or columns outside of x are added
value character. The type of return value desired. Either "files" (for the filenames),
"raster" (for a SpatRaster), or "collection" (for a SpatRasterCollection)
overwrite logical. If TRUE, existing tiles are overwritten; otherwise they are skipped (with-
out error or warning)
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
makeTiles returns a character (filenames), SpatRaster or SpatRasterCollection value. getTileExtents
returns a matrix with extents

See Also
vrt to create a SpatRaster from tiles; crop for sub-setting arbitrary parts of a SpatRaster; divide
to divide a SpatRaster into parts.

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=100, nrows=100)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
x <- rast(ncols=2, nrows=2)

getTileExtents(r, x)
makeVRT 179

getTileExtents(r, x, buffer=3)

filename <- paste0(tempfile(), "_.tif")

ff <- makeTiles(r, x, filename)
ff

vrt(ff)

makeVRT Make a VRT header file

Description
Create a VRT header file for a "flat binary" raster file that needs a header file to be able to read it,
but does not have it.

Usage
makeVRT(filename, nrow, ncol, nlyr=1, extent, xmin, ymin, xres, yres=xres, xycenter=TRUE,
crs="+proj=longlat", lyrnms="", datatype, NAflag=NA, bandorder="BIL", byteorder="LSB",
toptobottom=TRUE, offset=0, scale=1)

Arguments
filename character. raster filename (without the ".vrt" extension)
nrow positive integer, the number of rows
ncol positive integer, the number of columns
nlyr positive integer, the number of layers
extent SpatExtent or missing
xmin numeric. minimum x coordinate (only used if extent is missing)
ymin numeric. minimum y coordinate (only used if extent is missing)
xres positive number. x resolution
yres positive number. y resolution)
xycenter logical. If TRUE, xmin and xmax represent the coordinates of the center of the
extreme cell, in stead of the coordinates of the outside corner. Only used of
extent is missing
crs character. Coordinate reference system description
lyrnms character. Layer names
datatype character. One of "INT2S", "INT4S", "INT1U", "INT2U", "INT4U", "FLT4S",
"FLT8S". If missing, this is guessed from the file size (INT1U for 1 byte per
value, INT2S for 2 bytes and FLT4S for 4 bytes per value). This may be wrong
because, for example, 2 bytes per value may in fact be INT2U (with the U for
unsigned) values
180 [Link]

NAflag numeric. The value used as the "NA flag"

bandorder character. One of "BIL", "BIP", or "BSQ". That is Band Interleaved by Line, or
by Pixel, or Band SeQuential
byteorder character. One of "LSB", "MSB". "MSB" is common for files generated on
Linux systems, whereas "LSB" is common for files generated on windows
toptobottom logical. If FALSE, the values are read bottom to top
offset numeric. offset to be applied
scale numeric. scale to be applied

Value
character (.VRT filename)

See Also
vrt to create a vrt for a collection of raster tiles

[Link] color palettes for mapping

Description
Get a color palette for mapping. These palettes were copied from GRASS

Usage
[Link](name, n=50, ...)

Arguments
name character (name of a palette, see Details), or missing (to get the available names)
n numeric. The number of colors
... additional arguments that are passed to colorRamp

Details

Name Description
aspect aspect oriented grey colors
bcyr blue through cyan through yellow to red
bgyr blue through green through yellow to red
blues white to blue
byg blue through yellow to green
byr blue through yellow to red
curvature for terrain curvatures
[Link] 181

differences differences oriented colors

elevation maps relative ranges of raster values to elevation color ramp
grass GRASS GIS green (perceptually uniform)
greens white to green
grey grey scale
gyr green through yellow to red
haxby relative colors for bathymetry or topography
inferno perceptually uniform sequential colors inferno
magma perceptually uniform sequential colors
oranges white to orange
plasma perceptually uniform sequential colors
rainbow rainbow colors
ramp color ramp
random random colors
reds white to red
roygbiv
rstcurv terrain curvature
ryb red through yellow to blue
ryg red through yellow to green
sepia yellowish-brown through to white
viridis perceptually uniform sequential colors
water water depth
wave color wave

Value

none

See Also

[Link]

Examples

[Link]("elevation", 10)

r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

plot(r, col=[Link]("elevation"))

[Link]()
182 mask

map_extent Get the coordinates of the extent of a map

Description
Helper function for creating custom map elements that are aligned with the axes of a map (base plot
created with a SpatRaster and/or SpatVector). For example, you may need to know the coordinates
for the upper-left corner of a map to add some information there.
Unlike the standard base plot, terra keeps the axis aligned with the data. For that reason you cannot
use par()$usr to get these coordinates.
The coordinates returned by this function are used in, for example, add_legend such that a legend
can be automatically placed in the a particular corner.
This function only returns meaningful results of the active plot (canvas) was create with a call to
plot with a SpatRaster or SpatVector as first argument.

Usage
map_extent()

See Also
add_legend, add_grid, add_box

Examples
r <- rast(xmin=0, xmax=10, ymin=0, ymax=10, res=1, vals=1:100)
plot(r)

map_extent()
par()$usr

mask Mask values in a SpatRaster or SpatVector

Description
If x is a SpatRaster: Create a new SpatRaster that has the same values as SpatRaster x, except for
the cells that are NA (or other maskvalue) in another SpatRaster (the ’mask’), or the cells that are
not covered by a SpatVector or SpatExtent. These cells become NA (or another updatevalue).
If x is a SpatVector or SpatExtent: Select geometries of x that intersect, or not intersect, with the
geometries of y.
mask 183

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
mask(x, mask, inverse=FALSE, maskvalues=NA,
updatevalue=NA, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'

mask(x, mask, inverse=FALSE, updatevalue=NA,
touches=TRUE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatExtent'

mask(x, mask, inverse=FALSE, updatevalue=NA,
touches=TRUE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

mask(x, mask, inverse=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatExtent'

mask(x, mask, inverse=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
mask SpatRaster or SpatVector
inverse logical. If TRUE, areas on mask that are _not_ the maskvalue are masked
maskvalues numeric. The value(s) in mask that indicate which cells of x should be masked
(change their value to updatevalue (default = NA))
updatevalue numeric. The value that masked cells should become (if they are not NA)
touches logical. If TRUE, all cells touched by lines or polygons will be masked, not just
those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the polygon
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
subst, crop

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
msk <- ifel(r < 400, NA, 1)

m <- mask(r, msk)

184 match

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)[1,]

mv1 <- mask(r, v)

mv2 <- crop(r, v, mask=TRUE)

match Value matching for SpatRasters

Description
match returns a SpatRaster with the position of the matched values. The cell values are the index
of the table argument.
%in% returns a 0/1 (FALSE/TRUE) SpatRaster indicating if the cells values were matched or not.

Usage
match(x, table, nomatch = NA_integer_, incomparables = NULL)

x %in% table

Arguments
x SpatRaster
table vector of the values to be matched against
nomatch the value to be returned in the case when no match is found. Note that it is
coerced to integer
incomparables a vector of values that cannot be matched. Any value in x matching a value
in this vector is assigned the nomatch value. For historical reasons, FALSE is
equivalent to NULL

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
app, match

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r) <- 1:100
m <- match(r, c(5:10, 50:55))
n <- r %in% c(5:10, 50:55)
Math-methods 185

Math-methods General mathematical methods

Description
Standard mathematical methods for computations with SpatRasters. Computations are local (ap-
plied on a cell by cell basis). If multiple SpatRasters are used, these must have the same extent and
resolution. These have been implemented:
abs, sign, sqrt, ceiling, floor, trunc, cummax, cummin, cumprod, cumsum, log, log10, log2,
log1p, acos, acosh, asin, asinh, atan, atanh, exp, expm1, cos, cosh, sin, sinh, tan, tanh,
round, signif
Instead of directly calling these methods, you can also provide their name to the math method. This
is useful if you want to provide an output filename.
The following methods have been implemented for SpatExtent: round, floor, ceiling
round has also been implemented for SpatVector, to round the coordinates of the geometries.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
sqrt(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

log(x, base=exp(1))

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

round(x, digits=0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

math(x, fun, digits=0, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

round(x, digits=4)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

cumsum(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
base a positive or complex number: the base with respect to which logarithms are
computed
digits Number of digits for rounding
fun character. Math function name
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
186 mem

Value
SpatRaster or SpatExtent

See Also
See app to use mathematical functions not implemented by the package, and Arith-methods for
arithmetical operations. Use roll for rolling functions.

Examples
r1 <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
v <- runif(ncell(r1))
v[10:20] <- NA
values(r1) <- v
r2 <- rast(r1)
values(r2) <- 1:ncell(r2) / ncell(r2)
r <- c(r1, r2)

s <- sqrt(r)
# same as
math(r, "sqrt")

round(s, 1)

cumsum(r)

mem Memory available and needed

Description
mem_info prints the amount of RAM that is required and available to process a SpatRaster.
free_RAM returns the amount of RAM that is available

Usage
mem_info(x, n=1, print=TRUE)

free_RAM()

Arguments
x SpatRaster
n positive integer. The number of copies of x that are needed
print logical. print memory info?
merge 187

Value
free_RAM returns the amount of available RAM in kilobytes

Examples
mem_info(rast())

free_RAM()

merge Merge SpatRasters, or merge a SpatVector with a [Link]

Description
Merge multiple SpatRasters to create a new SpatRaster with a larger spatial extent. The SpatRasters
should all have the same coordinate reference system. They should normally also have the same
spatial origin and resolution, but automatic resampling can be done depending on the algorithm
used (see argument algo). In areas where the SpatRasters overlap, the values of the SpatRaster
that is first in the sequence of arguments (or in the SpatRasterCollection) will be retained (unless
first=FALSE).
There is also a method for merging SpatVector with a [Link]; that is, to join the [Link] to
the attribute table of the SpatVector.
See classify to merge a SpatRaster with a [Link].

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
merge(x, y, ..., first=TRUE, [Link]=TRUE, algo=1, method=NULL,
filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection,missing'

merge(x, first=TRUE, [Link]=TRUE, algo=1, method=NULL, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,[Link]'

merge(x, y, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatRasterCollection, or SpatVector
y missing if x is a SpatRasterCollection. SpatRaster if x is a SpatRaster. [Link]
if x is a SpatVector
... if x is a SpatRaster: additional objects of the same class as x. If x is a SpatRaster-
Collection: options for writing files as in writeRaster. If x is a SpatVector, the
same arguments as in merge
first logical. If TRUE, in areas where rasters overlap, the first value is used. Otherwise
the last value is used
188 merge

[Link] logical. If TRUE missing values are are ignored. This is only used for algo 1; the
other two always ignore missing values
algo integer. You can use 1, 2 or 3 to pick a merge algorithm. algo 1 is generally
faster than algo 2, but it may have poorer file compression. Algo 1 will resam-
ple input rasters (and that may slow it down), but algo 2 does not do that. You
can increase the tolerance option to effectively get nearest neighbor resampling
with, for example, wopt=list(tolerance=.2) allows misalignment of .2 times
the resolution of the first input raster and effectively use nearest neighbor resam-
pling. Algo 3 creates a virtual raster (see vrt). This is very quick and can be a
good approach if the merge raster is used as input to a next step in the analysis.
It allows any amount of misalignment (and does not respond to the tolerance
option). Otherwise its speed is similar to that of algo 2
method character. The interpolation method to be used if resampling is necessary (see
argument algo). One of "nearest", "bilinear", "cubic", "cubicspline", "lanczos",
"average", "mode" as in resample. If NULL, "nearest" is used for categorical
rasters and "bilinear" for other rasters
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster or SpatVector

See Also
Combining tiles with vrt may be more efficient than using merge. See mosaic for averaging
overlapping regions.
See classify to merge a SpatRaster and a [Link] and union to combine SpatExtent objects.

Examples
x <- rast(xmin=-110, xmax=-80, ymin=40, ymax=70, res=1, vals=1)
y <- rast(xmin=-85, xmax=-55, ymax=60, ymin=30, res=1, vals=2)
z <- rast(xmin=-60, xmax=-30, ymax=50, ymin=20, res=1, vals=3)

m1 <- merge(x, y, z)
m2 <- merge(z, y, x)
m3 <- merge(y, x, z)
# panel(c(m1, m2, m3))

# if you have many SpatRasters, it may be convenient

# to make a SpatRasterCollection
# s <- sprc(list(x, y, z))
s <- sprc(x, y, z)

sm1 <- merge(s, algo=1, first=FALSE)

sm2 <- merge(s, algo=2, first=FALSE)
#sm3 <- merge(s, algo=3, first=FALSE)
mergeTime 189

## SpatVector with [Link]

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
p <- vect(f)
dfr <- [Link](District=p$NAME_1, Canton=p$NAME_2, Value=round(runif(length(p), 100, 1000)))
dfr <- dfr[1:5, ]
pm <- merge(p, dfr, all.x=TRUE, by.x=c('NAME_1', 'NAME_2'), by.y=c('District', 'Canton'))
pm
values(pm)

mergeTime merge SpatRasters by timelines to create a single timeseries

Description
Combine SpatRasters with partly overlapping time-stamps to create a single time series. If there is
no overlap between the SpatRasters there is no point in using this function (use c instead).
Also note that time gaps are not filled. You can use fillTime to do that.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'
mergeTime(x, fun=mean, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRasterDataset
fun A function that reduces a vector to a single number, such as mean or min
filename character. Output filename
... list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
s1 <- c(r, r)
time(s1) <- [Link]("2001-01-01") + 0:5
s1 <- s1/10
time(s1) <- [Link]("2001-01-07") + 0:5
s2 <- s1*10
time(s2) <- [Link]("2001-01-05") + 0:5
x <- sds(s1, s1, s2)

m <- mergeTime(x, mean)

190 metags

meta meta

Description
Get metadata associated with the sources or layers of a SpatRaster

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
meta(x, layers=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
layers logical. Should the layer level metadata be returned?

Value
list

metags Set or get metadata

Description
You can set arbitrary metadata to (layers of) a SpatRaster using "name=value", or "domain:name=value"
tags or a two (name, value) or three column (name, value, domain) matrix or [Link].

Usage
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'
metags(x, layer=NULL, domain="")<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

metags(x, layer=NULL, name=NULL)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

metags(x, dataset=NULL)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

metags(x, dataset=NULL, name=NULL)
modal 191

Arguments
x SpatRaster
layer NULL, positive integer or character. If the value is NULL, the tags assigned or
returned are for the SpatRaster. Otherwise for the layer number(s) or name(s)
domain character. Only used if not specified by value. Use "" for the default domain.
Depending on the file format used this may the only domain supported when
writing files
name character
value character of "name=value" or two-column (name, value) or three-column (name,
value, domain) matrix or [Link]
dataset NULL, positive integer or character. If the value is NULL, the tags assigned or
returned are for the SpatRasterDataset/SpatRasterCollection. Otherwise for the
datset number(s) or name(s)

Value
SpatRaster (metags<-), or [Link]

Examples
r <- rast(ncol=5, nrow=5)
m <- cbind(c("one", "two", "three"), c("ABC", "123", "hello"))
metags(r) <- m
metags(r)

metags(r) <- c("another_tag=another_value", "one more=this value")

metags(r)

metags(r) <- cbind("test", "this", "mydomain")

metags(r)

metags(r, name="two")

# remove a tag
metags(r) <- cbind("one", "")
metags(r) <- "two="
metags(r)

# remove all tags

metags(r) <- NULL
metags(r)

modal modal value

192 mosaic

Description

Compute the mode for each cell across the layers of a SpatRaster. The mode, or modal value, is the
most frequent value in a set of values.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

modal(x, ..., ties="first", [Link]=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments

x SpatRaster
... additional argument of the same type as x or numeric
ties character. Indicates how to treat ties. Either "random", "lowest", "highest",
"first", or "NA"
[Link] logical. If TRUE, NA values are ignored. If FALSE, NA is returned if x has any NA
values
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
r <- c(r/2, r, r*2)
m <- modal(r)

mosaic mosaic SpatRasters

Description

Combine adjacent and (partly) overlapping SpatRasters to form a single new SpatRaster. Values in
overlapping cells are averaged (by default) or can be computed with another function.
The SpatRasters must have the same origin and spatial resolution.
This method is similar to the simpler, but much faster, merge method.
mosaic 193

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

mosaic(x, y, ..., fun="mean", filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection,missing'

mosaic(x, fun="mean", filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
y object of same class as x
... additional SpatRasters
fun character. One of "mean", "median", "min", "max", "modal", "sum", "first",
"last"
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

merge

Examples

x <- rast(xmin=-110, xmax=-60, ymin=40, ymax=70, res=1, vals=1)

y <- rast(xmin=-95, xmax=-45, ymax=60, ymin=30, res=1, vals=2)
z <- rast(xmin=-80, xmax=-30, ymax=50, ymin=20, res=1, vals=3)

m1 <- mosaic(x, y, z)

m2 <- mosaic(z, y, x)

# with many SpatRasters, make a SpatRasterCollection from a list

rlist <- list(x, y, z)
rsrc <- sprc(rlist)

m <- mosaic(rsrc)
194 NAflag

[Link] Find and remove geometries that are NA

Description
Find geometries that are NA; or remove geometries and/or records that are NA.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

[Link](object, field=NA, geom=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatVector
object SpatVector
field character or NA. If NA, missing values in the attributes are ignored. Other values
are either one or more field (variable) names, or "" to consider all fields
geom logical. If TRUE empty geometries are removed

Value
SpatVector

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
v$test <- c(1,2,NA)
nrow(v)
x <- [Link](v, "test")
nrow(x)

NAflag Set the NA flag

Description
The main purpose of this method is to allow correct reading of a SpatRaster that is based on a file
that has an incorrect NA flag. The file is not changed, but flagged value is set to NA when values are
read from the file ("lazy evaluation"). In contrast, if the values are in memory the change is made
immediately.
To change values, it is generally better to use classify
names 195

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
NAflag(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

NAflag(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value numeric. The value to be interpreted as NA; set this before reading the values
from the file. This can be a single value, or multiple values, one for each data
source (file / subdataset)

Value
none or numeric

See Also
classify

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))[[1]]
NAflag(s) <- 255
plot(s)
NAflag(s)

names Names of Spat* objects

Description
Get or set the names of the layers of a SpatRaster or the attributes of a SpatVector.
See [Link] for in-place setting of names.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
names(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

names(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

names(x)
196 nearest

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

names(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

names(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector'

names(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset, or SpatVector
value character (vector)

Value
character

Note
terra enforces neither unique nor valid names. See [Link] to create unique names and
[Link] to make syntactically valid names.

Examples
s <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, nlyrs=3)
nlyr(s)
names(s)
names(s) <- c("a", "b", "c")
names(s)

# SpatVector names
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
names(v)
names(v) <- paste0(substr(names(v), 1, 2), "_", 1:ncol(v))
names(v)

nearest nearby geometries

Description
Identify geometries that are near to each other. Either get the index of all geometries within a
certain distance, or the k nearest neighbors, or (with nearest) get the nearest points between two
geometries.
nearest 197

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

nearby(x, y=NULL, distance=0, k=1, centroids=TRUE, symmetrical=TRUE, method="geo")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

nearest(x, y, pairs=FALSE, centroids=TRUE, lines=FALSE, method="geo")

Arguments

x SpatVector
y SpatVector or NULL
distance numeric. maximum distance
k positive integer. number of neighbors. Ignored if distance > 0
centroids logical. Should the centroids of polygons be used?
symmetrical logical. If TRUE, a near pair is only included once. That is, if geometry 1 is near
to geometry 3, the implied nearness between 3 and 1 is not reported. Ignored if
k neighbors are returned
method character. One of "geo", "haversine", "cosine". With "geo" the most precise but
slower method of Karney (2003) is used. The other two methods are faster but
less precise
pairs logical. If TRUE pairwise nearest points are returned (only relevant when using
at least one SpatVector of lines or polygons
lines logical. If TRUE lines between the nearest points instead of (the nearest) points

Value

matrix

See Also

distance, relate, adjacent

Examples

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
nearby(v, distance=12000)
198 NIDP

NIDP Number of immediate adjacent cells flowing into each cell

Description
Compute the number of immediate adjacent cells flowing into each cell

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
NIDP(x, filename="",...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster with flow-direction. see terrain
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Details
NDIP is computed first to compute flow-accumulation with the algorithm by Zhou at al, 2019.

Value
SpatRaster

Author(s)
Emanuele Cordano

References
Zhou, G., Wei, H. & Fu, S. A fast and simple algorithm for calculating flow accumulation matrices
from raster digital elevation. Front. Earth Sci. 13, 317–326 (2019). [Link]
018-0725-9 [Link]

See Also
flowAccumulation

Examples
elev1 <- array(NA,c(9,9))
elev2 <- elev1
dx <- 1
dy <- 1
for (r in 1:nrow(elev1)) {
y <- (r-5)*dx
[Link] 199

for (c in 1:ncol(elev1)) {

x <- (c-5)*dy
elev1[r,c] <- 5*(x^2+y^2)
elev2[r,c] <- 10+5*(abs(x))-0.001*y ### 5*(x^2+y^2)
}
}

## Elevation Raster
elev1 <- rast(elev1)
elev2 <- rast(elev2)

t(array(elev1[],rev(dim(elev1)[1:2])))
t(array(elev2[],rev(dim(elev2)[1:2])))

plot(elev1)
plot(elev2)

## Flow Direction Raster

flowdir1<- terrain(elev1,v="flowdir")
flowdir2<- terrain(elev2,v="flowdir")

t(array(flowdir1[],rev(dim(flowdir1)[1:2])))
t(array(flowdir2[],rev(dim(flowdir2)[1:2])))

plot(flowdir1)
plot(flowdir2)

##
nidp1 <- NIDP((flowdir1))
nidp2 <- NIDP((flowdir2))

t(array(nidp1[],rev(dim(nidp1)[1:2])))
t(array(nidp2[],rev(dim(nidp2)[1:2])))

plot(nidp1)
plot(nidp2)

[Link] normalize vector data that crosses the dateline

Description

Normalize the longitude of geometries, move them if they are outside of the -180 to 180 degrees
range.
200 north

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
[Link](x)

Arguments
x SpatVector

Value
SpatVector

See Also
rotate for SpatRaster

Examples
p <- vect("POLYGON ((120 10, 230 75, 230 -75, 120 10))")
[Link](p)

north North arrow

Description
Add a (North) arrow to a map

Usage
north(xy=NULL, type=1, label="N", angle=0, d, head=0.1, xpd=TRUE, ...)

Arguments
xy numeric. x and y coordinates to place the arrow. It can also be one of follow-
ing character values: "bottomleft", "bottom", "bottomright", "topleft", "top",
"topright", "left", "right", or NULL
type integer between 1 and 12, or a character (unicode) representation of a right point-
ing arrow such as "\u27A9". You may need to install the fonts for this. See the
discussion on stackoverflow
label character, to be printed near the arrow
angle numeric. The angle of the arrow in degrees
d numeric. Distance covered by the arrow in plot coordinates. Only applies to
type=1
head numeric. The size of the arrow "head", for type=1
xpd logical. If TRUE, the arrow can be outside the plot area
... graphical arguments to be passed to other methods
[Link] 201

Value
none

See Also
sbar, plot, inset

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
plot(r)
north()
north(c(178550, 332500), d=250)

## Not run:
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
plot(r, type="interval")
north(type=3, cex=.8)
north(xy=c(6.7, 49.9), type=2, angle=45, label="NE")
north(xy=c(6.6, 49.7), type=5, cex=1.25)
north(xy=c(5.65, 49.6), type=9)
north(d=.05, xy=c(5.65, 50), angle=180, label="S", lwd=2, col="blue")

## all arrows
r <- rast(res=10)
values(r) <- 1
plot(r, col="white", axes=FALSE, legend=FALSE, mar=c(0,0,0,0), reset=TRUE)
for (i in 1:12) {
x = -200+i*30
north(xy=cbind(x,30), type=i)
text(x, -20, i, xpd=TRUE)
}

## End(Not run)

[Link] is not NA

Description
Shortcut method to avoid the two-step 

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x, falseNA=FALSE, filename="", ...)
202 nseg

Arguments
x SpatRaster
falseNA logical. If TRUE, the output cell values are either TRUE, for cells that are not NA
in x, or NA for the cells that are NA in x. Otherwise, the output values are either
TRUE or FALSE
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
Compare-methods

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, vals=1, ext=c(0,1,0,1))
r[10:20] <- NA
x <- [Link](r)
y <- [Link](r, falseNA=TRUE)
unique(values(c(x, y)))

nseg Number of segments

Description
Count the number of segements in a SpatVector of lines or polygons

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
nseg(x)

Arguments
x SpatVector

Value
numeric

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
nseg(v)
options 203

options Options

Description
Get or set general options.

Usage
terraOptions(..., print=TRUE)

Arguments
... option names and values (see Details). Or missing, to get or show the current
options
print logical. If TRUE the option names and values are printed

Details
The following options are available.
memfrac - value between 0 and 0.9 (larger values give a warning). The fraction of RAM that may
be used by the program.
memmin - if memory required is below this threshold (in GB), the memory is assumed to be avail-
able. Otherwise, terra checks if it is available.
memmax - the maximum amount of RAM (in GB) that terra is allowed to use when processing a
raster dataset. Should be less than what is detected (see mem_info), and higher values are ignored.
Set it to a negative number or NA to not set this option. terraOptions only shows the value of
memmax if it is set.
tempdir - directory where temporary files are written. The default what is returned by tempdir().
datatype - default data type. See writeRaster.
todisk - logical. If TRUE write all raster data to disk (temp file if no file name is specified). For
debugging.
progress - non-negative integer. A progress bar is shown if the number of chunks in which the data
is processed is larger than this number. No progress bar is shown if the value is zero.
verbose - logical. If TRUE debugging info is printed for some functions.
tolerance - numeric. Difference in raster extent (expressed as the fraction of the raster resolution)
that can be ignored when comparing alignment of rasters.

Value
list. Invisibly if print=TRUE
204 origin

Note
It is possible to set your own default options in "etc/.[Link]" of your R installation like this
options(terra_default=list(tempdir="d:/temp", memfrac=.4))
But that may not be a good practice. It is clearer to set your favorite options at the beginning of
each script.

Examples
terraOptions()
terraOptions(memfrac=0.5, tempdir = "c:/temp")
terraOptions(progress=10)
terraOptions()

origin Origin

Description
Get or set the coordinates of the point of origin of a SpatRaster. This is the point closest to (0, 0)
that you could get if you moved towards that point in steps of the x and y resolution.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
origin(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

origin(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value numeric vector of length 1 or 2

Value
A vector of two numbers (x and y coordinates)

Examples
r <- rast(xmin=-0.5, xmax = 9.5, ncols=10)
origin(r)
origin(r) <- c(0,0)
r
pairs 205

pairs Pairs plot (matrix of scatterplots)

Description

Pair plots of layers in a SpatRaster. This is a wrapper around graphics function pairs.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

pairs(x, hist=TRUE, cor=TRUE, use="[Link]", maxcells=100000, ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
hist logical. If TRUE a histogram of the values is shown on the diagonal
cor logical. If TRUE the correlation coefficient is shown in the upper panels
use argument passed to the cor function
maxcells integer. Number of pixels to sample from each layer of a large SpatRaster
... additional arguments (graphical parameters)

See Also

boxplot, hist

Examples

r <-rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
s <- c(r, 1/r, sqrt(r))
names(s) <- c("elevation", "inverse", "sqrt")
pairs(s)

# to make indvidual histograms:

hist(r)
# or scatter plots:
plot(s[[1]], s[[2]])
206 panel

panel Map panel

Description
Show multiple maps that share a single legend.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
panel(x, main, [Link]="topleft", nc, nr, maxnl=16,
maxcell=500000, box=FALSE, pax=list(), plg=list(), range=NULL, halo=TRUE,
type=NULL, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
main character. Main plot titles (one for each layer to be plotted). You can use argu-
ments [Link], [Link], [Link] to change the appearance
[Link] numeric of character to set the location of the main title. Either two coordinates,
or a character value such as "topleft")
nc positive integer. Optional. The number of columns to divide the plotting device
in (when plotting multiple layers)
nr positive integer. Optional. The number of rows to divide the plotting device in
(when plotting multiple layers)
maxnl positive integer. Maximum number of layers to plot (for a multi-layer object)
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
box logical. Should a box be drawn around the map?
plg see plot
pax see plot
range numeric. minimum and maximum values to be used for the continuous legend
halo logical. Use a halo around main (the title)?
type character. Type of map/legend. One of "continuous", "classes", or "interval". If
not specified, the type is chosen based on the data
... arguments passed to plot("SpatRaster", "numeric") and additional graphi-
cal arguments

See Also
plot and see rasterVis::levelplot and tidyterra::autoplot for more sophisticated panel
plots.
patches 207

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
x <- c(r, r/2, r*2, r)
names(x) <- paste0("(", LETTERS[1:4], ")")
panel(x)
panel(x, fun=function() lines(v), [Link]="topright")

patches Detect patches (clumps) of cells

Description
Detect patches (clumps). Patches are groups of cells that are surrounded by cells that are NA. Set
zeroAsNA to TRUE to also identify patches separated by cells with values of zero.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
patches(x, directions=4, values=FALSE, zeroAsNA=FALSE, allowGaps=TRUE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
directions integer indicating which cells are considered adjacent. Should be 8 (Queen’s
case) or 4 (Rook’s case)
values logical. If TRUE use cell values to distinguish patches. If FALSE, all cells that are
not NA are considered identical
zeroAsNA logical. If TRUE treat cells that are zero as if they were NA. Ignored if byvalue=TRUE
allowGaps logical. If TRUE there may be gaps in the patch IDs (e.g. you may have patch
IDs 1, 2, 3 and 5, but not 4). If it is FALSE, these numbers will be recoded from
1 to the number of patches (4 in this example)
filename character. Output filename
... options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster. Cell values are patch numbers

See Also
focal, boundaries
208 perim

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=18, ncols=36, xmin=0)
r[1:2, 5:8] <- 1
r[5:8, 2:6] <- 1
r[7:12, 22:36] <- 1
r[15:16, 18:29] <- 1
p <- patches(r)

# zero as background instead of NA

r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, xmin=0, vals=0)
r[3, 3] <- 10
r[4, 4] <- 10
r[5, 5:8] <- 12
r[6, 6:9] <- 12

# treat zeros as NA

p4 <- patches(r, zeroAsNA=TRUE)

p8 <- patches(r, 8, zeroAsNA=TRUE)

### patches for different values

p <- patches(r, values=TRUE)

### patch ID values are not guaranteed to be consecutive

r <- rast(nrows=5, ncols=10, xmin=0)
[Link](0)
values(r)<- round(runif(ncell(r))*0.7)
rp <- patches(r, directions=8, zeroAsNA=TRUE)
plot(rp, type="classes"); text(rp)

## unless you set allowGaps=FALSE

rp <- patches(r, directions=8, zeroAsNA=TRUE, allowGaps=FALSE)
plot(rp, type="classes"); text(rp)

### use zonal to remove small patches

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
x <- classify(r, cbind(-Inf, 400, NA))
y <- patches(x)
# remove patches smaller than 100 ha
rz <- zonal(cellSize(y, unit="ha"), y, sum, [Link]=TRUE)
s <- ifel(rz < 250, NA, y)

perim Perimeter or length

Description
This method returns the length of lines or the perimeter of polygons.
persp 209

When the coordinate reference system is not longitude/latitude, you may get more accurate results
by first transforming the data to longitude/latitude with project

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
perim(x)

Arguments
x SpatVector

Value
numeric (m)

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
perim(v)

persp Perspective plot

Description
Perspective plot of a SpatRaster. This is an implementation of a generic function in the graphics
package.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
persp(x, maxcells=100000, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster. Only the first layer is used
maxcells integer > 0. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot. If maxpixels <
ncell(x), spatSample(method="regular") is used before plotting
... Any argument that can be passed to persp (graphics package)

See Also
persp, contour, plot

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
persp(r)
210 pitfinder

pitfinder Pit Finder in a Flow Dir SpatRaster for Watershed Extraction

Description
find pits (depressions with no outlet )

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
pitfinder(x,filename="",...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster wih flow-direcion. See terrain
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
A SpatRaster-class (raster) map containing value 1 for the pits and value 0 elsewhere.

Author(s)
Emanuele Cordano

See Also
terrain,watershed,flowAccumulation,NIDP

Examples
## Creation of a Digital Elevation Model

elev <- array(NA,c(9,9))

dx <- 1
dy <- 1
for (r in 1:nrow(elev)) {
x <- (r-5)*dx
for (c in 1:ncol(elev)) {

y <- (c-5)*dy
elev[r,c] <- 10+5*(x^2+y^2)
}
}

elev <- cbind(elev,elev,elev,elev)

elev <- rbind(elev,elev,elev,elev)
elev <- rast(elev)
plet 211

## Flow Directions

flowdir<- terrain(elev,v="flowdir")
t(array(flowdir[],rev(dim(flowdir)[1:2])))

## Pit Detect

pits <- pitfinder(flowdir)

## Application wth example DEM

elev <- rast([Link]('ex/[Link]',package="terra"))

flowdir <- terrain(elev,"flowdir")

pits <- pitfinder(flowdir)

plet Plot with leaflet

Description
Plot a SpatRaster(Collection) or SpatVector(s) to make an interactive leaflet map that is displayed
in your browser.
The arguments of plet are similar to those of plot, making it easier to use leaflet (if you also use
plot).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
plet(x, y=1, col, alpha=0.8, main=names(x),
tiles=c("Streets", "[Link]", "OpenTopoMap"),
wrap=TRUE, maxcell=500000, stretch=NULL, legend="bottomright",
shared=FALSE, panel=FALSE, collapse=TRUE, type=NULL, breaks=NULL,
breakby="eqint", range=NULL, fill_range=FALSE, map=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

plet(x, col, alpha=0.8, main=names(x),
tiles=c("Streets", "[Link]", "OpenTopoMap"),
wrap=TRUE, maxcell=500000, stretch=NULL, legend="bottomright", type=NULL,
breaks=NULL, breakby="eqint", range=NULL, fill_range=FALSE, map=NULL, ...)
212 plet

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

plet(x, y="", col, main=y, cex=1,
lwd=2, lty=NULL, border="black", alpha=c(0.3, 1), popup=TRUE, label=FALSE,
split=FALSE, tiles=c("Streets", "[Link]", "OpenTopoMap"),
wrap=TRUE, legend="bottomright", collapse=FALSE, type=NULL, breaks=NULL,
breakby="eqint", sort=TRUE, reverse=FALSE, map=NULL, fill=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorCollection'

plet(x, y="", col, main=y, cex=1,
lwd=2, lty=NULL, border="black", alpha=c(0.3, 1), popup=TRUE, label=FALSE,
tiles=c("Streets", "[Link]", "OpenTopoMap"),
wrap=TRUE, legend="bottomright", collapse=FALSE, type=NULL, breaks=NULL,
breakby="eqint", sort=TRUE, reverse=FALSE, map=NULL, fill=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'leaflet'

lines(x, y, col, lwd=2, lty=NULL, alpha=1, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'leaflet'

points(x, y, col, border=col, cex=1, lwd=2, lty=NULL,
alpha=c(.3, 1), label=1:nrow(y), popup=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'leaflet'

polys(x, y, col, lwd=2, lty=NULL,
border="black", alpha=c(0.3, 1), popup=TRUE, label=FALSE, fill=NULL, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector, or leaflet object
y missing, or positive integer, or character (variable or layer name) indicating the
layer(s) to be plotted. If x is a SpatRaster, you can select multiple layers
col character. Vector of colors or a color generating function. If x is a SpatVec-
torCollection, you can provide a list with colors and/or functions, with one list
element for each SpatVector
alpha one or two numbers between 0 and 1 to set the transparency for lines (0 is trans-
parent, 1 is opaque). The first number is to fill the points/lines/polygons, the
second for the outline
tiles character or NULL. Names of background tile providers
wrap logical. if TRUE, tiles wrap around
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
stretch NULL or character ("lin" or "hist") to stretch RGB rasters. See plotRGB
legend character to indicate the legend position ("bottomleft", "bottomright", "topleft"
or "topright") or NULL to suppress the legend
main character. Title for the legend. The length should be 1 if x is a SpatVector and
length nlyr(x) if x is a SpatVector
plet 213

shared logical. Should the legend be the same for all rasters (if multiple layers of Spa-
tRaster x are mapped)
map leaflet object
... additional arguments for drawing points, lines, or polygons passed on the the
relevant leaflet function
border character. Color for the polygon borders
collapse logical. Should the layers "control" panel be collapsed?
split logical. If TRUE a check-box is created to toggle each value in y (If x is a
SpatVector)
cex numeric. point size magnifier. See par
lwd numeric. line-width. See par
lty character to specify a "dash-array". For example "3 5" indicates three pixels
lines with five pixel gaps
popup logical. Should pop-ups be created?
label logical. Should mouse-over labels be added?
panel logical. Should SpatRaster layers be shown as a panel"
type character. Type of map/legend. One of "classes", or "interval". If not specified,
the type is chosen based on the data. Use "" to suppress the legend
breaks numeric. Either a single number to indicate the number of breaks desired, or
the actual breaks. When providing this argument, the default legend becomes
"interval"
breakby character or function. Either "eqint" for equal interval breaks, "cases" for equal
quantile breaks. If a function is supplied it should take a single argument (a
vector of values) and create groups
sort logical. If TRUE legends with character values are sorted. You can also supply
a vector of the unique values, in the order in which you want them to appear in
the legend
range numeric. minimum and maximum values to be used for the continuous legend.
You can use NA for one of these to only set the minimum or maximum value
fill_range logical. If TRUE, values outside of range get the colors of the extreme values;
otherwise they get colored as NA
reverse logical. If TRUE, the legends order is reversed
fill do not use. Will be removed

See Also
plot

Examples
## Not run:
if (require(leaflet) && (packageVersion("leaflet") > "2.1.1")) {
214 plot

v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

p <- spatSample([Link](v, ext=T), 30)
values(p) = [Link](id=11:40, name=letters[1:30])

m <- plet(v, "NAME_1", tiles="", border="blue")

m <- points(m, p, col="red", cex=2, popup=T)
lines(m, v, lwd=1, col="white")

plet(v, "NAME_1", split=TRUE, alpha=.2) |>

points(p, col="white", border="red", cex=12, popup=TRUE, lwd=3, lty="1 4",
clusterOptions = leaflet::markerClusterOptions())

s <- svc(v, p)
names(s) <- c("the polys", "set of points")
plet(s, col=c("red", "blue"), lwd=1)

r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

plet(r, main="Hi\nthere", tiles=NULL) |> lines(v, lwd=1)

plet(r, tiles="OpenTopoMap") |> lines(v, lwd=2, col="blue")

x <- c(r, 50*classify(r, 5))

names(x) <- c("first", "second")

# each their own legend

plet(x, 1:2, collapse=FALSE) |> lines(v, lwd=2, col="blue", lty="5,5")

# shared legend
plet(x, 1:2, shared=TRUE, collapse=FALSE) |> lines(v, lwd=2, col="blue")

}
## End(Not run)

plot Make a map

Description
Plot the values of a SpatRaster or SpatVector to make a map.
See points, lines or polys to add a SpatVector to an existing map (or use argument add=TRUE).
There is a separate help file for plotting a SpatGraticule or SpatExtent.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'
plot(x, y=1, col, type=NULL, mar=NULL, legend=TRUE, axes=!add, plg=list(), pax=list(),
maxcell=500000, smooth=FALSE, range=NULL, fill_range=FALSE, levels=NULL,
all_levels=FALSE, breaks=NULL, breakby="eqint", fun=NULL, colNA=NULL, alpha=NULL,
plot 215

sort=FALSE, reverse=FALSE, grid=FALSE, zebra=FALSE, ext=NULL, reset=FALSE,

add=FALSE, buffer=FALSE, background=NULL, box=axes, clip=TRUE, overview=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,missing'

plot(x, y, main, mar=NULL, nc, nr, maxnl=16, maxcell=500000, add=FALSE,
plg=list(), pax=list(), ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,character'

plot(x, y, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,character'

plot(x, y, col=NULL, type=NULL, mar=NULL, legend=TRUE, axes=!add, plg=list(), pax=list(),
main="", grid=FALSE, zebra=FALSE, ext=NULL, sort=TRUE, reverse=FALSE, fun=NULL,
colNA=NA, alpha=NULL, nr, nc, add=FALSE, buffer=TRUE, background=NULL,
box=axes, clip=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,numeric'

plot(x, y, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,missing'

plot(x, y, values=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorCollection,missing'

plot(x, y, main, mar=NULL, nc, nr, maxnl=16, col=NULL, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorCollection,numeric'

plot(x, y, main, mar=NULL, ext=NULL, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
y missing or positive integer or name indicating the layer(s) to be plotted
col character vector to specify the colors to use. The default is [Link]("viridis",
100). The default can be changed with the [Link] option. For example:
options([Link]=[Link](10)). If x is a SpatRaster it can also
be a [Link] with two columns (value, color) for a "classes" type legend
or with three columns (from, to, color) for an "interval" type legend. If x is a
SpatVector it can also be a [Link] with two columns (value, color) or a
named vector (value=color) for a "classes" type legend. If x us a SpatVectorCol-
lection, a list can be provided with colors for each SpatVector
type character. Type of map/legend. One of "continuous", "classes", or "interval". If
not specified, the type is chosen based on the data
mar numeric vector of length 4 to set the margins of the plot (to make space for the
legend). The default is (3.1, 3.1, 2.1, 7.1) for a single plot with a legend and
(3.1, 3.1, 2.1, 2.1) otherwise. The default for a RGB raster is 0. Use mar=NA to
not set the margins
legend logical or character. If not FALSE a legend is drawn. The character value can
be used to indicate where the legend is to be drawn. For example "topright" or
216 plot

"bottomleft". Use plg for more refined placement. Not supported for continuous
legends (the default for raster data)
axes logical. Draw axes?
buffer logical. If TRUE the plotting area is made slightly larger than the extent of x
background background color. Default is no color (white)
box logical. Should a box be drawn around the map?
clip logical. Should the axes be clipped to the extent of x?
overview logical. Should "overviews" be used for fast rendering? This can result in much
faster plotting of raster files that have overviews (e.g. "COG" format) and are
accessed over a http connection. However, these overviews generally show ag-
gregate values, thus reducing the range of the actual values. If NULL, the argu-
ment is set to TRUE for rasters that are accessed over http and FALSE in other
cases
plg list with parameters for drawing the legend. See the arguments for legend.
A legend can be placed with placed by specifying arguments x and y. For a con-
tinuous legend y can have two values. x can also be a SpatExtent. Furthermore,
x can have be a keyword such "topleft" and "bottomright" to place the legend
at these locations inside the map rectangle. For a continuous legend, only the
placement keywords "left", "right", "top", "bottom", "topright", "bottomright"
are recognized; and when using these keywords, the legend is placed outside of
the map rectangle. The placement of the legend can be altered with argument
nudge that move the location in the directions specified with one value (x direc-
tion) or two values (x, y). For a continuous legend it can also have four values
(xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax). When supplying coordinates, use horiz=TRUE to
get a horizontal legend.
Additional parameters for continuous legends include:
• digits integer. The number of digits to print after the decimal point
• size to change the height and/or width; the defaults are c(1,1)
• at to set the location of the tickmarks
• format as in formatC to format the numbers. For example, you can use
format="g" for scientific notation. The default is "f"
• tick One of these partially matched values: "through", "in", "middle",
"out", or "none", to choose a tickmark placement/length that is different
from the default "throughout".
• [Link] to change the tickmark length (default = 1). Only relevant
when tick is "throughout" or "out".
• [Link], [Link] and [Link] to change the appearance of the
tickmarks
• [Link] to rotate the legend title
• title.x and title.y to place the legend title at specific coordinates
pax list with parameters for drawing axes. See the arguments for axis. Additional
parameters include:
• side numeric to indicate for which of the axes to draw a line. Default is
1:4 (only noticble when box=FALSE.
plot 217

• tick numeric to indicate for which of the axes to draw tickmarks. Default
is 1:2 unless side is changed, in which case the default is the same as side
• lab numeric to indicate for which of the axes to draw labels. Default is 1:2
unless side is changed, in which case the default is the same as side
• xat/yat numeric with the values at which tickmarks are to be drawn on the
horizontal/vertical axis.
• xlabs/ylabs this can either be a logical value specifying whether (numeri-
cal) annotations are to be made at the tickmarks, or a character or expression
vector of labels to be placed at the tickmarks of the horizontal/vertical axis.
• retro a logical value that can be set to TRUE to use a sexagesimal notation
for the labels (degrees/minutes/hemisphere) instead of the standard decimal
notation. For longitude/latitude data only. See graticule for projected
data.
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
smooth logical. If TRUE the cell values are smoothed (only if a continuous legend is
used)
range numeric. minimum and maximum values to be used for the continuous legend.
You can use NA for one of these to only set the minimum or maximum value
fill_range logical. If TRUE, values outside of range get the colors of the extreme values;
otherwise they get colored as NA
levels character. labels for the legend when type="classes"
all_levels logical. If TRUE, the legend shows all levels of a categorical raster, even if they
are not present in the data
breaks numeric. Either a single number to indicate the number of breaks desired, or
the actual breaks. When providing this argument, the default legend becomes
"interval"
breakby character or function. Either "eqint" for equal interval breaks, "cases" for equal
quantile breaks. If a function is supplied, it should take a single argument (a
vector of values) and create groups
fun function to be called after plotting each SpatRaster layer to add something to
each map (such as text, legend, lines). For example, with SpatVector v, you
could do fun=function() lines(v). The function may have one argument,
representing the layer that is plotted (1 to the number of layers)
colNA character. color for the NA values
alpha Either a single numeric between 0 and 1 to set the transparency for all colors (0
is transparent, 1 is opaque) or a SpatRaster with values between 0 and 1 to set
the transparency by cell. To set the transparency for a given color, set it to the
colors directly
sort logical. If TRUE legends with categorical values are sorted. If x is a SpatVector
you can also supply a vector of the unique values, in the order in which you want
them to appear in the legend
reverse logical. If TRUE, the legend order is reversed
grid logical. If TRUE grid lines are drawn. Their properties such as type and color can
be set with the pax argument. The grid is drawn first such that it is covered by
x. See add_grid to add grid lines on top of the map
218 plot

zebra logical. If TRUE a "zebra-box" is added to the axes (ignored when add=TRUE).
The width of the zebra-box can be set with additional argument [Link]. The
colors can be changed with additional argument [Link]
nc positive integer. Optional. The number of columns to divide the plotting device
in (when plotting multiple layers)
nr positive integer. Optional. The number of rows to divide the plotting device in
(when plotting multiple layers)
main character. Main plot titles (one for each layer to be plotted). You can use
arguments [Link], [Link], [Link] to change the appearance; and
[Link] to change the location of the main title (either two coordinates, or
a character value such as "topleft"). You can also use sub="" for a subtitle. See
title
maxnl positive integer. Maximum number of layers to plot (for a multi-layer object).
add logical. If TRUE add the object to the current plot
ext SpatExtent. Can be use instead of xlim and ylim to set the extent of the plot
reset logical. If TRUE the margins (see argument mar) are reset to what they were
before calling plot; doing so may affect the display of additional objects that are
added to the map (e.g. with lines)
values Either a vector with values to be used for plotting or a two-column [Link],
where the first column matches a variable in x and the second column has the
values to be plotted
... arguments passed to plot("SpatRaster", "numeric") and additional graphi-
cal arguments

See Also
points, lines, polys, image
Add map elements: text, sbar, north, add_legend, add_box
plot a SpatGraticule or SpatExtent,
multiple layers: plotRGB, panel
other plot types: scatterplot, hist, pairs, density, persp, contour, boxplot, barplot

Examples
## SpatRaster
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
plot(r)

plot(r, type="interval")

plot(r, plg=list(x=6.35, y = c(49.9, 50.1), title="Legend\nTitle", [Link]=0.9),

pax=list(side=1:4, retro=FALSE))
north(cbind(5.8, 50.1))

d <- classify(r, c(100,200,300,400,500,600))

plot 219

plot(d)

plot(d, type="interval", breaks=1:5)

plot(d, type="interval", breaks=c(1,4,5), plg=list(legend=c("1-4", "4-5")))
plot(d, type="classes", xlim=c(5.6, 6.6),
plg=list(legend=c("Mr", "Xx", "As", "Zx", "Bb"), x="bottomleft"))

x <- trunc(r/200)
levels(x) <- [Link](id=0:2, element=c("earth", "wind", "fire"))
plot(x, plg=list(x="topright"),mar=c(2,2,2,2))

oldpar <- par([Link]=TRUE)

# two plots with the same legend

[Link](width=6, height=4, noRStudioGD = TRUE)
par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(r, range=c(50,600), mar=c(1,1,1,4))
plot(r/2, range=c(50,600), mar=c(1,1,1,4))

# as we only need one legend (also see the "panel" method):

par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(r, range=c(50,600), mar=c(2, 2, 2, 2), plg=list(size=0.9, cex=.8),
pax=list(side=1:2, [Link]=.6), box=FALSE)
#text(182500, 335000, "Two maps, one plot", xpd=NA)
plot(r/2, range=c(50,600), mar=c(2, 2, 2, 2), legend=FALSE,
pax=list(side=c(1,4), [Link]=.6), box=FALSE)

par(oldpar)

# multi-layer with RGB

s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
s
plot(s)
# remove RGB
plot(s*1)
# or use layers
plot(s, 1)
plot(s, 1:3)

# fix legend by linking values and colors

x = rast(nrows = 2, ncols = 2, vals=1)

y = rast(nrows = 2, ncols = 2, vals=c(1,2,2,1))
cols = [Link](id=1:2, col=c("red", "blue"))
plot(c(x,y), col=cols)

r = rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, vals=1:100)

dr = [Link](from=c(5,33,66,150), to=c(33, 66, 95,200), col=rainbow(4))
plot(r, col=dr)

### SpatVector
220 plotRGB

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)

plot(v)

plot(v, "NAME_2", col=rainbow(12), border=c("gray", "blue"), lwd=3, zebra=TRUE)

plot(v, 2, pax=list(side=1:2), plg=list(x=6.16, y=50.17, cex=.8), xlim=c(5.7, 6.7))

plot(v, 4, pax=list(side=1:2), plg=list(x=6.2, y=50.2, ncol=2), main="", box=FALSE)

plot(v, 1, plg=list(x=5.8, y=49.37, horiz=TRUE, cex=1.1), main="", mar=c(5,2,0.5,0.5))

plot(v, density=1:12, angle=seq(18, 360, 20), col=rainbow(12))

plot(v, "AREA", type="interval", breaks=3, mar=c(3.1, 3.1, 2.1, 3.1),

plg=list(x="topright"), main="")

plot(v, "AREA", type="interval", breaks=c(0,200,250,350),

mar=c(2,2,2,2), xlim=c(5.7, 6.75),
plg=list(legend=c("<200", "200-250", ">250"), cex=1, bty="o",
x=6.3, y=50.15, [Link]=2, bg="light yellow", title="My legend"))

plotRGB Red-Green-Blue plot of a multi-layered SpatRaster

Description

Make a Red-Green-Blue plot based on three layers in a SpatRaster. The layers (sometimes referred
to as "bands" because they may represent different bandwidths in the electromagnetic spectrum) are
combined such that they represent the red, green and blue channel. This function can be used to
make "true" (or "false") color images from Landsat and other multi-spectral satellite images.
Note that the margins of the plot are set to zero (no axes or titles are visible) but can be set with the
mar argument.
An alternative way to plot RGB images is to first use colorize to create a single layer SpatRaster
with a color-table and then use plot.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

plotRGB(x, r=1, g=2, b=3, a=NULL, scale=NULL, mar=0,
stretch=NULL, smooth=TRUE, colNA="white", alpha=NULL, bgalpha=NULL,
zlim=NULL, zcol=FALSE, axes=FALSE ,...)
plotRGB 221

Arguments
x SpatRaster
r integer between 1 and nlyr(x). Layer to use as the Red channel
g integer between 1 and nlyr(x). Layer to use as the Green channel
b integer between 1 and nlyr(x). Layer to use as the Blue channel
a NULL or integer between 1 and nlyr(x). Layer to use as the alpha (trans-
parency) channel. If not NULL, argument alpha is ignored
scale integer. Maximum (possible) value in the three channels. Defaults to 255 or to
the maximum value of x if that is known and larger than 255
mar numeric vector recycled to length 4 to set the margins of the plot. Use mar=NULL
or mar=NA to not set the margins
stretch character. Option to stretch the values to increase contrast: "lin" (linear) or
"hist" (histogram). The linear stretch uses stretch with arguments minq=0.02
and maxq=0.98
smooth logical. If TRUE, smooth the image when drawing to get the appearance of a
higher spatial resolution
colNA color. The color used for cells that have NA values
alpha transparency. Integer between 0 (transparent) and 255 (opaque)
bgalpha Background transparency. Integer between 0 (transparent) and 255 (opaque)
zlim numeric vector of length 2. Range of values to plot (optional). If this is set, and
stretch="lin" is used, then the values are stretched within the range of zlim.
This allows creating consistent coloring between SpatRasters with different cell-
value ranges, even when stretching the colors for improved contrast
zcol logical. If TRUE the values outside the range of zlim get the color of the extremes
of the range. Otherwise, the values outside the zlim range get the color of NA
values (see argument "colNA")
axes logical. If TRUE axes are drawn (and arguments such as main="title" will be
honored)
... graphical parameters as in plot<SpatRaster-method>

See Also
plot, colorize, RGB

Examples
b <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
plotRGB(b)
plotRGB(b, mar=2)
plotRGB(b, 3, 2, 1)

b[1000:2000] <- NA
plotRGB(b, 3, 2, 1, stretch="hist")
222 plot_graticule

plot_extent Plot a SpatExtent

Description
Plot a SpatExtent. Use lines to add a SpatExtent to an existing map.
See plot for plotting other object types.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,missing'
plot(x, y, ...)

Arguments
x SpatExtent
y missing
... additional graphical arguments for lines

See Also
plot

Examples
r <- rast()
plot(ext(r))

plot_graticule Plot a graticule

Description
Plot a SpatGraticule. You can create a SpatGraticule with graticule.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatGraticule,missing'
plot(x, y, background=NULL, col="black", mar=NULL, labels=TRUE,
retro=FALSE, [Link]=c(1,1), [Link]=NULL, [Link]=NULL, [Link]=0.65,
[Link]="black", [Link]=0.25, [Link]=0.25, box=FALSE, [Link]="black",
tickmarks=FALSE, add=FALSE, ...)
plot_graticule 223

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
y missing or positive integer or name indicating the layer(s) to be plotted
background background color. If NULL, no background is drawn
mar numeric vector of length 4 to set the margins of the plot. To make space for the
legend you may use something like c(3.1, 3.1, 2.1, 7.1). To fill the plotting
canvas, you can use c(0,0,0,0. Use NA to not set the margins
col character. Color for the graticule lines
labels logical. If TRUE, show graticule labels
retro logical. If TRUE, show "retro" instead of decimal labels with the graticule
[Link] numeric. The first number indicates where the longitude graticule labels should
be drawn (1=bottom, 2=top, NA=not drawn, any other number=top and bottom).
The second number indicates where the latitude graticule labels should be drawn
(1=left, 2=right, NA=not drawn, any other number=left and right)
[Link] positive integers between 1 and the number of labels, indicating which longitude
graticule labels should be included
[Link] positive integers between 1 and the number of labels, indicating which latitude
graticule labels should be included
[Link] double. size of the label font
[Link] character. color of the labels
[Link] numeric. longitude labels offset
[Link] numeric. latitude labels offset
box logical. If TRUE, the outer lines of the graticule are drawn on top with a sold line
lty=1
[Link] character. color of the outer lines of the graticule if box=TRUE
tickmarks logical. If TRUE, tickmarks are added
add logical. Add the graticule to the current plot?
... additional graphical arguments passed to lines

See Also
graticule, plot, points, lines, polys, image, scatterplot, scale bar: sbar, north arrow:
north

Examples
g <- graticule(60, 30, crs="+proj=robin")

plot(g, background="azure", col="red", lty=2, box=TRUE)

plot(g, background="azure", col="light gray", [Link]=c(1,2),
[Link]=c(2,4,6), [Link]=3:5, lty=3, retro=TRUE)
224 prcomp

prcomp SpatRaster PCA with prcomp

Description
Compute principal components for SpatRaster layers. This method may be preferred to princomp
for its greater numerical accuracy. However, it is slower and for very large rasters it can only be
done with a sample. This may be good enough but see princomp if you want to use all values.
Unlike princomp, in this method the sample variances are used with n-1 as the denominator.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
prcomp(x, retx=TRUE, center=TRUE, scale.=FALSE,
tol=NULL, rank.=NULL, maxcell=Inf)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
retx a logical value indicating whether the rotated variables should be returned
center a logical value indicating whether the variables should be shifted to be zero
centered. Alternately, a vector of length equal the number of columns of x can
be supplied. The value is passed to scale
scale. a logical value indicating whether the variables should be scaled to have unit
variance before the analysis takes place. The default is FALSE for consistency
with S, but in general scaling is advisable. Alternatively, a vector of length equal
the number of columns of x can be supplied. The value is passed to scale
tol a value indicating the magnitude below which components should be omitted.
(Components are omitted if their standard deviations are less than or equal
to tol times the standard deviation of the first component.) With the default
null setting, no components are omitted (unless rank. is specified less than
min(dim(x))). Other settings for tol could be tol = 0 or tol = sqrt(.Machine$[Link]),
which would omit essentially constant components
rank. optionally, a number specifying the maximal rank, i.e., maximal number of prin-
cipal components to be used. Can be set as alternative or in addition to tol, useful
notably when the desired rank is considerably smaller than the dimensions of the
matrix
maxcell positive integer. The maximum number of cells to be used. If this is smaller
than ncell(x), a regular sample of x is used

Value
prcomp object
predict 225

Note

prcomp may change the layer names if they are not valid. See [Link]. In that case, you will
get a warning, and would need to also make the layer names of x valid before using predict. Even
better would be to change them before calling prcomp.

See Also

princomp, prcomp

Examples

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package = "terra")

r <- rast(f)
pca <- prcomp(r)
x <- predict(r, pca)

# use "index" to get a subset of the components

p <- predict(r, pca, index=1:2)

predict Spatial model predictions

Description

Make a SpatRaster with predictions from a fitted model object (for example, obtained with glm or
randomForest). The first argument is a SpatRaster object with the predictor variables. The names
in the SpatRaster should exactly match those expected by the model. Any regression like model for
which a predict method has been implemented (or can be implemented) can be used.
The method should work if the model’s predict function returns a vector, matrix or [Link] (or
a list that can be coerced to a [Link]). In other cases it may be necessary to provide a custom
"predict" function that wraps the model’s predict function to return the values in the required form.
See the examples.
This approach of using model predictions is commonly used in remote sensing (for the classification
of satellite images) and in ecology, for species distribution modeling.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

predict(object, model, fun=predict, ..., const=NULL, [Link]=FALSE,
index=NULL, cores=1, cpkgs=NULL, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())
226 predict

Arguments
object SpatRaster
model fitted model of any class that has a "predict" method (or for which you can
supply a similar method as fun argument. E.g. glm, gam, or randomForest
fun function. The predict function that takes model as first argument. The default
value is predict, but can be replaced with e.g. [Link] (depending on the
type of model), or your own custom function
... additional arguments for fun
const [Link]. Can be used to add a constant value as a predictor variable so that
you do not need to make a SpatRaster layer for it
[Link] logical. If TRUE, cells with NA values in the any of the layers of x are removed
from the computation (even if the NA cell is in a layer that is not used as a
variable in the model). This option prevents errors with models that cannot
handle NA values when making predictions. In most other cases this will not
affect the output. However, there are some models that return predicted values
even if some (or all) variables are NA
index integer or character. Can be used to to select a subset of the model output vari-
ables
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used
cpkgs character. The package(s) that need to be loaded on the nodes to be able to run
the [Link] function (see examples)
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
interpolate for spatial model prediction

Examples
logo <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
names(logo) <- c("red", "green", "blue")
p <- matrix(c(48, 48, 48, 53, 50, 46, 54, 70, 84, 85, 74, 84, 95, 85,
66, 42, 26, 4, 19, 17, 7, 14, 26, 29, 39, 45, 51, 56, 46, 38, 31,
22, 34, 60, 70, 73, 63, 46, 43, 28), ncol=2)

a <- matrix(c(22, 33, 64, 85, 92, 94, 59, 27, 30, 64, 60, 33, 31, 9,
99, 67, 15, 5, 4, 30, 8, 37, 42, 27, 19, 69, 60, 73, 3, 5, 21,
37, 52, 70, 74, 9, 13, 4, 17, 47), ncol=2)
predict 227

xy <- rbind(cbind(1, p), cbind(0, a))

# extract predictor values for points

e <- extract(logo, xy[,2:3])

# combine with response (excluding the ID column)

v <- [Link](cbind(pa=xy[,1], e))

#build a model, here with glm

model <- glm(formula=pa~., data=v)

#predict to a raster
r1 <- predict(logo, model)

plot(r1)
points(p, bg='blue', pch=21)
points(a, bg='red', pch=21)

# logistic regression
model <- glm(formula=pa~., data=v, family="binomial")
r1log <- predict(logo, model, type="response")

# to get the probability and standard error

r1se <- predict(logo, model, [Link]=TRUE)

# or provide a custom predict function

predfun <- function(model, data) {

v <- predict(model, data, [Link]=TRUE)
cbind(p=[Link](v$fit), se=[Link](v$[Link]))
}

r2 <- predict(logo, model, fun=predfun)

### principal components of a SpatRaster

pca <- prcomp(logo)

# or use sampling if you have a large raster

# and cannot process all cell values
sr <- spatSample(logo, 100000, "regular")
pca <- prcomp(sr)

x <- predict(logo, pca)

plot(x)

## parallelization
## Not run:
## simple case with GLM
model <- glm(formula=pa~., data=v)
p <- predict(logo, model, cores=2)

## The above does not work with a model from a contributed

## package, as the package needs to be loaded in each core.
228 princomp

## Below are three approaches to deal with that

library(randomForest)
rfm <- randomForest(formula=pa~., data=v)

## approach 0 (not parallel)

rp0 <- predict(logo, rfm)

## approach 1, use the "cpkgs" argument

rp1 <- predict(logo, rfm, cores=2, cpkgs="randomForest")

## approach 2, write a custom predict function that loads the package

rfun <- function(mod, dat, ...) {
library(randomForest)
predict(mod, dat, ...)
}
rp2 <- predict(logo, rfm, fun=rfun, cores=2)

## approach 3, write a parallelized custom predict function

rfun <- function(mod, dat, ...) {
ncls <- length(cls)
nr <- nrow(dat)
s <- split(dat, rep(1:ncls, each=ceiling(nr/ncls), [Link]=nr))
unlist( parallel::clusterApply(cls, s, function(x, ...) predict(mod, x, ...)) )
}

library(parallel)
cls <- parallel::makeCluster(2)
parallel::clusterExport(cls, c("rfm", "rfun", "randomForest"))
rp3 <- predict(logo, rfm, fun=rfun)
parallel::stopCluster(cls)

plot(c(rp0, rp1, rp2, rp3))

### with two output variables (probabilities for each class)

v$pa <- [Link](v$pa)
rfm2 <- randomForest(formula=pa~., data=v)
rfp <- predict(logo, rfm2, cores=2, type="prob", cpkgs="randomForest")

## End(Not run)

princomp SpatRaster PCA with princomp

Description
Compute principal components for SpatRaster layers. This method can use all values to compute
the principal components, even for very large rasters. This is because it computes the covariance
princomp 229

matrix by processing the data in chunks, if necessary, using layerCor. The population covariance
is used (not the sample, with n-1 denominator, covariance).
Alternatively, you can specify maxcell or sample raster values to a [Link] to speed up calcula-
tions for very large rasters (see the examples below).
See prcomp for an alternative method that has higher numerical accuracy, but is slower, and for very
large rasters can only be accomplished with a sample since all values must be read into memory.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
princomp(x, cor=FALSE, fix_sign=TRUE, use="[Link]", maxcell=Inf)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
cor logical. If FALSE, the covariance matrix is used. Otherwise the correlation ma-
trix is used
fix_sign logical. If TRUE, the signs of the loadings and scores are chosen so that the first
element of each loading is non-negative
use character. To decide how to handle missing values. This must be (an abbrevia-
tion of) one of the strings "everything", "[Link]", "[Link]",
or "[Link]". With "[Link]", the covariance between
a pair of layers is computed for all cells that are not NA in that pair. Therefore,
it may be that the (number of) cells used varies between pairs. The benefit of
this approach is that all available data is used. Use "[Link]", if you want
to only use the values from cells that are not NA in any of the layers. By using
"[Link]" you indicate that all layers have NA values in the same cells
maxcell positive integer. The maximum number of cells to be used. If this is smaller
than ncell(x), a regular sample of x is used

Value
princomp object

Author(s)
Alex Ilich and Robert Hijmans, based on a similar method by Benjamin Leutner

See Also
prcomp princomp

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package = "terra")
r <- rast(f)
pca <- princomp(r)
x <- predict(r, pca)
230 project

# use "index" to get a subset of the components

p <- predict(r, pca, index=1:2)

### use princomp directly

pca2 <- princomp(values(r), fix_sign = TRUE)
p2 <- predict(r, pca2)

### may need to use sampling with a large raster

### here with prcomp instead of princomp
sr <- spatSample(r, 100000, "regular")
pca3 <- prcomp(sr)
p3 <- predict(r, pca3)

project Change the coordinate reference system

Description
Change the coordinate reference system ("project") of a SpatVector, SpatRaster or a matrix with
coordinates.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
project(x, y, partial = FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

project(x, y, method, mask=FALSE, align_only=FALSE, res=NULL,
origin=NULL, threads=FALSE, filename="", ..., use_gdal=TRUE, by_util = FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

project(x, from, to)

## S4 method for signature 'matrix'

project(x, from, to)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector, SpatExtent or matrix (with x and y columns) whose
coordinates to project
y if x is a SpatRaster, the preferred approach is for y to be a SpatRaster as well,
serving as a template for the geometry (extent and resolution) of the output Spa-
tRaster. Alternatively, you can provide a coordinate reference system (CRS)
description.
You can use the following formats to define coordinate reference systems: WKT,
PROJ.4 (e.g., +proj=longlat +datum=WGS84), or an EPSG code (e.g., "epsg:4326").
But note that the PROJ.4 notation has been deprecated, and you can only use it
project 231

with the WGS84/NAD83 and NAD27 datums. Other datums are silently ig-
nored.
If x is a SpatVector, you can provide a crs definition as discussed above, or any
other object from which such a crs can be extracted with crs
partial logical. If TRUE, geometries that can only partially be represented in the output
crs are included in the output
method character. Method used for estimating the new cell values of a SpatRaster. One
of:
bilinear: bilinear interpolation (3x3 cell window). This is used by default if
the first layer of x is not categorical
mean: This can be a good choice with continuous variables if the output cells
overlap with multiple input cells.
near: nearest neighbor. This is used by default if the first layer of x is categori-
cal. This method is not a good choice for continuous values.
mode: The modal value. This can be a good choice for categrical rasters, if the
output cells overlap with multiple input cells.
cubic: cubic interpolation (5x5 cell window).
cubicspline: cubic B-spline interpolation. (5x5 cell window).
lanczos: Lanczos windowed sinc resampling. (7x7 cell window).
sum: the weighted sum of all non-NA contributing grid cells.
min, q1, median, q3, max: the minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile,
or maximum value.
rms: the root-mean-square value of all non-NA contributing grid cells.
mask logical. If TRUE, mask out areas outside the input extent. For example, to avoid
data wrapping around the date-line (see example with Robinson projection). To
remove cells that are NA in y (if y is a SpatRaster) you can use the mask method
after calling project (this function)
align_only logical. If TRUE, and y is a SpatRaster, the template is used for the spatial reso-
lution and origin, but the extent is set such that all of the extent of x is included
res numeric. Can be used to set the resolution of the output raster if y is a CRS
origin numeric. Can be used to set the origin of the output raster if y is a CRS
threads logical. If TRUE multiple threads are used (faster for large files)
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
use_gdal logical. If TRUE the GDAL-warp algorithm is used. Otherwise, a slower internal
algorithm is used that may be more accurate if there is much variation in the cell
sizes of the output raster. Only the near and bilinear algorithms are available
for the internal algorithm
by_util logical. If TRUE and gdal=TRUE, the GDAL warp utility is used
from character. Coordinate reference system of x
to character. Output coordinate reference system
232 project

Value
SpatVector or SpatRaster

Note
The PROJ.4 notation of coordinate reference systems has been partly deprecated in the GDAL/PROJ
library that is used by this function. You can still use this notation, but *only* with the WGS84
datum. Other datums are silently ignored.
Transforming (projecting) raster data is fundamentally different from transforming vector data. Vec-
tor data can be transformed and back-transformed without loss in precision and without changes in
the values. This is not the case with raster data. In each transformation the values for the new cells
are estimated in some fashion. Therefore, if you need to match raster and vector data for analysis,
you should generally transform the vector data.
When using this method with a SpatRaster, the preferable approach is to provide a template
SpatRaster as argument y. The template is then another raster dataset that you want your data
to align with. If you do not have a template to begin with, you can do project(rast(x), crs) and
then manipulate the output to get the template you want. For example, where possible use whole
numbers for the extent and resolution so that you do not have to worry about small differences in
the future. You can use commands like dim(z) = c(180, 360) or res(z) <- 100000.
The output resolution should generally be similar to the input resolution, but there is no "correct"
resolution in raster transformation. It is not obvious what this resolution is if you are using lon/lat
data that spans a large North-South extent.

See Also
crs, resample

Examples
## SpatRaster
a <- rast(ncols=40, nrows=40, xmin=-110, xmax=-90, ymin=40, ymax=60,
crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")
values(a) <- 1:ncell(a)
newcrs="+proj=lcc +lat_1=48 +lat_2=33 +lon_0=-100 +datum=WGS84"
b <- rast(ncols=94, nrows=124, xmin=-944881, xmax=935118, ymin=4664377, ymax=7144377, crs=newcrs)
w <- project(a, b)

## SpatVector
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
crs(v, proj=TRUE)
cat(crs(v), "\n")

project(v, "+proj=moll")

project(v, "EPSG:2169")
quantile 233

quantile Quantiles of spatial data

Description
Compute quantiles for each cell across the layers of a SpatRaster.
You can use use global(x, fun=quantile) to instead compute quantiles across cells for each
layer.
You can also use this method to compute quantiles of the numeric variables of a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
quantile(x, probs=seq(0, 1, 0.25), [Link]=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

quantile(x, probs=seq(0, 1, 0.25), ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
probs numeric vector of probabilities with values in [0,1]
[Link] logical. If TRUE, NA’s are removed from x before the quantiles are computed
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster with layers representing quantiles

See Also
app

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
rr <- c(r/2, r, r*2)
qr <- quantile(rr)
qr

## Not run:
# same but slower
qa <- app(rr, quantile)

## End(Not run)
234 query

#quantile by layer instead of by cell

qg <- global(r, quantile)

query Query a SpatVectorProxy object

Description
Query a SpatVectorProxy to extract a subset

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorProxy'
query(x, start=1, n=nrow(x), vars=NULL, where=NULL,
extent=NULL, filter=NULL, sql=NULL, dialect="", what="")

Arguments
x SpatVectorProxy
start positive integer. The record to start reading at
n positive integer. The number of records requested
vars character. Variable names. Must be a subset of names(x)
where character. expression like "NAME_1=’California’ AND ID > 3" , to subset
records. Note that start and n are applied after executing the where statement
extent Spat* object. The extent of the object is used as a spatial filter to select the
geometries to read. Ignored if filter is not NULL
filter SpatVector. Used as a spatial filter to select geometries to read (the convex hull
is used for lines or points)
sql character. Arbitrary SQL statement. If used, arguments "start", "n", "vars" and
"where" are ignored
what character indicating what to read. Either "" for geometries and attributes, or
"geoms" to only read the geometries, "attributes" to only read the attributes
(that are returned as a [Link])
dialect character. The SQL dialect to use (if any). For example: "SQLite"

Value
SpatVector

See Also
vect
rangeFill 235

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f, proxy=TRUE)
v

x <- query(v, vars=c("ID_2", "NAME_2"), start=5, n=2)

x

query(v, vars=c("ID_2", "NAME_1", "NAME_2"), where="NAME_1='Grevenmacher' AND ID_2 > 6")

## with an extent
e <- ext(5.9, 6.3, 49.9, 50)
x <- query(v, extent=e)

## with polygons
p <- [Link](e)
x <- query(v, filter=p)
x

rangeFill Fill layers with a range

Description
Fill layers with cell-varying ranges defined by a start and end SpatRaster. The range must start at 1
and end at a user-defined maximum. Output values are either zero (not in the range) or one (in the
range).
For example, for a cell with start=3, end=5 and with limit=8, the output for that cell would be
0,0,1,1,1,0,0,0

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
rangeFill(x, limit, circular=FALSE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster with at two layers. The cell values of the first layer indicate the start
of the range (1 based); the cell values are indicate the end of the range
limit numeric > 1. The range size
circular logical. If TRUE the values are considered circular, such as the days of the year.
In that case, if first > last the layers used are c(first:limit, 1:last). Otherwise, if
circular=FALSE, such a range would be considered invalid and NA would be
used
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
236 rapp

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
rapp

Examples
x <- y <- rast(ncol=2, nrow=2)
values(x) <- c(NA, 1:3)
values(y) <- c(NA, 4:6)

r <- rangeFill(c(x, y), 8)

rapp Range-apply

Description
Apply a function to a range of the layers of a SpatRaster that varies by cell. The range is specified
for each cell with one or two SpatRasters (arguments first and last). For either first or last
you can use a single number instead.
You cannot use single numbers for both first and last because in that case you could use app or
Summary-methods, perhaps subsetting the layers of a SpatRaster.
See selectRange to create a new SpatRaster by extracting one or more values starting at a cell-
varying layer.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
rapp(x, first, last, fun, ..., allyrs=FALSE, fill=NA,
clamp=FALSE, circular=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
first SpatRaster or positive integer between 1 and nlyr(x), indicating the first layer in
the range of layers to be considered
last SpatRaster or positive integer between 1 and nlyr(x), indicating the last layer in
the range to be considered
fun function to be applied
... additional arguments passed to fun
allyrs logical. If TRUE, values for all layers are passed to fun but the values outside of
the range are set to fill
rast 237

fill numeric. The fill value for the values outside of the range, for when allyrs=TRUE
clamp logical. If FALSE and the specified range is outside 1:nlyr(x) all cells are
considered NA. Otherwise, the invalid part of the range is ignored
circular logical. If TRUE the values are considered circular, such as the days of the year.
In that case, if first > last the layers used are c(first:nlyr(x), 1:last). Otherwise,
the range would be considered invalid and NA would be returned
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
selectRange, app, Summary-methods, lapp, tapp

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=9, nrows=9)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
s <- c(r, r, r, r, r, r)
s <- s * 1:6
s[1:2] <- NA
start <- end <- rast(r)
start[] <- 1:3
end[] <- 4:6
a <- rapp(s, start, end, fun="mean")
b <- rapp(s, start, 2, fun="mean")

# cumsum from start to nlyr(x). return all layers

r <- rapp(s, start, nlyr(s), cumsum, allyrs=TRUE, fill=0)
# return only the final value
rr <- rapp(s, start, nlyr(s), function(i) max(cumsum(i)))

rast Create a SpatRaster

Description
Methods to create a SpatRaster. These objects can be created from scratch, from a filename, or from
another object.
A SpatRaster represents a spatially referenced surface divided into three dimensional cells (rows,
columns, and layers).
When a SpatRaster is created from one or more files, it does not load the cell (pixel) values into
memory (RAM). It only reads the parameters that describe the geometry of the SpatRaster, such as
238 rast

the number of rows and columns and the coordinate reference system. The actual values will be
read when needed.
Note that there are operating system level limitations to the number of files that can be opened
simultaneously. Using a SpatRaster of very many files (e.g. 10,000) may cause R to crash when
you use it in a computation. In situations like that you may need to split up the task or combine data
into fewer (multi-layer) files. Also note that the GTiff format used for temporary files cannot store
more than 65,535 layers in a single file.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'character'
rast(x, subds=0, lyrs=NULL, drivers=NULL, opts=NULL, win=NULL,
snap="near", vsi=FALSE, raw=FALSE, noflip=FALSE,
guessCRS=TRUE, domains="", md=FALSE, dims=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'missing'

rast(x, nrows=180, ncols=360, nlyrs=1, xmin=-180, xmax=180, ymin=-90,
ymax=90, crs, extent, resolution, vals, names, time, units)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rast(x, nlyrs=nlyr(x), names, vals, keeptime=TRUE,
keepunits=FALSE, props=FALSE, tags=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'matrix'

rast(x, type="", crs="", digits=6, extent=NULL)

## S4 method for signature '[Link]'

rast(x, type="xyz", crs="", digits=6, extent=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'array'

rast(x, crs="", extent=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'list'

rast(x, warn=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

rast(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

rast(x, type="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

rast(x, ...)

Arguments
x filename (character), missing, SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset, SpatExtent, SpatVec-
tor, matrix, array, list of SpatRasters. For other types it will be attempted to
create a SpatRaster via (‘as(x, "SpatRaster")‘
rast 239

subds positive integer or character to select a sub-dataset. If zero or "", all sub-datasets
are returned (if possible)
lyrs positive integer or character to select a subset of layers (a.k.a. "bands"). If x
has multiple filenames, the same layer numbers are selected from each of the
files, unless numbers larger than the number of layers of the first data source are
included
drivers character. GDAL drivers to consider
opts character. GDAL dataset open options
win SpatExtent to set a window (area of interest)
snap character. One of "near", "in", or "out", to indicate how the extent of window
should be "snapped" to x
vsi logical. If TRUE, "\vsicurl\" is prepended to filenames that start with "http".
There are many VSI configuration options that can be set with setGDALconfig
raw logical. If TRUE, scale and offset values are ignored. See scoff to get these
parameters
noflip logical. If TRUE, a raster (e.g. JPEG image) that is not georeferenced and that
GDAL assigns a flipped extent to (ymax < ymin), is not considered flipped. This
avoids the need to flip the raster vertically
guessCRS logical. If TRUE and the the file does not specify a CRS but has an extent that
is within longitude/latitude bounds, the longitude/latitude crs is assigned to the
SpatRaster
domains character. Metadata domains to read (see metags to retrieve their values if there
are any. "" is the default domain
md logical. If TRUE, the multi-dimensional GDAL interface is used under the hood
for file reading. This interface can only be used for a few file formats (netCDF/HDF5)
and can sometimes (not always) provide notably faster reading of data with
many (time) steps in the third or higher dimension. Support for this is new
and experimental (June 2025)
dims numeric. Specify the order of the dimensions to read atypical files. See ar_info.
Only relevant if md=TRUE. Not used yet
nrows positive integer. Number of rows
ncols positive integer. Number of columns
nlyrs positive integer. Number of layers
xmin minimum x coordinate (left border)
xmax maximum x coordinate (right border)
ymin minimum y coordinate (bottom border)
ymax maximum y coordinate (top border)
crs character. Description of the Coordinate Reference System (map projection) in
PROJ.4, WKT or authority:code notation. See crs. If this argument is missing,
and the x coordinates are within -360 .. 360 and the y coordinates are within -90
.. 90, longitude/latitude is assigned
keeptime logical. If FALSE the time stamps are discarded
240 rast

keepunits logical. If FALSE the layer units are discarded

props logical. If TRUE the properties (categories and color-table) are kept
tags logical. If TRUE the user specified metadata tags are kept (see metags).
extent object of class SpatExtent. If present, the arguments xmin, xmax, ymin and
ymax are ignored
resolution numeric vector of length 1 or 2 to set the spatial resolution (see res). If this
argument is used, arguments ncols and nrows are ignored
vals numeric. An optional vector with cell values (if fewer values are provided, these
are recycled to reach the number of cells)
names character. An optional vector with layer names (must match the number of lay-
ers)
time time or date stamps for each layer
units character. units for each layer
type character. If the value is "xyz", x must be a SpatVector with point geometry, or
a matrix or [Link] with at least two columns, the first with x (or longitude)
and the second with y (or latitude) coordinates that represent the centers of raster
cells. The additional columns are the values associated with the raster cells. If
the value is "xylz", x must have four columns with the third representing the
layer and the fourth the cell values. If the value is "", the resulting SpatRaster
will have the same number of rows and columns as x.
digits integer to set the precision for detecting whether points are on a regular grid (a
low number of digits is a low precision). Only used when type="xyz"
warn logical. If TRUE, a warnings about empty rasters may be emitted
... additional arguments passed on to the rast,missing-method

Details
Files are read with the GDAL library. GDAL guesses the file format from the name, and/or
tries reading it with different "drivers" (see gdal) until it succeeds. In very few cases this may
cause a file to be opened with the wrong driver, and some information may be lost. For exam-
ple, when a netCDF file is opened with the HDF5 driver. You can avoid that by using argument
rast("[Link]", drivers="NETCDF")
These classes hold a C++ pointer to the data "reference class" and that creates some limitations.
They cannot be recovered from a saved R session either or directly passed to nodes on a computer
cluster. Generally, you should use writeRaster to save SpatRaster objects to disk (and pass a
filename or cell values of cluster nodes). Also see wrap.

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
sds to create a SpatRasterDataset (SpatRasters with the same geometry representing different vari-
ables or higher dimension), sprc to create a SpatRasterCollection (to combine SpatRasters with
different geometries), and vect for vector (points, lines, polygons) data
rasterize 241

Examples

# Create a SpatRaster from scratch

x <- rast(nrows=108, ncols=21, xmin=0, xmax=10)

# Create a SpatRaster from a file

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)

# A file with multiple layers. This one is special as the layers are RGB color channels
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

# remove the color channels

#plot(s)
#RGB(s) <- NULL
#plot(s)

# Create a skeleton with no associated cell values

rast(s)

# from a matrix
m <- matrix(1:25, nrow=5, ncol=5)
rm <- rast(m)

# from a "xyz" [Link]

d <- [Link](rm, xy=TRUE)
head(d)
rast(d, type="xyz")

rasterize Rasterize vector data

Description

Transfer values associated with the geometries of vector data to a raster

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatRaster'

rasterize(x, y, field="", fun, ..., background=NA, touches=FALSE, update=FALSE,
cover=FALSE, by=NULL, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'matrix,SpatRaster'

rasterize(x, y, values=1, fun, ..., background=NA, update=FALSE,
by=NULL, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())
242 rasterize

Arguments
x SpatVector or a two-column matrix (point coordinates) or [Link]
y SpatRaster
field character or numeric. If field is a character, it should be a variable name in x.
If field is numeric it typically is a single number or a vector of length nrow(x).
The values are recycled to nrow(x)
values typically a numeric vector of length 1 or nrow(x). If the length is below nrow(x),
the values will be recycled to nrow(x). Only used when x is a matrix. Can also
be a matrix or [Link]
fun summarizing function for when there are multiple geometries in one cell. For
lines and polygons, you can only use "min", "max", "mean", "count" and
"sum". For points you can use any function that returns a single number; for
example mean, length (to get a count), min or max
... additional arguments passed to fun
background numeric. Value to put in the cells that are not covered by any of the features of
x. Default is NA
touches logical. If TRUE, all cells touched by lines or polygons are affected, not just
those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the polygon. If
touches=TRUE, add cannot be TRUE
update logical. If TRUE, the values of the input SpatRaster are updated
cover logical. If TRUE and the geometry of x is polygons, the fraction of a cell that
is covered by the polygons is returned. This is estimated by determining pres-
ence/absence of the polygon in at least 100 sub-cells (more of there are very few
cells)
by character or numeric value(s) to split x into multiple groups. There will be a
separate layer for each group returned. If x is a SpatVector, by can be a column
number or name. If x is a matrix, by should be a vector that identifies group
membership for each row in x
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
rasterizeGeom, rasterizeWin, mask

Examples
r <- rast(xmin=0, ncols=18, nrows=18)

# generate points
rasterizeGeom 243

[Link](1)
p <- spatSample(r, 1000, xy=TRUE, replace=TRUE)

# rasterize points as a matrix

x <- rasterize(p, r, fun=sum)
y <- rasterize(p, r, value=1:nrow(p), fun=max)

# rasterize points as a SpatVector

pv <- vect(p)
xv <- rasterize(pv, r, fun=sum)

# Polygons
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
r <- rast(v, ncols=75, nrows=100)
z <- rasterize(v, r, "NAME_2")
plot(z)
lines(v)

rasterizeGeom Rasterize geometric properties of vector data

Description
Rasterization of geometric properties of vector data. You can get the count of the number of ge-
ometries in each cell; the area covered by polygons; the length of the lines; or the number of lines
that cross the boundary of each cell. See rasterize for standard rasterization (of attribute values
associated with geometries).
The area of polygons is intended for summing the area of polygons that are relatively small relative
to the raster cells, and for when there may be multiple polygons per cell. See rasterize(fun="sum")
for counting large polygons and rasterize(cover=TRUE) to get the fraction that is covered by
larger polygons.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatRaster'
rasterizeGeom(x, y, fun="count", unit="m", filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatVector
y SpatRaster
fun character. "count", "area", "length", or "crosses"
unit character. "m" or "km"
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
244 rasterizeWin

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

rasterize

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
r <- rast(v, res=.1)

# length of lines
lns <- [Link](v)
x <- rasterizeGeom(lns, r, fun="length", "km")

# count of points
[Link](44)
pts <- spatSample(v, 100)
y <- rasterizeGeom(pts, r)

# area of polygons
pols <- buffer(pts, 1000)
z <- rasterizeGeom(pols, r, fun="area")

rasterizeWin Rasterize points with a moving window

Description

Rasterize points using a circle (or ellipse) as moving window. For each raster cell, the points (x, y)
that fall within the window centered on that cell are considered. A function is used to compute a
summary value (e.g. "mean") for the values (z) associated with these points.
This can result in much smoother results compared to the standard rasterize method.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatRaster'

rasterizeWin(x, y, field, win="circle", pars, fun, ..., cvars=FALSE,
minPoints=1, fill=NA, filename="", wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature '[Link],SpatRaster'

rasterizeWin(x, y, win="circle", pars, fun, ..., cvars=FALSE,
minPoints=1, fill=NA, filename="", wopt=list())
rasterizeWin 245

Arguments
x SpatVector or matrix with at least three columns ((x, y) coordinates and a vari-
able to be rasterized)
y SpatRaster
field character. field name in SpatVector x with the values to rasterize
win character to choose the window type. Can be "circle", "ellipse", "rectangle", or
"buffer"
pars parameters to define the window. If win="circle" or win="buffer", a single
number to set the radius of the circle or the width of the buffer. If win="ellipse",
either two numbers (the x and y-axis) or three numbers the axes and a rotation
(in degrees). If win="rectangle", either two (width, height) or three (width,
height) and the rotation in degrees. The unit of the radius/width/height/axis pa-
rameters is that of the coordinate reference system (it is not expressed as cells).
That is, if you have a lon/lat crs, there is no conversion of degrees to meters or
vice-versa.
fun function to summarize the values for each cell. If cvars=FALSE, functions
must take a numeric vector and return (in all cases) one or more numbers.
If cvars=TRUE, and multiple variables are used, the function must take a sin-
gle argument (a [Link] with the names variables). For win="circle" and
win="ellipse" there are two additional character values that can be used: "distto"
(average distance to the points from the center of the cell) and "distbetween"
(average distance between the points inside the window)
... additional named arguments passed to fun
minPoints numeric. The minimum number of points to use. If fewer points are found in a
search ellipse it is considered empty and the fill value is returned
fill numeric. value to use to fill cells with empty search areas
cvars logical. When using multiple fields, should fun operate on all of them at once?
If not, fun is applied to each variable separately
filename character. Output filename
wopt list with additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
rasterize, rasterizeGeom, interpNear, interpIDW

Examples
r <- rast(ncol=100, nrow=100, crs="local", xmin=0, xmax=50, ymin=0, ymax=50)
[Link](100)
x <- runif(50, 5, 45)
y <- runif(50, 5, 45)
z <- sample(50)
246 rcl

xyz <- [Link](x,y,z)

r <- rasterizeWin(xyz, r, fun="count", pars=5)

rfuns <- c("count", "min", "max", "mean")

x <- lapply(rfuns, function(f) rasterizeWin(xyz, r, fun=f, pars=5))
names(x) <- rfuns
x <- rast(x)
#plot(x)

rcl Combine row, column, and layer numbers

Description
Get a matrix with the combination of row, column, and layer numbers

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
rcl(x, row=NULL, col=NULL, lyr=NULL)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
row positive integer that are row number(s), a list thereof, or NULL for all rows
col as above for columns
lyr as above for layers

Details
If a list is used for at least one of row, col or lyr, these are evaluated in parallel. That is combi-
nations are made for each list element, not across list elements. If, in this case another argument is
not a list it has to have either length 1 (used for all cases) or have the same length as the (longest)
list, in which case the value is coerced into a list with [Link]
If multiple arguments are a list but they have different lengths, theyare recycled to the longest list.

Value
matrix

See Also
rowColCombine, cellFromRowCol
readwrite 247

Examples
x <- rast(ncol=5, nrow=5, nlyr=2)
values(x) <- 1:size(x)

rcl(x, 1, 2:3, 1:2)

i <- rcl(x, 1, list(1:2, 3:4), 1:2)

i

# get the values for these cells

x[i]

readwrite Read from, or write to, file

Description
Methods to read from or write chunks of values to or from a file. These are low level methods for
programmers. Use writeRaster if you want to save an entire SpatRaster to file in one step. It is
much easier to use.
To write chunks, begin by opening a file with writeStart, then write values to it in chunks using
the list that is returned by writeStart. When writing is done, close the file with writeStop.
blocks only returns chunk size information. This can be useful when reading, but not writing,
raster data.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
readStart(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

readStop(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

readValues(x, row=1, nrows=nrow(x), col=1, ncols=ncol(x), mat=FALSE, dataframe=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,character'

writeStart(x, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, n=4, sources="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

writeStop(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,vector'

writeValues(x, v, start, nrows)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

blocks(x, n=4)
248 readwrite

fileBlocksize(x)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
v vector with cell values to be written
start integer. Row number (counting starts at 1) from where to start writing v
row positive integer. Row number to start from, should be between 1 and nrow(x)
nrows positive integer. How many rows?
col positive integer. Column number to start from, should be between 1 and ncol(x)
ncols positive integer. How many columns? Default is the number of columns left
after the start column
mat logical. If TRUE, values are returned as a numeric matrix instead of as a vector,
except when dataframe=TRUE. If any of the layers of x is a factor, the level
index is returned, not the label. Use dataframe=TRUE to get the labels
dataframe logical. If TRUE, values are returned as a [Link] instead of as a vector (also
if matrix is TRUE)
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
n positive integer indicating how many copies the data may be in memory at any
point in time. This is used to determine how many blocks (large) datasets need
to be read
sources character. Filenames that may not be overwritten because they are used as input
to the function. Can be obtained with sources(x)
... For writeStart: additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
For readValues: additional arguments for [Link] (and thus only relevant
when dataframe=TRUE)

Value

readValues returns a vector, matrix, or [Link]

writeStart returns a list that can be used for processing the file in chunks.
The other methods invisibly return a logical value indicating whether they were successful or not.
Their purpose is the side-effect of opening or closing files.
rectify 249

rectify Rectify a SpatRaster

Description

Rectify a rotated SpatRaster into a non-rotated object

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rectify(x, method="bilinear", aoi=NULL, snap=TRUE,
filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster to be rectified
method character. Method used to for resampling. See resample
aoi SpatExtent or SpatRaster to crop x to a smaller area of interest; Using a Spa-
tRaster allowing to set the exact output extent and output resolution
snap logical. If TRUE, the origin and resolution of the output are the same as would
the case when aoi = NULL. Only relevant if aoi is a SpatExtent
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

[Link]

regress Cell level regression

Description

Run a regression model for each cell of a SpatRaster. The independent variable can either be defined
by a vector, or another SpatRaster to make it spatially variable.
250 relate

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

regress(y, x, formula=y~x, [Link]=FALSE, cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

regress(y, x, formula=y~x, [Link]=FALSE, cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

Arguments

y SpatRaster
x SpatRaster or numeric (of the same length as nlyr(x)
formula regression formula in the general form of y ~ x. You can add additional terms
such as I(x^2)
[Link] logical. Remove NA values?
cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used. You can also supply a cluster object.
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
x <- regress(s, 1:nlyr(s))

relate Spatial relationships between geometries

Description

relate returns a logical matrix indicating the presence or absence of a specific spatial relationships
between the geometries in x and y.
[Link] returns a logical vector indicating the presence or absence of a specific spatial rela-
tionships between x and any of the geometries in y.
relate 251

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'
relate(x, y, relation, pairs=FALSE, [Link]=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,missing'

relate(x, y, relation, pairs=FALSE, [Link]=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

[Link](x, y, relation)

Arguments
x SpatVector or SpatExtent
y missing or as for x
relation character. One of "intersects", "touches", "crosses", "overlaps", "within", "con-
tains", "covers", "coveredby", "disjoint", or "equals". It can also be a "DE-9IM"
string such as "FF*FF****". See Wikipedia or GeoTools doc
pairs logical. If TRUE a two-column matrix is returned with the indices of the cases
where the requested relation is TRUE. This is especially helpful when dealing
with many geometries as the returned value is generally much smaller
[Link] logical. If TRUE and pairs=TRUE, geometries in x for which there is no related
geometry in y are omitted

Value
matrix (relate) or vector ([Link])

See Also
compareGeom to check if the geometries are identical (equivalent to the "equals" relation)
adjacent, nearby, intersect, crop

Examples
# polygons
p1 <- vect("POLYGON ((0 0, 8 0, 8 9, 0 9, 0 0))")
p2 <- vect("POLYGON ((5 6, 15 6, 15 15, 5 15, 5 6))")
p3 <- vect("POLYGON ((8 2, 9 2, 9 3, 8 3, 8 2))")
p4 <- vect("POLYGON ((2 6, 3 6, 3 8, 2 8, 2 6))")
p5 <- vect("POLYGON ((2 12, 3 12, 3 13, 2 13, 2 12))")
p6 <- vect("POLYGON ((10 4, 12 4, 12 7, 11 7, 11 6, 10 6, 10 4))")

p <- rbind(p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, p6)

plot(p, col=rainbow(6, alpha=.5))
lines(p, lwd=2)
text(p)

## relate SpatVectors
relate(p1, p2, "intersects")
252 relate

relate(p1, p3, "touches")

relate(p1, p5, "disjoint")
relate(rbind(p1, p2), p4, "disjoint")

## relate geometries within SpatVectors

# which are completely separated?
relate(p, relation="disjoint")

# which touch (not overlap or within)?

relate(p, relation="touches")
# which overlap (not merely touch, and not within)?
relate(p, relation="overlaps")
# which are within (not merely overlap)?
relate(p, relation="within")

# do they touch or overlap or are within?

relate(p, relation="intersects")

all(relate(p, relation="intersects") ==
(relate(p, relation="overlaps") |
relate(p, relation="touches") |
relate(p, relation="within")))

#for polygons, "coveredby" is "within"

relate(p, relation="coveredby")

# polygons, lines, and points

pp <- rbind(p1, p2)

L1 <- vect("LINESTRING(1 11, 4 6, 10 6)")
L2 <- vect("LINESTRING(8 14, 12 10)")
L3 <- vect("LINESTRING(1 8, 12 14)")
lns <- rbind(L1, L2, L3)
pts <- vect(cbind(c(7,10,10), c(3,5,6)))

plot(pp, col=rainbow(2, alpha=.5))

text(pp, paste0("POL", 1:2), halo=TRUE)
lines(pp, lwd=2)
lines(lns, col=rainbow(3), lwd=4)
text(lns, paste0("L", 1:3), halo=TRUE)
points(pts, cex=1.5)
text(pts, paste0("PT", 1:3), halo=TRUE, pos=4)

relate(lns, relation="crosses")
relate(lns, pp, relation="crosses")
relate(lns, pp, relation="touches")
relate(lns, pp, relation="intersects")

relate(lns, pp, relation="within")

# polygons can contain lines or points, not the other way around
relate(lns, pp, relation="contains")
relate(pp, lns, relation="contains")
rep 253

# points and lines can be covered by polygons

relate(lns, pp, relation="coveredby")

relate(pts, pp, "within")

relate(pts, pp, "touches")
relate(pts, lns, "touches")

rep Replicate layers

Description

Replicate layers in a SpatRaster

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rep(x, ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
... arguments as in rep

Value

SpatRaster

Examples

s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

x <- rep(s, 2)
nlyr(x)
names(x)
x
254 replace_dollar

replace_dollar Replace with $<-

Description

Replace a layer of a SpatRaster, or an attribute variable of a SpatVector

Usage

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

x$name <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector'

x$name<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatExtent'

x$name <- value

Arguments

x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent

name character. If x is a SpatRaster: layer name. If x is a SpatVector: variable name.
If x is a SpatExtent: "xmin", "xmax". "ymin" or "ymax"
value if x is a SpatRaster, a SpatRaster for which this TRUE: nlyr(value) == length(i);
if x is a SpatVector, a vector of new values; if x is a SpatExtent a single number

Value

Same as x

See Also

[[<-, [<-, $

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
v$ID_1 <- LETTERS[1:12]
v$new <- sample(12)
values(v)
replace_layers 255

replace_layers Replace layers or variables

Description
Replace the layers of SpatRaster with (layers from) another SpatRaster or replace variables of a
SpatVector. You can also create new layers/variables with these methods.

Usage
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'
x[[i]] <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,character'

x[[i]] <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector,numeric'

x[[i]] <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector,character'

x[[i]] <- value

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
i if x is a SpatRaster: layer number(s) of name(s). If x is a SpatVector: variable
number(s) or name(s) (column of the attributes)
value if x is a SpatRaster: SpatRaster for which this TRUE: nlyr(value) == length(i).
if x is a SpatVector: vector or [Link]

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
$<-, [<-

Examples
# raster
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
s[["red"]] <- mean(s)
s[[2]] <- sqrt(s[[1]])

# vector
v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
v[["ID_1"]] <- 12:1
256 replace_values

replace_values Replace values of a SpatRaster

Description
Replace values of a SpatRaster. These are convenience functions for smaller objects only. For larger
rasters see link{classify} or subst

Usage
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,ANY,ANY,ANY'
x[i, j, k] <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector,ANY,ANY'

x[i, j] <- value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatExtent,numeric,missing'

x[i, j] <- value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
i row numbers. numeric, logical, or missing for all rows. Can also be a SpatRaster
or SpatVector
j column numbers. numeric, logical or missing for all columns
k layer number. numeric, logical or missing for all layers
value numeric, matrix, or [Link]

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
classify, subst, [Link], values, [[<-

Examples
## SpatRaster
r <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, xmin=0, xmax=5, ymin=0, ymax=5)
r[] <- 1:25
r[1,] <- 5
r[,2] <- 10
r[r>10] <- NA

## SpatVector
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
resample 257

v <- vect(f)
v[2,2] <- "hello"
v[1,] <- v[10,]
v[,3] <- v[,1]
v[2, "NAME_2"] <- "terra"
head(v, 3)

resample Transfer values of a SpatRaster to another one with a different geom-

etry

Description
resample transfers values between SpatRaster objects that do not align (have a different origin and/or
resolution). See project to change the coordinate reference system (crs).
If the origin and extent of the input and output are the same, you should consider using these other
functions instead: aggregate, disagg, extend or crop.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
resample(x, y, method, threads=FALSE, by_util=FALSE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster to be resampled
y SpatRaster with the geometry that x should be resampled to. You can also pro-
vide one or two positive numbers to set the resolution of the output raster relative
to the input raster
method character. Method used for estimating the new cell values. One of:
bilinear: bilinear interpolation (3x3 cell window). This is used by default if
the first layer of x is not categorical
mean: This can be a good choice with continuous variables if the output cells
overlap with multiple input cells.
near: nearest neighbor. This is used by default if the first layer of x is categori-
cal. This method is not a good choice for continuous values.
modal: The modal value. This can be a good choice for categorical rasters, if
the output cells overlap with multiple input cells.
cubic: cubic interpolation (5x5 cell window).
cubicspline: cubic B-spline interpolation. (5x5 cell window).
lanczos: Lanczos windowed sinc resampling. (7x7 cell window).
sum: the weighted sum of all non-NA contributing grid cells.
min, q1, median, q3, max: the minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile,
or maximum value.
rms: the root-mean-square value of all non-NA contributing grid cells.
258 rescale

threads logical. If TRUE multiple threads are used (faster for large files)
by_util logical. If TRUE the GDAL warp utility is used
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

aggregate, disagg, crop, project

Examples

r <- rast(nrows=3, ncols=3, xmin=0, xmax=10, ymin=0, ymax=10)

values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
s <- rast(nrows=25, ncols=30, xmin=1, xmax=11, ymin=-1, ymax=11)
x <- resample(r, s, method="bilinear")

opar <- par([Link] =TRUE)

par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(r)
plot(x)
par(opar)

rescale rescale

Description

Rescale a SpatVector or SpatRaster. This may be useful to make small inset maps or for georefer-
encing.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rescale(x, fx=0.5, fy=fx, x0, y0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

rescale(x, fx=0.5, fy=fx, x0, y0)
RGB 259

Arguments
x SpatVector or SpatRaster
fx numeric > 0. The horizontal scaling factor
fy numeric > 0. The vertical scaling factor
x0 numeric. x-coordinate of the center of rescaling. If missing, the center of the
extent of x is used
y0 numeric. y-coordinate of the center of rescaling. If missing, the center of the
extent of x is used

Value
Same as x

See Also
t, shift, flip, rotate, inset

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
w <- rescale(v, 0.2)
plot(v)
lines(w, col="red")

RGB Layers representing colors

Description
With RGB you can get or set the layers to be used as Red, Green and Blue when plotting a SpatRaster.
Currently, a benefit of this is that plot will send the object to plotRGB. You can also associated the
layers with another color space (HSV, HSI or HSL)
With colorize you can convert a three-layer RGB SpatRaster into other color spaces. You can also
convert it into a single-layer SpatRaster with a color-table.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
RGB(x, value=NULL, type="rgb")

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

RGB(x, ..., type="rgb")<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

colorize(x, to="hsv", alpha=FALSE, stretch=NULL,
260 RGB

grays=FALSE, NAzero=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, strict=TRUE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value three (or four) positive integers indicating the layers that are red, green and
blue (and optionally a fourth transparency layer). Or NULL to remove the RGB
settings
type character. The color space. One of "rgb" "hsv", "hsi" and "hsl"
to character. The color space to transform the values to. If x has RGB set, you can
transform these to "hsv", "hsi" and "hsl", or use "col" to create a single layer
with a color table. You can also use "rgb" to back transform to RGB
alpha logical. Should an alpha (transparency) channel be included? Only used if x has
a color-table and to="rgb"
stretch character. Option to stretch the values to increase contrast: "lin" (linear) or "hist"
(histogram). Only used for transforming RGB to col
grays logical. If TRUE, a gray-scale color-table is created. Only used for transforming
RGB to col
NAzero logical. If TRUE, NAs are treated as zeros such that a color can be returned if at
least one of the three channels has a value. Only used for transforming RGB to
("col")
strict logical. If TRUE, the function returns FALSE if a color space such as "hsv", "hsi"
and "hsl" is used
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

See Also
[Link]

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
RGB(r)
plot(r)
[Link](r)
RGB(r) <- NULL
[Link](r)
plot(r)
RGB(r) <- c(3,1,2)
# same as
# r <- RGB(r, c(3,1,2))
roll 261

plot(r)

RGB(r) <- 1:3

x <- colorize(r, "col")
y <- colorize(r, "hsv")
z <- colorize(y, "rgb")

roll Rolling (moving) functions

Description
Compute "rolling" or "moving" values, such as the "rolling average" for each cell in a SpatRaster.
See focal for spatially moving averages and similar computations. And see cumsum and other cum*
functions to compute cumulate values.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
roll(x, n, fun=mean, type="around", circular=FALSE,
[Link]=FALSE, filename="", ..., wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'numeric'

roll(x, n, fun=mean, type="around", circular=FALSE, [Link]=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or numeric
n integer > 1. The size of the "window", that is, the number of sequential cells to
use in fun
fun a function like mean, min, max, sum
type character. One of "around", "to", or "from". The choice indicates which values
should be used in the computation. The focal cell is always used. If type is
"around", (n-1)/2 before and after the focal cell are also included. If type =
"from", n-1 cells are after the focal cell are included. If type = "to", n-1 cells
before the focal cell are included. For example, when using n=3 for element 5
of a vector; "around" used elements 4,5,6; "to" used elements 3,4,5, and "from"
uses elements 5,6,7
circular logical. If TRUE, the data are considered to have a circular nature (e.g. days or
months of the year), such that there are no missing values before first or after
the last value.
[Link] logical. If TRUE, NA values should be ignored (by fun)
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for fun
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster
262 rotate

Value

Same as x

See Also

cumsum, focal

Examples
## numeric
roll(1:12, 3, mean)
roll(1:12, 3, mean, "to")
roll(1:12, 3, mean, circular=TRUE)

## SpatRaster
r <- rast(ncol=2, nrow=2, nlyr=10, vals=1)
r[1,2] <- 2
r[2,2] <- 4

values(roll(r, n=3, "sum", "from", [Link]=FALSE))

values(roll(r, n=3, "sum", "from", [Link]=TRUE))
values(roll(r, n=3, "sum", "from", circular=TRUE))

values(roll(r, n=3, "sum", "to", [Link]=TRUE))

values(roll(r, n=3, "sum", "around", circular=TRUE))

rotate Rotate data along longitude

Description

Rotate a SpatRaster that has longitude coordinates from 0 to 360, to standard coordinates between
-180 and 180 degrees (or vice-versa). Longitude between 0 and 360 is frequently used in global
climate models.
Rotate a SpatVector as for a SpatRaster with, or with split=FALSE to correct for coordinates that
are connected across the date line (and end up at the "other side" of the longitude scale).

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rotate(x, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

rotate(x, longitude=0, split=TRUE, left=TRUE, normalize=FALSE)
rotate 263

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatVector
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
longitude numeric. The longitude around which to rotate
split logical. Should geometries be split at longitude?
left logical. Rotate to the left or to the right?
normalize logical. Should the output be normalized to longitudes between -180 and 180?
See [Link]

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

shift and spin

Examples

x <- rast(nrows=9, ncols=18, nl=3, xmin=0, xmax=360)

v <- rep([Link](t(matrix(1:ncell(x), nrow=9, ncol=18))), 3)
values(x) <- v
z <- rotate(x)

## Not run:
#SpatVector
p <- rbind(c(3847903, 1983584 ), c(3847903, 5801864), c(8301883, 5801864), c(8301883, 1983584 ))
p <- vect(p, "polygons", crs="+init=EPSG:3347")
d <- densify(p, 100000)
g <- project(d, "+proj=longlat")

x <- rotate(g, 50)

plot(g)
lines(x, col="red")

## End(Not run)

## rotate countries to 0-360 longitude

#w <- geodata::world(path=".")
#x <- rotate(w, long=0, split=TRUE, left=FALSE)
264 rowSums

rowSums row/col sums and means for SpatRaster

Description

Sum or average values of SpatRaster layers by row or column.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

rowSums(x, [Link]=FALSE, dims=1L, ...)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
colSums(x, [Link]=FALSE, dims=1L, ...)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
rowMeans(x, [Link]=FALSE, dims=1L, ...)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
colMeans(x, [Link]=FALSE, dims=1L, ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
[Link] logical. If TRUE, NA values are ignored
dims this argument is ignored
... additional arguments (none implemented)

Value

matrix

See Also

See global for summing all cells values

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=2, nrows=5, nl=2, vals=1:20)
rowSums(r)
colSums(r)
colMeans(r)
[Link] 265

[Link] Compare coordinate reference systems

Description
The function takes two coordinate reference system descriptions and compares them for equality.

Usage
[Link](x, y)

Arguments
x character, SpatRaster, SpatVector, CRS, or other object that returns something
intelligible withcrs(x)
y same types as for x

Value
logical

Examples
r <- rast()
[Link](r, "+proj=longlat")

[Link](r, "+proj=utm +zone=1")

sapp Apply a terra function that takes only a single layer and returns a
SpatRaster to all layers of a SpatRaster

Description
Apply to all layers of a SpatRaster a function that only takes a single layer SpatRaster and returns a
SpatRaster (these are rare). In most cases you can also use lapply or sapply for this.
Or apply the same method to each sub-dataset (SpatRaster) in a SpatRasterDataset

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
sapp(x, fun, ..., filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

sapp(x, fun, ..., filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())
266 sbar

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset
fun if x is a SpatRaster: a function that takes a SpatRaster argument and can be
applied to each layer of x (e.g. terrain. if x is a SpatRasterDataset: a
function that is applied to all layers of the SpatRasters in x (e.g. mean
... additional arguments to be passed to fun
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

lapp, app, tapp, lapply

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")) + 1

#SpatRasterDataset
sd <- sds(s*2, s/2)
y <- sapp(sd, mean)
z <- sapp(sd, function(i) 2 * mean(i))

sbar scale bar

Description

Add a scale bar to a map

Usage

sbar(d, xy=NULL, type="line", divs=2, below="", lonlat=NULL, labels,

adj=c(0.5, -1), lwd=2, xpd=TRUE, ticks=FALSE, scaleby=1, halo=TRUE,
col="black", fill=c("black", "white"), border="black", ...)
sbar 267

Arguments
d numeric. Distance covered by the scale bar. It should be in the units of the coor-
dinates of the plot (map), or in km for angular (longitude/latitude) coordinates;
see argument lonlat. It can also be missing
xy numeric. x and y coordinates to place the scale bar. It can also be one of fol-
lowing character values: "bottomleft", "bottom", "bottomright", "topleft", "top",
"topright", "left", "right", or NULL
type one of "line" or "bar"
divs number of divisions for a bar: 2 or 4
below character. Text to go below the scale bar (e.g., "kilometers")
lonlat logical or NULL. If logical, TRUE indicates if the plot is using longitude/latitude
coordinates. If NULL this is guessed from the plot’s coordinates
labels vector of three numbers to label the scale bar (beginning, midpoint, end)
adj adjustment for text placement
lwd line width for the "line" type of the scale bar
xpd logical. If TRUE, the scale bar can be outside the plotting area
ticks logical or numeric. If not FALSE, tick marks are added to a "line" scale bar. The
length of the tick marks can be specified
scaleby numeric. If labels is not provided. The labels are divided by this number. For
example, use 1000 to go from m to km
halo logical. If TRUE the "line" type scale bar gets a white background
col the font color for the labels
fill the fill color(s) for the bar
border the color of the border around the bar
... graphical arguments to be passed to other methods

Value
none

See Also
north, plot, inset

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
plot(r)
sbar()
sbar(1000, xy=c(178500, 333500), type="bar", divs=4, cex=.8)
sbar(1000, xy="bottomright", divs=3, cex=.8, ticks=TRUE)
268 scale

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
plot(r, type="interval")
sbar(20, c(6.2, 50.1), type="bar", cex=.8, divs=4)
sbar(15, c(6.3, 50), type="bar", below="km", label=c(0,7.5,15), cex=.8)
sbar(15, c(6.6, 49.8), cex=.8, label=c(0,"km",15))
sbar(15, c(6.6, 49.7), cex=.8, label="15 kilometer", lwd=5)
sbar(15, c(6.6, 49.6), divs=4, cex=.8, below="km")

scale Scale values

Description

Center and/or scale raster data. For details see scale

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

scale(x, center=TRUE, scale=TRUE)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
center logical or numeric. If TRUE, centering is done by subtracting the layer means
(omitting NAs), and if FALSE, no centering is done. If center is a numeric vector
(recycled to nlyr(x)), then each layer of x has the corresponding value from
center subtracted from it.
scale logical or numeric. If TRUE, scaling is done by dividing the (centered) layers
of x by their standard deviations if center is TRUE, and the root mean square
otherwise. If scale is FALSE, no scaling is done. If scale is a numeric vector
(recycled to nlyr(x)), each layer of x is divided by the corresponding value.
Scaling is done after centering.

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

scale_linear
scale_linear 269

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
s <- scale(r)

## the equivalent, computed in steps

m <- global(r, "mean")
rr <- r - m[,1]
rms <- global(rr, "rms")
ss <- rr / rms[,1]

scale_linear Scale values linearly

Description
Linear scaling of raster cell values between a specified minimum and maximum value.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
scale_linear(x, min=0, max=1, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
min minimum value to scale to
max maximum value to scale to
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
scale

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
s1 <- scale_linear(r)
s2 <- scale_linear(r, 1, 10)
270 scatterplot

scatterplot Scatterplot of two SpatRaster layers

Description

Scatterplot of the values of two SpatRaster layers

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

plot(x, y, maxcell=100000, warn=TRUE, nc, nr,
maxnl=16, smooth=FALSE, gridded=FALSE, ncol=25, nrow=25, ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
y SpatRaster
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use for the plot
nc positive integer. Optional. The number of columns to divide the plotting device
in (when plotting multiple layers)
nr positive integer. Optional. The number of rows to divide the plotting device in
(when plotting multiple layers)
maxnl positive integer. Maximum number of layers to plot (for multi-layer objects)
smooth logical. If TRUE show a smooth scatterplot (see smoothScatter
gridded logical. If TRUE the scatterplot is gridded (counts by cells)
warn boolean. Show a warning if a sample of the pixels is used (for scatterplot only)
ncol positive integer. Number of columns for gridding
nrow positive integer. Number of rows for gridding
... additional graphical arguments

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
plot(s[[1]], s[[2]])
plot(s, sqrt(s[[3:1]]))
scoff 271

scoff Scale (gain) and offset

Description
These functions can be used to get or set the scale (gain) and offset parameters used to transform
values when reading raster data from a file. The parameters are applied to the raw values using the
formula below:
value <- value * scale + offset
The default value for scale is 1 and for offset is 0. ’scale’ is sometimes referred to as ’gain’.
Note that setting the scale and/or offset are intended to be used with values that are stored in a file.
When values are memory, assigning scale or offset values will lead to the immediate computation
of new values; in such cases it would be clearer to use Arith-methods.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
scoff(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

scoff(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value two-column matrix with scale (first column) and offset (second column) for each
layer. Or NULL to remove all scale and offset values

Value
matrix or changed SpatRaster

Examples
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
minmax(r)
scoff(r)
r[4603]

scoff(r) <- cbind(10, 5)

minmax(r)
scoff(r)
r[4603]
272 sds

sds Create a SpatRasterDataset

Description
Methods to create a SpatRasterDataset. This is an object to hold "sub-datasets", each represented
by a SpatRaster that may have multiple layers. All sub-datasets must have the same raster geometry
(extent and resolution). You can use a SpatRasterCollection (see sprc) to combine SpatRasters with
different geometries.
See describe for getting information about the sub-datasets present in a file.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'missing'
sds(x)

## S4 method for signature 'character'

sds(x, ids=0, opts=NULL, raw=FALSE, noflip=FALSE, guessCRS=TRUE, domains="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

sds(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'list'

sds(x)

## S4 method for signature 'array'

sds(x, crs="", extent=NULL)

Arguments
x character (filename), or SpatRaster, or list of SpatRasters, or missing. If multiple
filenames are provided, it is attempted to make SpatRasters from these, and
combine them into a SpatRasterDataset
ids optional. vector of integer subdataset ids. Ignored if the first value is not a
positive integer
opts character. GDAL dataset open options
raw logical. If TRUE, scale and offset values are ignored
noflip logical. If TRUE, a raster (e.g. JPEG image) that is not georeferenced and that
GDAL assigns a flipped extent to (ymax < ymin), is not considered flipped. This
avoids the need to flip the raster vertically
guessCRS logical. If TRUE and the file does not specify a CRS but has an extent that is
within longitude/latitude bounds, the longitude/latitude crs is assigned to the
SpatRaster
domains character. Metadata domains to read (see metags to retrieve their values if there
are any). "" is the default domain
segregate 273

crs character. Description of the Coordinate Reference System (map projection) in

PROJ.4, WKT or authority:code notation. If this argument is missing, and the
x coordinates are within -360 .. 360 and the y coordinates are within -90 .. 90,
longitude/latitude is assigned
extent SpatExtent
... additional SpatRaster objects

Value

SpatRasterDataset

See Also

sprc, describe

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
x <- sds(s, s/2)
names(x) <- c("first", "second")
x
length(x)

# extract the second SpatRaster

x[2]

a <- array(1:9, c(3,3,3,3))

sds(a)

segregate segregate

Description

Create a SpatRaster with a layer for each class (value, or subset of the values) in the input Spa-
tRaster. For example, if the input has vegetation types, this function will create a layer (pres-
ence/absence; dummy variable) for each of these classes.
This is called "one-hot encoding" or "dummy encoding" (for a dummy encoding scheme you can
remove (any) one of the output layers as it is redundant).

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

segregate(x, classes=NULL, keep=FALSE, other=0, round=FALSE, digits=0, filename="", ...)
274 sel

Arguments
x SpatRaster
classes numeric. The values (classes) for which layers should be made. If NULL all
classes are used
keep logical. If TRUE, cells that are of the class represented by a layer get that value,
rather than a value of 1
other numeric. Value to assign to cells that are not of the class represented by a layer
round logical. Should the values be rounded first?
digits integer. Number of digits to round the values to
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
split

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=5, ncols=5)
values(r) <- rep(c(1:4, NA), each=5)
b <- segregate(r)
bb <- segregate(r, keep=TRUE, other=NA)

sel Spatial selection

Description
Geometrically subset SpatRaster or SpatVector (to be done) by drawing on a plot (map).
Note that for many installations this does to work well on the default RStudio plotting device. To
work around that, you can first run [Link](noRStudioGD = TRUE) which will create a separate
window for plotting, then use plot() followed by sel() and click on the map. It may also help to
set your RStudio "Tools/Global Options/Appearance/Zoom" to 100

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
sel(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

sel(x, use="rec", show=TRUE, col="cyan", draw=TRUE, ...)
selectHighest 275

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
use character indicating what to draw. One of "rec" (rectangle) or "pol" (polygon)
show logical. If TRUE the selected geometries are shown on the map
col color to be used for drawing if draw=TRUE
draw logical. If TRUE the area drawn to select geometries is shown on the map
... additional graphics arguments for drawing the selected geometries

Value
SpatRaster or SpatVector

See Also
crop and intersect to make an intersection and click and text to see cell values or geometry
attributes.
Use draw to draw a SpatExtent of SpatVector that you want to keep.

Examples
## Not run:
# select a subset of a SpatRaster
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
plot(r)
s <- sel(r) # now click on the map twice

# plot the selection on a new canvas:

x11()
plot(s)

# vector
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
plot(v)
x <- sel(v) # now click on the map twice
x

## End(Not run)

selectHighest select cells with high or low values

Description
Identify n cells that have the highest or lowest values in the first layer of a SpatRaster.
276 selectRange

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

selectHighest(x, n, low=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatRaster. Only the first layer is processed

n The number of cells to select
low logical. If TRUE, the lowest values are selected instead of the highest values

Value

SpatRaster

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
x <- selectHighest(r, 1000)
y <- selectHighest(r, 1000, TRUE)

m <- merge(y-1, x)
levels(m) <- [Link](id=0:1, elevation=c("low", "high"))
plot(m)

selectRange Select the values of a range of layers, as specified by cell values in

another SpatRaster

Description

Use a single layer SpatRaster to select cell values from different layers in a multi-layer SpatRaster.
The values of the SpatRaster to select layers (y) should be whole numbers between 1 and nlyr(x)
(values outside this range are ignored).
See rapp for applying a function to a range of variable size.
See extract for extraction of values by cell, point, or otherwise.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

selectRange(x, y, z=1, repint=0, filename="", ...)
serialize 277

Arguments

x SpatRaster
y SpatRaster. Cell values must be positive integers. They indicate the first layer to
select for each cell
z positive integer. The number of layers to select
repint integer > 1 and < nlyr(x) allowing for repeated selection at a fixed interval. For
example, if x has 36 layers, and the value of a cell in y=2 and repint = 12, the
values for layers 2, 14 and 26 are returned
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

rapp, tapp, extract

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1
s <- c(r, r+2, r+5)
s <- c(s, s)
[Link](1)
values(r) <- sample(3, ncell(r), replace=TRUE)
x <- selectRange(s, r)

x <- selectRange(s, r, 3)

serialize saveRDS and serialize for SpatVector and SpatRaster*

Description

serialize and saveRDS for SpatVector, SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset and SpatRasterCollection.

Note that these objects will first be "packed" with wrap, and after unserialize/readRDS they need to
be unpacked with rast or vect.
Extensive use of these functions is not recommended. Especially for SpatRaster it is generally much
more efficient to use writeRaster and write, e.g., a GTiff file.
278 serialize

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

saveRDS(object, file="", ascii = FALSE, version = NULL, compress=TRUE, refhook = NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

saveRDS(object, file="", ascii = FALSE, version = NULL, compress=TRUE, refhook = NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

saveRDS(object, file="", ascii = FALSE, version = NULL, compress=TRUE, refhook = NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

saveRDS(object, file="", ascii = FALSE, version = NULL, compress=TRUE, refhook = NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

serialize(object, connection, ascii = FALSE, xdr = TRUE, version = NULL, refhook = NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

serialize(object, connection, ascii = FALSE, xdr = TRUE, version = NULL, refhook = NULL)

Arguments

object SpatVector, SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset or SpatRasterCollection

file file name to save object to
connection see serialize
ascii see serialize or saveRDS
version see serialize or saveRDS
compress see serialize or saveRDS
refhook see serialize or saveRDS
xdr see serialize or saveRDS

Value

Packed* object

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
p <- serialize(v, NULL)
head(p)
x <- unserialize(p)
x
setValues 279

setValues Set the values of raster cells or of geometry attributes

Description
Set cell values of a SpatRaster or the attributes of a SpatVector. For large SpatRasters use init
instead to set values.

Usage
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,ANY'
values(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,ANY'

setValues(x, values, keeptime=TRUE, keepunits=TRUE, keepnames=FALSE, props=FALSE)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatVector,ANY'

values(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
value For SpatRaster: numeric, matrix or [Link]. The length of the numeric values
must match the total number of cells (ncell(x) * nlyr(x)), or be a single value.
The number of columns of the matrix or [Link] must match the number of
layers of x, and the number of rows must match the number of cells of x. It is
also possible to use a matrix with the same number of rows as x and the number
of columns that matches ncol(x) * nlyr(x).
For SpatVector: [Link], matrix, vector, or NULL
values Same as for value
keeptime logical. If TRUE the time stamps are kept
keepunits logical. If FALSE the units are discarded
keepnames logical. If FALSE the layer names are replaced by the column names in y (if
present)
props logical. If TRUE the properties (categories and color-table) are kept

Value
The same object type as x

See Also
values, init
280 shade

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
x <- setValues(r, 1:ncell(r))
x
values(x) <- runif(ncell(x))
x
head(x)

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
values(v) <- [Link](ID=1:12, name=letters[1:12])
head(v)

shade Hill shading

Description
Compute hill-shade from slope and aspect layers (both in radians). Slope and aspect can be com-
puted with function terrain.
A hill-shade layer is often used as a backdrop on top of which another, semi-transparent, layer is
drawn.

Usage
shade(slope, aspect, angle=45, direction=0, normalize=FALSE,
filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
slope SpatRasterwith slope values (in radians)
aspect SpatRaster with aspect values (in radians)
angle The elevation angle(s) of the light source (sun), in degrees
direction The direction (azimuth) angle(s) of the light source (sun), in degrees
normalize Logical. If TRUE, values below zero are set to zero and the results are multiplied
with 255
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

References
Horn, B.K.P., 1981. Hill shading and the reflectance map. Proceedings of the IEEE 69(1):14-47
sharedPaths 281

See Also
terrain

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
# disaggregating because the resolution of this raster is a bit low
# you generally should not do that with your own data
r <- disagg(r, 10, method="bilinear")

slope <- terrain(r, "slope", unit="radians")

aspect <- terrain(r, "aspect", unit="radians")
hill <- shade(slope, aspect, 40, 270)
plot(hill, col=grey(0:100/100), legend=FALSE, mar=c(2,2,1,4))
plot(r, col=rainbow(25, alpha=0.35), add=TRUE)

# A better hill shade may be achieved by combining

# different angles and directions. For example
hh <- shade(slope, aspect, angle=30, direction=c(225, 270, 315, 360))
h1 <- Reduce(mean, hh)
h2 <- mean(hh)

sharedPaths Shared paths

Description
Get shared paths of line or polygon geometries. This can for geometries in a single SpatVector, or
between two SpatVectors

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
sharedPaths(x, y=NULL)

Arguments
x SpatVector of lines or polygons
y missing or SpatVector of lines or polygons

Value
SpatVector

See Also
gaps, topology
282 shift

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
plot(v, col="light gray")
text(v, halo=TRUE)

x <- sharedPaths(v)
lines(x, col="red", lwd=2)
text(x, col="blue", halo=TRUE, cex=0.8)
head(x)

z <- sharedPaths(v[3,], v[12,])

shift Shift

Description
Shift a SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent to another location.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
shift(x, dx=0, dy=0, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

shift(x, dx=0, dy=0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

shift(x, dx=0, dy=0)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent
dx numeric. The shift in horizontal direction
dy numeric. The shift in vertical direction
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
Same as x

See Also
flip, rotate
sieve 283

Examples
r <- rast(xmin=0, xmax=1, ymin=0, ymax=1)
r <- shift(r, dx=1, dy=-1)

e <- ext(r)
shift(e, 5, 5)

sieve Sieve filter

Description
Apply a sieve filter. That is, remove "noise", by changing small clumps of cells with a value that is
different from the surrounding cells, to the value of the largest neighboring clump.
Note that the numerical input values are truncated to integers.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
sieve(x, threshold, directions=8, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, single layer with integer or categorical values
threshold positive integer. Only clumps smaller than this threshold will be removed
directions numeric to indicate which cells are connected. Either 4 to only consider the hor-
izontal and vertical neighbors ("rook"), or 8 to consider the vertical, horizontal
and diagonal neighbors
filename character. Output filename
... Options for writing files as in writeRaster

See Also
focal

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=18, ncols=18, xmin=0, vals=0, crs="local")
r[2, 5] <- 1
r[5:8, 2:3] <- 2
r[7:12, 10:15] <- 3
r[15:16, 15:18] <- 4
freq(r, bylayer=FALSE)

x <- sieve(r, 8)
y <- sieve(r, 9)
284 simplifyGeom

simplifyGeom simplifyGeom geometries

Description

Reduce the number of nodes used to represent geometries.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

simplifyGeom(x, tolerance=0.1, preserveTopology=TRUE, makeValid=TRUE)

Arguments

x SpatVector of lines or polygons

tolerance numeric. The minimum distance between nodes in units of the crs (i.e. degrees
for long/lat)
preserveTopology
logical. If TRUE the topology of output geometries is preserved
makeValid logical. If TRUE, makeValid is run after simplification to assure that the output
polygons are valid

Value

SpatVector

See Also

densify, sharedPaths, gaps, [Link]

Examples

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
w <- simplifyGeom(v, .02, makeValid=FALSE)
e <- erase(w)
g <- gaps(e)
plot(e, lwd=5, border="light gray")
polys(g, col="red", border="red")
sort 285

sort Sort a SpatRaster or SpatVector

Description

Sort the cell values of a SpatRaster across layers. You can also compute the sorting order.
Or sort the records of SpatVector (or [Link]) by specifying the column number(s) or names(s)
to sort on.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

sort(x, decreasing=FALSE, order=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

sort(x, v, decreasing=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
decreasing logical. If TRUE, sorting is in decreasing order
order logical. If TRUE the sorting order is returned instead of the sorted values
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
v character or numeric indicating the column(s) to sort on

Value

SpatRaster

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
r <- c(r, r/2, r*2)
sort(r)

ord <- sort(r, order=TRUE)

# these two are the same
ord[[1]]
[Link](r)
286 sources

sources Data sources of a SpatRaster

Description
Get the data sources of a SpatRaster or SpatVector or related object. Sources are either files (or
similar resources) or "", meaning that they are in memory. You can use hasValues to check if
in-memory layers actually have cell values.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
sources(x, nlyr=FALSE, bands=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

sources(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

hasValues(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

inMemory(x, bylayer=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatRasterCollection, SpatVector or SpatVectorProxy
nlyr logical. If TRUE for each source, the number of layers is returned
bands logical. If TRUE for each source, the "bands" used, that is, the layer number in
the source file, are returned
bylayer logical. If TRUE a value is returned for each layer instead of for each source

Value
A vector of filenames, or "" when there is no filename, if nlyr and bands are both FALSE. Otherwise
a [Link]

See Also
toMemory

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
s <- rast(r)
values(s) <- 1:ncell(s)
rs <- c(r,r,s,r)
SpatExtent-class 287

sources(rs)
hasValues(r)
x <- rast()
hasValues(x)

SpatExtent-class Class "SpatExtent"

Description
Objects of class SpatExtent are used to define the spatial extent (extremes) of objects of the Spa-
tRaster class.

Objects from the Class

You can use the ext function to create SpatExtent objects, or to extract them from a SpatRaster,
SpatVector or related objects.

Methods
show display values of a SpatExtent object

Examples
e <- ext(-180, 180, -90, 90)
e

SpatRaster-class SpatRaster class

Description
A SpatRaster represents a rectangular part of the world that is sub-divided into rectangular cells of
equal area (in terms of the units of the coordinate reference system). For each cell can have multiple
values ("layers").
An object of the SpatRaster class can point to one or more files on disk that hold the cell values,
and/or it can hold these values in memory. These objects can be created with the rast method.
A SpatRasterDataset is a collection of sub-datasets, where each is a SpatRaster for the same
area (extent) and coordinate reference system, but possibly with a different resolution. Sub-datasets
are often used to capture variables (e.g. temperature and precipitation), or a fourth dimension (e.g.
height, depth or time) if the sub-datasets already have three dimensions (multiple layers).
A SpatRasterCollection is a collection of SpatRasters with no restriction in the extent or other
geometric parameters.

Examples
rast()
288 spatSample

spatSample Take a regular sample

Description
Take a spatial sample from a SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent. Sampling a SpatVector or
SpatExtent always returns a SpatVector of points.
With a SpatRaster, you can get cell values, cell numbers (cells=TRUE), coordinates (xy=TRUE) or
(when method="regular" and [Link]=TRUE) get a new SpatRaster with the same extent, but
fewer cells.
In order to assure regularity when requesting a regular sample, the number of cells or points returned
may not be exactly the same as the size requested unless you use exact=TRUE (and do not use
[Link]=TRUE). Alternatively, use method="spread" to get an approximately regular sample for the
cells that are not NA.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
spatSample(x, size, method="random", replace=FALSE, [Link]=FALSE,
[Link]=FALSE, [Link]=TRUE, [Link]=FALSE, [Link]=FALSE, values=hasValues(x),
cells=FALSE, xy=FALSE, ext=NULL, warn=TRUE, weights=NULL, exp=5, exhaustive=FALSE,
exact=FALSE, each=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

spatSample(x, size, method="random", strata=NULL, chess="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

spatSample(x, size, method="random", lonlat, [Link]=FALSE, exact=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent
size numeric. The sample size. If x is a SpatVector, you can also provide a vector
of the same length as x in which case sampling is done separately for each
geometry. If x is a SpatRaster, and you are using method="regular" you can
specify the size as two numbers (number of rows and columns). Note that when
using method="stratified", the sample size is returned for each stratum
method character. Should be "regular" or "random", If x is a SpatRaster, it can also be
"stratified" (each value in x is a stratum), "weights" (each value in x is a prob-
ability weight), or "spread" (an approximately regular sample, using compact
zones generated with k_means clustering of the raster cell locations)
replace logical. If TRUE, sampling is with replacement (if method="random")
[Link] logical. If TRUE, NAs are removed. Not used with method="spread" or [Link]=TRUE
[Link] logical. If TRUE, a SpatRaster is returned
spatSample 289

[Link] logical. If TRUE, a [Link] is returned instead of a matrix

[Link] logical. If TRUE, a SpatVector of points is returned
[Link] logical. If TRUE x is returned, with its values "masked" by the sample. That is,
only cells that are included in the sample retain their values
values logical. If TRUE raster cell values are returned
cells logical. If TRUE, cell numbers are returned. If method="stratified" this is
always set to TRUE if xy=FALSE
xy logical. If TRUE, cell coordinates are returned
ext SpatExtent or NULL to restrict sampling to a subset of the area of x
warn logical. Give a warning if the sample size returned is smaller than requested
weights SpatRaster. Used to provide weights when method="stratified"
lonlat logical. If TRUE, sampling of a SpatExtent is weighted by cos(latitude).
For SpatRaster and SpatVector this done based on the crs, but it is ignored
if [Link]=TRUE
exp numeric >= 1. "Expansion factor" that is multiplied with size to get an initial
sample used for stratified samples and random samples with [Link]=TRUE to try
to get at least size samples
exhaustive logical. If TRUE and (method=="random" and [Link]=TRUE) or method=="stratified",
all cells that are not NA are determined and a sample is taken from these cells.
This is useful when you are dealing with a very large raster that is sparse (most
cells are NA). Otherwise, the default approach may not find enough samples.
This should not be used in other cases, especially not with large rasters that
mostly have values
exact logical. If TRUE and method=="regular", the sample returned is exactly size,
perhaps at the expense of some regularity. Otherwise you get at least size many
samples. Ignored for lon/lat rasters
each logical. If TRUE and method=="stratified", the sample returned is size for
each stratum. Otherwise size is the total sample size
... additional arguments passed to k_means when method="kmeans"
strata if not NULL, stratified random sampling is done, taking size samples from each
stratum. If x has polygon geometry, strata must be a field name (or index) in x.
If x has point geometry, strata can be a SpatVector of polygons or a SpatRaster
chess character. One of "", "white", or "black". For stratified sampling if strata is a
SpatRaster. If not "", samples are only taken from alternate cells, organized like
the "white" or "black" fields on a chessboard

Value

numeric matrix, [Link], SpatRaster or SpatVector

290 SpatVector-class

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
s <- spatSample(r, 10, [Link]=TRUE)
spatSample(r, 5)
spatSample(r, 5, [Link]=TRUE)
spatSample(r, 5, "regular")

## if you require cell numbers and/or coordinates

size <- 6
spatSample(r, 6, "random", cells=TRUE, xy=TRUE, values=FALSE)

# regular, with values

spatSample(r, 6, "regular", cells=TRUE, xy=TRUE)

# stratified
rr <- rast(ncol=10, nrow=10, names="stratum")
[Link](1)
values(rr) <- round(runif(ncell(rr), 1, 3))
spatSample(rr, 2, "stratified", xy=TRUE)

s <- spatSample(rr, 5, "stratified", [Link]=TRUE, each=FALSE)

plot(rr, plg=list(title="raster"))
plot(s, 1, add=TRUE, plg=list(x=185, y=1, title="points"), col=rainbow(5))

# spread
s <- spatSample(r, 10, "spread", [Link]=TRUE)
plot(r); points(s)

## SpatExtent
e <- ext(r)
spatSample(e, 10, "random", lonlat=TRUE)

## SpatVector
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)

# sample the geometries

i <- sample(v, 3)

# sample points in geometries

p <- spatSample(v, 3)

SpatVector-class Class "SpatVector"

Description
SpatVector can represent points, lines or polygons.
spin 291

SpatVectorCollection can hold a collection of SpatVectors

SpatVectorProxy is a SpatVector for which the data are on-disk in-stead of in memory.

spin spin a SpatVector

Description
Spin (rotate) the geometry of a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
spin(x, angle, x0, y0)

Arguments
x SpatVector
angle numeric. Angle of rotation in degrees
x0 numeric. x-coordinate of the center of rotation. If missing, the center of the
extent of x is used
y0 numeric. y-coordinate of the center of rotation. If missing, the center of the
extent of x is used

Value
SpatVector

See Also
rescale, t, shift

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
w <- spin(v, 180)
plot(v)
lines(w, col="red")

# lower-right corner as center

e <- [Link](ext(v))
x <- spin(v, 45, e[1], e[3])
292 split

split Split a SpatRaster or SpatVector

Description
Split a SpatRaster by layer, or a SpatVector by attributes. You can also split the geometry of a
SpatVector of polygon or lines with another SpatVector of polygon or lines.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,ANY'
split(x, f)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,ANY'

split(x, f)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

split(x, f, min_node_dist=10000)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
f If x is a SpatRaster: a vector of the length nlyr(x). If x is a SpatVector: one
or more variable names, or a vector of the same length as x, or a list of such
vectors. If x is a SpatVector of polygons, you can also use a SpatVector of lines
or polygons to split the polygon geometries
min_node_dist postive number indicating the minimum node distance to use (in m) for longi-
tude/latitude data. To ensure this minium distance between nodes, additional
nodes are added as needed, to improve precision. See densify

Value
list or SpatVector

See Also
segregate

Examples
## split layers
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
y <- split(s, c(1,2,1))
sds(y)

## split attributes
v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
x <- split(v, "NAME_1")
sprc 293

## split geometries
v <- v[1:5,]
line <- vect(matrix(c(5.79, 6.22, 5.75, 6.1, 5.8,
50.14, 50.05, 49.88, 49.85, 49.71), ncol=2), "line")
s <- split(v, line)

sprc Create a SpatRasterCollection

Description
Methods to create a SpatRasterCollection. This is an object to hold a collection (list) of SpatRasters.
There are no restrictions on the similarity of the SpatRaster geometry.
They can be used to combine several SpatRasters to be used with merge or mosaic
You can create a SpatRasterCollection from a file with subdatasets.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'character'
sprc(x, ids=0, opts=NULL, raw=FALSE, noflip=FALSE, guessCRS=TRUE, domains="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

sprc(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'list'

sprc(x)

## S4 method for signature 'missing'

sprc(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, list with SpatRasters, missing, or filename
ids optional. vector of integer subdataset ids. Ignored if the first value is not a
positive integer
opts character. GDAL dataset open options
raw logical. If TRUE, scale and offset values are ignored
noflip logical. If TRUE, a raster (e.g. JPEG image) that is not georeferenced and that
GDAL assigns a flipped extent to (ymax < ymin), is not considered flipped. This
avoids the need to flip the raster vertically
guessCRS logical. If TRUE and the the file does not specify a CRS but has an extent that
is within longitude/latitude bounds, the longitude/latitude crs is assigned to the
SpatRaster
294 stretch

domains character. Metadata domains to read (see metags to retrieve their values if there
are any. "" is the default domain
... additional SpatRasters

Value

SpatRasterCollection

See Also

sds

Examples

x <- rast(xmin=-110, xmax=-50, ymin=40, ymax=70, ncols=60, nrows=30)

y <- rast(xmin=-80, xmax=-20, ymax=60, ymin=30)
res(y) <- res(x)
values(x) <- 1:ncell(x)
values(y) <- 1:ncell(y)

z <- sprc(x, y)
z

stretch Stretch

Description

Linear or histogram equalization stretch of values in a SpatRaster.

For linear stretch, provide the desired output range (minv and maxv) and the lower and upper bounds
in the original data, either as quantiles (minq and maxq, or as cell values (smin and smax). If smin
and smax are both not NA, minq and maxq are ignored.
For histogram equalization, these arguments are ignored, but you can provide the desired scale
of the output and the maximum number of cells that is used to compute the histogram (empirical
cumulative distribution function).

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

stretch(x, minv=0, maxv=255, minq=0, maxq=1, smin=NA, smax=NA,
histeq=FALSE, scale=1, maxcell=500000, bylayer=TRUE, filename="", ...)
subset 295

Arguments

x SpatRaster
minv numeric >= 0 and smaller than maxv. lower bound of stretched value
maxv numeric <= 255 and larger than maxv. upper bound of stretched value
minq numeric >= 0 and smaller than maxq. lower quantile bound of original value.
Ignored if smin is supplied
maxq numeric <= 1 and larger than minq. upper quantile bound of original value.
Ignored if smax is supplied
smin numeric < smax. user supplied lower value for the layers, to be used instead of
a quantile computed by the function itself
smax numeric > smin. user supplied upper value for the layers, to be used instead of
a quantile computed by the function itself
histeq logical. If TRUE histogram equalization is used instead of linear stretch
scale numeric. The scale (maximum value) of the output if histeq=TRUE
maxcell positive integer. The size of the regular sample used to compute the histogram
or quantiles
bylayer logical. If TRUE stretching is done for each layer individually
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

Examples
r <- rast(nc=10, nr=10)
values(r) <- rep(1:25, 4)
rs <- stretch(r)
s <- c(r, r*2)
sr <- stretch(s)

subset Subset a SpatRaster or a SpatVector

Description

Select a subset of layers from a SpatRaster or select a subset of records (row) and/or variables
(columns) from a SpatVector.
296 subset

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
subset(x, subset, negate=FALSE, NSE=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

subset(x, subset, select, drop=FALSE, NSE=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
subset if x is a SpatRaster: integer or character to select layers
if x is a SpatVector: logical expression indicating the rows to keep (missing
values are taken as FALSE), or another Spat* object in which case the extent is
used to spatially subset the intersecting geometries
select expression, indicating columns to select
negate logical. If TRUE all layers that are not in the subset are selected
NSE logical. If TRUE, non-standard evaluation (the use of unquoted variable names)
is allowed. Set this to FALSE when calling subset from a function
drop logical. If TRUE, the geometries will be dropped, and a [Link] is returned
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
if x is a SpatRaster: SpatRaster
if x is a SpatVector: SpatVector or, if drop=TRUE, a [Link].

See Also
$, [[, [

Examples
### SpatRaster
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
subset(s, 2:3)
subset(s, c(3,2,3,1))

#equivalent to
s[[ c(3,2,3,1) ]]

s[[c("red", "green")]]
s$red

# expression based (partial) matching of names with single brackets

s["re"]
subset_dollar 297

s["^re"]

# not with double brackets

# s[["re"]]

### SpatVector

v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

subset(v, v$NAME_1 == "Diekirch", c("NAME_1", "NAME_2"))

subset(v, NAME_1 == "Diekirch", c(NAME_1, NAME_2), NSE=TRUE)

# or like this
v[2:3,]
v[1:2, 2:3]
v[1:2, c("NAME_1", "NAME_2")]

# or by location, i.e. by spatial overlap with another object

poly <- [Link](ext(6, 6.4, 49.75, 50))
subset(v, poly)
v[poly]

subset_dollar Subset a SpatRaster or a SpatVector

Description
Select a subset of layers from a SpatRaster or select a subset of records (row) and/or variables
(columns) from a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'
x$name

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent
name character. If x is a SpatRaster: layer name. If x is a SpatVector: variable name.
If x is a SpatExtent: xmin, xmax, ymin or ymax

Value
if x is a SpatRaster: SpatRaster
if x is a SpatVector: SpatVector or, if drop=TRUE, a [Link].
298 subset_double

See Also
subset, [, [[, extract

Examples
### SpatRaster
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
subset(s, 2:3)
subset(s, c(3,2,3,1))
#equivalent to
s[[ c(3,2,3,1) ]]

s[[c("red", "green")]]
s$red

# expression based (partial) matching of names with single brackets

s["re"]
s["^re"]

# not with double brackets

# s[["re"]]

### SpatVector

v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

v[2:3,]
v[1:2, 2:3]

subset(v, v$NAME_1 == "Diekirch", c("NAME_1", "NAME_2"))

subset(v, NAME_1 == "Diekirch", c(NAME_1, NAME_2), NSE=TRUE)

subset_double Subset a SpatRaster or a SpatVector

Description
Select a subset of layers from a SpatRaster or select a subset of records (row) and/or variables
(columns) from a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric,missing'
x[[i, j]]

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset,ANY,ANY'

x[[i, j, drop=TRUE]]
subset_double 299

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,numeric,missing'

x[[i, j, drop=FALSE]]

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatVector
i if x is a SpatRaster: integer, logical, or character to select layers
if x is a SpatVector: integer, logical, or character to select variables
j missing, or, for SpatRasterDataset only, numeric
drop logical. If TRUE, the geometries will be dropped, and a [Link] is returned

Value

if x is a SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset: SpatRaster

if x is a SpatVector: a [Link].

See Also

subset, $, [, extract

Examples

### SpatRaster
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
s[[ 1:2 ]]

s[[c("red", "green")]]

# expression based (partial) matching of names with single brackets

s["re"]
s["^re"]

# does not with double brackets

# s[["re"]]

### SpatVector

v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

v[[2:3]]

# to keep the geometry use

v[,2:3]
300 subset_single

subset_single Extract values from a SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent

Description
Extract values from a SpatRaster; a subset of records (row) and/or variables (columns) from a
SpatVector; or a number from a SpatExtent.
You can use indices (row, column, layer or cell numbers) to extract. You can also use other Spat*
objects.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,ANY,ANY,ANY'
x[i, j, k]

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,numeric,numeric'

x[i, j, drop=FALSE]

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector,missing'

x[i, j]

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,numeric,missing'

x[i, j]

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatVector or SpatExtent
i if x is a SpatRaster: numeric, logical or missing to select rows or, if j is miss-
ing, to select cells numbers.
if x is a SpatVector: numeric or missing to select rows. if i is another SpatVec-
tor: get a new SpatVector with the geometries that intersect.
if x is a SpatExtent: integer between 1 and 4.
j numeric, logical, or missing to select columns
k numeric, character, or missing to select layers
drop logical. If FALSE an object of the same class as x is returned

Value
numeric if x is a SpatExtent. Same as x if drop=FALSE. Otherwise a [Link]

See Also
extract, subset, $, [[
subst 301

Examples
### SpatRaster
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
r[3638]
rowColFromCell(r, 2638)
r[39, 28]
x <- r[39:40, 28:29, drop=FALSE]
[Link](x, wide=TRUE)

### SpatVector

v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

v[2:3,]
v[1:2, 2:3]
v[1:2, 2:3, drop=TRUE]

subst replace cell values

Description
Substitute(replace) cell values of a SpatRaster with a new value. See classify for more com-
plex/flexible replacement.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
subst(x, from, to, others=NULL, raw=FALSE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
from numeric value(s). Normally a vector of the same length as ‘to‘. If x has multiple
layers, it can also be a matrix of numeric value(s) where nrow(x) == length(to).
In that case the output has a single layer, with values based on the combination
of the values of the input layers
to numeric value(s). Normally a vector of the same length as ‘from‘. If x has
a single layer, it can also be a matrix of numeric value(s) where nrow(x) ==
length(from). In that case the output has multiple layers, one for each column
in to
others numeric. If not NULL all values that are not matched are set to this value. Other-
wise they retain their original value.
raw logical. If TRUE, the values in from and to are the raw cell values, not the cate-
gorical labels. Only relevant if [Link](x)
filename character. Output filename
... Additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
302 summarize

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
classify, clamp

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, xmin=0, xmax=1, ymin=0, ymax=1, crs="")
r <- init(r, 1:6)
x <- subst(r, 3, 7)
x <- subst(r, 2:3, NA)
x <- subst(x, NA, 10)

# multiple output layers

z <- subst(r, 2:3, cbind(20,30))

# multiple input layers

rr <- c(r, r+1, r+2)
m <- rbind(c(1:3), c(3:5))
zz <- subst(rr, m, c(100, 200))

summarize Summarize

Description
Compute summary statistics for cells, either across layers or between layers (parallel summary).
The following summary methods are available for SpatRaster: any, anyNA, all, allNA, nany,
noNA, max, min, mean, median, prod, range, stdev, sum, [Link], [Link]. See modal
to compute the mode and app to compute summary statistics that are not included here. nany stands
for "not any" or "none" and allows to do !all(x) in one computation instead of two.
Because generic functions are used, the method applied is chosen based on the first argument: "x".
This means that if r is a SpatRaster, mean(r, 5) will work, but mean(5, r) will not work.
The mean method has an argument "trim" that is ignored.
If pop=TRUE stdev computes the population standard deviation, computed as:
f <- function(x) sqrt(sum((x-mean(x))^2) / length(x))
This is different than the sample standard deviation returned by sd (which uses n-1 as denominator).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
min(x, ..., [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

summarize 303

max(x, ..., [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

range(x, ..., [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

prod(x, ..., [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

sum(x, ..., [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

any(x, ..., [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

all(x, ..., [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

nany(x, ..., [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

range(x, ..., [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

stdev(x, ..., pop=TRUE, [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

mean(x, ..., trim=NA, [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

median(x, [Link]=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

anyNA(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

countNA(x, n=0)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

noNA(x, falseNA=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

304 summarize

allNA(x, falseNA=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
... additional SpatRasters or numeric values; and arguments par for parallel sum-
marization (see Details), and filename, overwrite and wopt as for writeRaster
[Link] logical. If TRUE, NA values are ignored. If FALSE, NA is returned if x has any NA
values
trim ignored
pop logical. If TRUE, the population standard deviation is computed. Otherwise the
sample standard deviation is computed
falseNA logical. If TRUE, cells that would otherwise be FALSE are set to NA
n integer. If n > 0, cell values are TRUE if at least n of its layers are NA

Details
Additional argument par can be used for "parallel" summarizing a SpatRaster and a numeric or
logical value. If a SpatRaster x has three layers, max(x, 5) will return a single layer (the number
five is treated as a layer in which all cells have value five). In contrast max(x, 5, par=TRUE) returns
three layers (the number five is treated as another SpatRaster with a single layer with all cells having
the value five.

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
app, Math-methods, modal, [Link]

Examples
[Link](0)
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, nlyrs=3)
values(r) <- runif(ncell(r) * nlyr(r))

x <- mean(r)
# note how this returns one layer
x <- sum(c(r, r[[2]]), 5)

# and this returns three layers

y <- sum(r, r[[2]], 5)

max(r)

## when adding a number, do you want 1 layer or all layers?

# 1 layer
max(r, 0.5)
summary 305

# all layers
max(r, 0.5, par=TRUE)

y <- stdev(r)
# not the same as
yy <- app(r, sd)

z <- stdev(r, r*2)

x <- mean(r, filename=paste0(tempfile(), ".tif"))

v <- values(r)
[Link](3)
v[sample(length(v), 50)] <- NA
values(r) <- v
[Link](r)
anyNA(r)
allNA(r)
countNA(r)
countNA(r, 2)

summary summary

Description
Compute summary statistics (min, max, mean, and quartiles) for SpatRaster using base summary
method. A sample is used for very large files.
For single or other statistics see Summary-methods, global, and quantile

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
summary(object, size=100000, warn=TRUE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

summary(object, ...)

Arguments
object SpatRaster or SpatVector
size positive integer. Size of a regular sample used for large datasets (see spatSample)
warn logical. If TRUE a warning is given if a sample is used
... additional arguments passed on to the base summary method
306 surfArea

Value
matrix with (an estimate of) the median, minimum and maximum values, the first and third quartiles,
and the number of cells with NA values

See Also
Summary-methods, global, quantile

Examples
[Link](0)
r <- rast(nrows=10, ncols=10, nlyrs=3)
values(r) <- runif(nlyr(r)*ncell(r))
summary(r)

surfArea Compute surface area from elevation data

Description
It is often said that if Wales was flattened out it would have an area bigger than England. This
function computes the surface area for a raster with elevation values, taking into account the sloping
nature of the surface.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
surfArea(x, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster with elevation values. Currently the raster CRS must be planar and
have the same distance units (e.g. m) as the elevation values
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

Author(s)
Barry Rowlingson

References
Jenness, Jeff S., 2004. Calculating Landscape Surface Area from Digital Elevation Models. Wildlife
Society Bulletin 32(3): 829-839
svc 307

See Also
expanse, cellSize

Examples
v <- rast(volcano, crs="local")
x <- terra::surfArea(v)

svc Create a SpatVectorCollection

Description
Methods to create a SpatVectorCollection. This is an object to hold "sub-datasets", each a SpatVec-
tor, perhaps of different geometry type.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'missing'
svc(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

svc(x, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'list'

svc(x)

## S4 method for signature 'character'

svc(x, layer="", query="", dialect="", extent=NULL, filter=NULL)

Arguments
x SpatVector, character (filename), list with SpatVectors, or missing
... Additional SpatVectors
layer character. layer name to select a layer from a file (database) with multiple layers
query character. A query to subset the dataset
dialect character. The SQL dialect to use (if any). For example: "SQLite". "" refers to
the default OGR-SQL dialect
extent Spat* object. The extent of the object is used as a spatial filter to select the
geometries to read. Ignored if filter is not NULL
filter SpatVector. Used as a spatial filter to select geometries to read (the convex hull
is used for lines or points). It is guaranteed that all features that overlap with
the extent of filter will be returned. It can happen that additional geometries are
returned
308 symdif

Value
SpatVectorCollection

See Also
sprc

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
x <- svc()
x <- svc(v, v[1:3,], [Link](v[3:5,]), [Link](v))
length(x)
x

# extract
x[3]

# replace
x[2] <- [Link](v[1,])

symdif Symmetrical difference

Description
Symmetrical difference of polygons

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'
symdif(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatVector
y SpatVector

Value
SpatVector

See Also
erase
tapp 309

Examples
p <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
b <- [Link](ext(6, 6.4, 49.75, 50))
#sd <- symdif(p, b)
#plot(sd, col=rainbow(12))

tapp Apply a function to subsets of layers of a SpatRaster

Description
Apply a function to subsets of layers of a SpatRaster (similar to tapply and aggregate). The layers
are combined based on the index.
The number of layers in the output SpatRaster equals the number of unique values in index times
the number of values that the supplied function returns for a single vector of numbers.
For example, if you have a SpatRaster with 6 layers, you can use index=c(1,1,1,2,2,2) and
fun=sum. This will return a SpatRaster with two layers. The first layer is the sum of the first three
layers in the input SpatRaster, and the second layer is the sum of the last three layers in the input
SpatRaster. Indices are recycled such that index=c(1,2) would also return a SpatRaster with two
layers (one based on the odd layers (1,3,5), the other based on the even layers (2,4,6)).
The index can also be one of the following values to group by time period (if x has the appropriate
time values): "years", "months", "yearmonths", "dekads", "yeardekads", "weeks" (the ISO 8601
week number, see Details), "yearweeks", "days", "doy" (day of the year), "7days" (seven-day pe-
riods starting at Jan 1 of each year), "10days", or "15days". It can also be a function that makes
groups from time values.
See app or Summary-methods if you want to use a more efficient function that returns multiple
layers based on all layers in the SpatRaster.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
tapp(x, index, fun, ..., cores=1, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
index factor or numeric (integer). Vector of length nlyr(x) (shorter vectors are re-
cycled) grouping the input layers. It can also be one of the following values:
"years", "months", "yearmonths", "days", "week" (ISO 8601 week number), or
"doy" (day of the year)
fun function to be applied. The following functions have been re-implemented in
C++ for speed: "sum", "mean", "median", "modal", "which", "[Link]",
"[Link]", "min", "max", "prod", "any", "all", "none", "sd", "std", "first".
To use the base-R function for say, "min", you could use something like fun =
\(i) min(i)
310 terrain

... additional arguments passed to fun

cores positive integer. If cores > 1, a ’parallel’ package cluster with that many cores
is created and used. You can also supply a cluster object. Ignored for functions
that are implemented by terra in C++ (see under fun)
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster

Details
"week" follows the ISO 8601 definition. Weeks start on Monday. If the week containing 1 January
has four or more days in the new year, then it is considered week "01". Otherwise, it is the last week
of the previous year (week "52" or "53", and the next week is week 1.

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
app, Summary-methods

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
s <- c(r, r, r, r, r, r)
s <- s * 1:6
b1 <- tapp(s, index=c(1,1,1,2,2,2), fun=sum)
b1
b2 <- tapp(s, c(1,2,3,1,2,3), fun=sum)
b2

terrain terrain characteristics

Description
Compute terrain characteristics from elevation data. The elevation values should be in the same
units as the map units (typically meter) for projected (planar) raster data. They should be in meter
when the coordinate reference system is longitude/latitude.
For accuracy, always compute these values on the original data (do not first change the projection).
Distances (needed for slope and aspect) for longitude/latitude data are computed on the WGS84
ellipsoid with Karney’s algorithm.
terrain 311

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
terrain(x, v="slope", neighbors=8, unit="degrees", filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster, single layer with elevation values. Values should have the same unit
as the map units, or in meters when the crs is longitude/latitude
v character. One or more of these options: slope, aspect, TPI, TRI, TRIriley,
TRIrmsd, roughness, flowdir (see Details)
unit character. "degrees" or "radians" for the output of "slope" and "aspect"
neighbors integer. Indicating how many neighboring cells to use to compute slope or aspect
with. Either 8 (queen case) or 4 (rook case)
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Details
When neighbors=4, slope and aspect are computed according to Fleming and Hoffer (1979) and
Ritter (1987). When neighbors=8, slope and aspect are computed according to Horn (1981). The
Horn algorithm may be best for rough surfaces, and the Fleming and Hoffer algorithm may be better
for smoother surfaces (Jones, 1997; Burrough and McDonnell, 1998).
If slope = 0, aspect is set to 0.5*pi radians (or 90 degrees if unit="degrees"). When computing slope
or aspect, the coordinate reference system of x must be known for the algorithm to differentiate
between planar and longitude/latitude data.
terrain is not vectorized over "neighbors" or "unit" – only the first value is used.
flowdir returns the "flow direction" (of water), that is the direction of the greatest drop in elevation
(or the smallest rise if all neighbors are higher). They are encoded as powers of 2 (0 to 7). The cell
to the right of the focal cell is 1, the one below that is 2, and so on:

32 64 128
16 x 1
8 4 2

Cells without lower neighboring cells are encoded as zero.

If two cells have the same drop in elevation, a random cell is picked. That is not ideal as it may
prevent the creation of connected flow networks. ArcGIS implements the approach of Greenlee
(1987) and I might adopt that in the future.
Most terrain indices are according to Wilson et al. (2007), as in gdaldem. TRI (Terrain Ruggedness
Index) is the mean of the absolute differences between the value of a cell and its 8 surrounding cells.
TPI (Topographic Position Index, or Bathymetric Position Index if on seafloor) is the difference
between the value of a cell and the mean value of its 8 surrounding cells. Roughness is the difference
between the maximum and the minimum value of a cell and its 8 surrounding cells.
312 terrain

TRIriley (TRI according to Riley et al., 2007) returns the square root of summed squared differences
between the value of a cell and its 8 surrounding cells. TRIrmsd computes the square root of the
mean of the squared differences between these cells.
These measures can also be computed with focal functions:
TRI <- focal(x, w=3, fun=\(x) sum(abs(x[-5]-x[5]))/8)
TPI <- focal(x, w=3, fun=\(x) x[5] - mean(x[-5]))
rough <- focal(x, w=3, fun=\(x) max(x) - min(x))

References

Burrough, P., and R.A. McDonnell, 1998. Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Oxford
University Press.
Fleming, M.D. and Hoffer, R.M., 1979. Machine processing of Landsat MSS data and DMA to-
pographic data for forest cover type mapping. LARS Technical Report 062879. Laboratory for
Applications of Remote Sensing, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
Horn, B.K.P., 1981. Hill shading and the reflectance map. Proceedings of the IEEE 69:14-47
Jones, K.H., 1998. A comparison of algorithms used to compute hill slope as a property of the
DEM. Computers & Geosciences 24: 315-323
Karney, C.F.F., 2013. Algorithms for geodesics, J. Geodesy 87: 43-55. doi:10.1007/s00190-012-
0578-z.
Riley, S.J., De Gloria, S.D., Elliot, R. (1999): A Terrain Ruggedness that Quantifies Topographic
Heterogeneity. Intermountain Journal of Science 5: 23-27.
Ritter, P., 1987. A vector-based terrain and aspect generation algorithm. Photogrammetric Engi-
neering and Remote Sensing 53: 1109-1111
Wilson et al 2007, Multiscale Terrain Analysis of Multibeam Bathymetry Data for Habitat Mapping
on the Continental Slope. Marine Geodesy 30:3-35

See Also

viewshed

Examples

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
x <- terrain(r, "slope")
text 313

text Add labels to a map

Description
Plots labels, that is a textual (rather than color) representation of values, on top an existing plot
(map).

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
text(x, labels, digits=0, halo=FALSE, hc="white", hw=0.1, jitter=0, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

text(x, labels, halo=FALSE, inside=FALSE, hc="white", hw=0.1, jitter=0, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
labels character. Optional. Vector of labels with length(x) or a variable name from
names(x)
digits integer. How many digits should be used?
halo logical. If TRUE a "halo" is printed around the text
hc character. The halo color
hw numeric. The halo width
inside logical. Should the text always be placed inside one the sub-geometries?
jitter numeric. The amount of random noise used to adjust label positions, possibly
avoiding overlaps. See argument ’factor’ in jitter
... additional arguments to pass to graphics function text

See Also
text, plot, halo

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=4, ncols=4)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)

plot(r)
text(r)

[Link](123)
text(r, jitter = 2, col = "red", halo = TRUE)

plot(r)
314 thresh

text(r, halo=TRUE, hc="blue", col="white", hw=0.2)

plot(r, col=rainbow(16))
text(r, col=c("black", "white"), vfont=c("sans serif", "bold"), cex=2)

thresh Thresholding

Description

Compute a threshold to divide the values of a SpatRaster into two groups, and use that threshold to
classify the raster.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

thresh(x, method="otsu", maxcell=1000000, combine=FALSE,
[Link]=TRUE, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
method character. One of "mean", "median" or "otsu" for Otsu’s method
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells to use to compute the threshold
combine logical. If TRUE the layers of x are combined to compute a single threshold
[Link] logical. If TRUE a classified SpatRaster is returned. Otherwise the threshold(s)
are returned
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

numeric or SpatRaster

References

Otsu, N. (1979). A Threshold Selection Method from Gray-Level Histograms. IEEE Transactions
on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 9(1), 62-66. doi:10.1109/TSMC.1979.4310076

See Also

divide
tighten 315

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
thresh(s, "mean", [Link]=FALSE)
thresh(s, "mean", combine=TRUE, [Link]=FALSE)

plot(thresh(s, "otsu"))

tighten tighten SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset objects

Description

Combines data sources within a SpatRaster (that are in memory, or from the same file) to allow for
faster processing.
Or combine sub-datasets into a SpatRaster.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

tighten(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

tighten(x)

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset

Value

SpatRaster

Examples
r <- rast(nrow=5, ncol=9, vals=1:45)
x <- c(r, r*2, r*3)
x
tighten(x)
316 time

time time of SpatRaster layers

Description

Get or set the time of the layers of a SpatRaster. Time can be stored as POSIXlt (date and time,
with a resolution of seconds, and a time zone), Date, "months", "years", or "yearmonths".
timeInfo and [Link] are helper functions to understand what a time data a SpatRaster has.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

time(x, format="")

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

time(x, tstep="")<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

timeInfo(x)

Arguments

x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset
format One of "", "seconds" (POSIXlt), "days" (Date), "yearmonths" (decimal years),
"years", "months". If "", the returned format is (based on) the format that was
used to set the time
value Date, POSIXt, yearmon (defined in package zoo), or numeric
tstep One of "years", "months", "yearmonths". Used when value is numeric. Ignored
when value is of type Date, POSIXt, or yearmon

Value

time: POSIXlt, Date, or numeric timeInfo: [Link] with time step and time zone information
(if available) [Link]: logical

See Also

depth
tmpFiles 317

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

# Date"
d <- [Link]("2001-05-04") + 0:2
time(s) <- d
time(s)

# POSIX (date/time with a resolution of seconds)

time(s) <- [Link](d)
time(s)

# with time zone

time(s) <- [Link]([Link](), "America/New_York") + 0:2
time(s)
timeInfo(s)

# years
time(s, tstep="years") <- 2000 + 0:2
s

time(s, tstep="months") <- 1:3

s

tmpFiles Temporary files

Description
List and optionally remove temporary files created by the terra package. These files are created
when an output SpatRaster may be too large to store in memory (RAM). This can happen when no
filename is provided to a function and when using functions where you cannot provide a filename.
Temporary files are automatically removed at the end of each R session that ends normally. You
can use tmpFiles to see the files in the current sessions, including those that are orphaned (not
connect to a SpatRaster object any more) and from other (perhaps old) sessions, and remove all the
temporary files.

Usage
tmpFiles(current=TRUE, orphan=FALSE, old=FALSE, remove=FALSE)

Arguments
current logical. If TRUE, temporary files from the current R session are included
orphan logical. If TRUE, temporary files from the current R session that are no longer
associated with a SpatRaster (if current is TRUE these are also included)
318 toMemory

old logical. If TRUE, temporary files from other "R" sessions. Unless you are running
multiple instances of R at the same time, these are from old (possibly crashed)
R sessions and should be removed
remove logical. If TRUE, temporary files are removed

Value
character

See Also
terraOptions

Examples
tmpFiles()

toMemory Read all cell values into memory

Description
Reads all cell values of a SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset into memory.
Using this method is discouraged as it is not necessary for processing the data and may lead to ex-
cessive memory use that will slow down your computer or worse. It cannot be used for SpatRasters
that are based on very large files.
The method may be useful if a relatively small dataset is used repeatedly, such that efficiency gains
are made because the values only need to be read from disk once.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
toMemory(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

toMemory(x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset

Value
Same as x

See Also
values, [Link], readValues, inMemory
topology 319

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
sources(r)
inMemory(r)
x <- toMemory(r)
inMemory(x)

topology Vector topology methods

Description
makeNodes create nodes on lines
mergeLines connect lines to form polygons
removeDupNodes removes duplicate nodes in geometries and optionally rounds the coordinates
emptyGeoms returns the indices of empty (null) geometries. [Link] also checks if any of the coordi-
nates is NA.
snap makes boundaries of geometries identical if they are very close to each other.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
mergeLines(x)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
snap(x, y=NULL, tolerance)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
removeDupNodes(x, digits = -1)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
makeNodes(x)

Arguments
x SpatVector of lines or polygons
y SpatVector of lines or polygons to snap to. If NULL snapping is to the other
geometries in x
tolerance numeric. Snapping tolerance (distance between geometries)
digits numeric. Number of digits used in rounding. Ignored if < 0

Value
SpatVector

See Also
sharedPaths, gaps, simplifyGeom, forceCCW, fillHoles
320 transpose

Examples
p1 <- [Link](ext(0,1,0,1))
p2 <- [Link](ext(1.1,2,0,1))

p <- rbind(p1, p2)

y <- snap(p, tol=.15)

plot(p, lwd=3, col="light gray")
lines(y, col="red", lwd=2)

transpose Transpose

Description
Transpose a SpatRaster or SpatVector

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
t(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

t(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

trans(x, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
flip, rotate

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=18, ncols=36)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
tr1 <- t(r)
tr2 <- trans(r)
ttr <- trans(tr2)
trim 321

trim Trim a SpatRaster

Description

Trim (shrink) a SpatRaster by removing outer rows and columns that are NA or another value.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

trim(x, padding=0, value=NA, filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
padding integer. Number of outer rows/columns to keep
value numeric. The value of outer rows or columns that are to be removed
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

See Also

extend

Examples

r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, xmin=0,xmax=10,ymin=0,ymax=10)

v <- rep(NA, ncell(r))
v[c(12,34,69)] <- 1:3
values(r) <- v
s <- trim(r)
322 union

union Union SpatVector or SpatExtent objects

Description
If you want to append polygon SpatVectors use rbind instead of union. union will also intersect
overlapping polygons between, not within, objects. Union for lines and points simply combines
the two data sets; without any geometric intersections. This is equivalent to rbind. Attributes are
joined.
If x and y have a different geometry type, a SpatVectorCollection is returned.
If a single SpatVector is supplied, overlapping polygons are intersected. Original attributes are lost.
New attributes allow for determining how many, and which, polygons overlapped.
SpatExtent: Objects are combined into their union; this is equivalent to +.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'
union(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,missing'

union(x, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent,SpatExtent'

union(x, y)

Arguments
x SpatVector or SpatExtent
y Same as x or missing

Value
SpatVector or SpatExtent

See Also
rbind
intersect
combineGeoms
merge and mosaic to union SpatRasters.
crop and extend for the union of SpatRaster and SpatExtent.
merge for merging a [Link] with attributes of a SpatVector.
aggregate to dissolve SpatVector objects.
unique 323

Examples
e1 <- ext(-10, 10, -20, 20)
e2 <- ext(0, 20, -40, 5)
union(e1, e2)

#SpatVector
v <- vect([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
v <- v[,3:4]
p <- vect(c("POLYGON ((5.8 49.8, 6 49.9, 6.15 49.8, 6 49.65, 5.8 49.8))",
"POLYGON ((6.3 49.9, 6.2 49.7, 6.3 49.6, 6.5 49.8, 6.3 49.9))"), crs=crs(v))
values(p) <- [Link](pid=1:2, value=expanse(p))
u <- union(v, p)
plot(u, "pid")

b <- buffer(v, 1000)

u <- union(b)
u$sum <- rowSums([Link](u))
plot(u, "sum")

unique Unique values

Description
This method returns the unique values in a SpatRaster, or removes duplicates records (geometry
and attributes) in a SpatVector.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
unique(x, incomparables=FALSE, digits=NA, [Link]=TRUE, [Link]=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

unique(x, incomparables=FALSE, geom=TRUE, atts=TRUE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
incomparables logical. If FALSE and x is a SpatRaster: the unique values are determined for
all layers together, and the result is a matrix. If TRUE, each layer is evaluated
separately, and a list is returned. If x is a SpatVector this argument is as for a
[Link]
digits integer. The number of digits for rounding the values before finding the unique
values. Use NA means to not do any rounding
[Link] logical. If TRUE, NaN is included if there are any missing values
324 units

[Link] logical. If TRUE, a single-layer categorical SpatRaster with the unique values is
returned
... additional arguments passed on to unique or identical
geom logical. If TRUE the geometries are considered to determine uniqueness
atts logical. If TRUE the attribute values are considered to determine uniqueness

Value
If x is a SpatRaster: [Link] or list (if incomparables=FALSE)
If x is a SpatVector: SpatVector

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5)
values(r) <- rep(1:5, each=5)
unique(r)
s <- c(r, round(r/3))
unique(s)
unique(s,TRUE)

unique(s, [Link]=TRUE)

v <- vect(cbind(x=c(1:5,1:5), y=c(5:1,5:1)),

crs="+proj=utm +zone=1 +datum=WGS84")
nrow(v)
u <- unique(v)
nrow(u)

values(v) <- c(1:5, 1:3, 5:4)

unique(v)

units units of SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataSet

Description
Get or set the units of the layers of a SpatRaster or the datasets in a SpatRasterDataSet.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
units(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

units(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

update 325

units(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

units(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster
value character

Value
character

See Also
time, names

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

units(s) <- c("m/s", "kg", "ha")

units(s)
s

units(s) <- "kg"

units(s)

update Change values in a file

Description
Change the contents of a file that is the data source of a SpatRaster. BE CAREFUL as you are
overwriting values in an existing file.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
update(object, crs=FALSE, extent=FALSE)

Arguments
object SpatRaster
crs logical. Should the coordinate reference system be updated?
extent logical. Should the extent be updated?
326 values

Value
SpatRaster (invisibly)

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
fname <- paste0(tempfile(), ".tif")
x <- writeRaster(s, fname)
ext(x) <- ext(x) + 1
crs(x) <- "+proj=utm +zone=1"

update(x, crs=TRUE, extent=TRUE)

rast(fname)

values Cell values and geometry attributes

Description
Get the cell values of a SpatRaster or the attributes of a SpatVector.
By default all values returned are numeric. This is because a vector or matrix can only store one
data type, and a SpatRaster may consist of multiple data types. However, if all layers have integer
or logical values, the returned values also have that datatype.
Note that with values(x, dataframe=TRUE) and [Link](x) the values returned match
the type of each layer, and can be a mix of numeric, logical, integer, and factor.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
values(x, mat=TRUE, dataframe=FALSE, row=1,
nrows=nrow(x), col=1, ncols=ncol(x), [Link]=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

values(x, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
mat logical. If TRUE, values are returned as a matrix instead of as a vector, except
when dataframe is TRUE
dataframe logical. If TRUE, values are returned as a [Link] instead of as a vector (also
if matrix is TRUE)
row positive integer. Row number to start from, should be between 1 and nrow(x)
nrows positive integer. How many rows?
values 327

col positive integer. Column number to start from, should be between 1 and ncol(x)
ncols positive integer. How many columns? Default is the number of columns left
after the start column
[Link] logical. Remove NAs?
... additional arguments passed to [Link]

Details

If x is a SpatRaster, and mat=FALSE, the values are returned as a vector. In cell-order by layer. If
mat=TRUE, a matrix is returned in which the values of each layer are represented by a column (with
ncell(x) rows). The values per layer are in cell-order, that is, from top-left, to top-right and then
down by row. Use [Link](x, wide=TRUE) for an alternative matrix representation where the
number of rows and columns matches that of x.

Value

matrix or [Link]

Note

raster values that are NA (missing) are represented by NaN (not-a-number) unless argument dataframe
is TRUE.

See Also

values<-, focalValues, [Link]

Examples

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
r
x <- values(r)
x[3650:3655, ]
r[3650:3655]

ff <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(ff)
y <- values(v)
head(y)
328 varnames

varnames variable and long variable names

Description

Set or get names for each dataset (variable) in a SpatRasterDataset.

Each SpatRaster _data source_ can also have a variable name and a long variable name. They are
set when reading a file with possibly multiple sub-datasets (e.g. netcdf or hdf5 format) into a single
SpatRaster. Each sub-datset is a seperate "data-source" in the SpatRaster. Note that newly created
or derived SpatRasters always have a single variable (data source), and therefore the variable names
are lost when processing a multi-variable SpatRaster. Thus the variable names are mostly useful to
understand a SpatRaster created from some files and for managing SpatRasterDatasets.
See link{names} for the more commonly used _layer_ names.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

varnames(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

varnames(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

longnames(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'

longnames(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

varnames(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

varnames(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

longnames(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

longnames(x)<-value

Arguments

x SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset
value character (vector)
vect 329

Value
character

Note
terra enforces neither unique nor valid names. See [Link] to create unique names and
{[Link]} to make syntactically valid names.

Examples
s <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, nlyrs=3)
names(s) <- c("a", "b", "c")
x <- sds(s, s)
varnames(x) <- c("one", "two")
x

vect Create SpatVector objects

Description
Methods to create a SpatVector from a filename or other R object.
A filename can be for a Shapefile, GeoPackage, GeoJSON, Keyhole Markup Language (KML) or
any other spatial vector file format.
You can use a [Link] to make a SpatVector of points. If the variables to be used are not specified
with argument geom, the method looks for candidate variables. If variables are found and these
appear to be longitude/latitude, the "+proj=longlat" crs is assigned unless another crs is specified.
You can also use a two-colum matrix to make a SpatVector of points, or a "geom" matrix to make a
SpatVector of any supported geometry (see examples and geom).
You can supply a list of SpatVectors to append them into a single SpatVector.
SpatVectors can also be created from "Well Known Text", and from spatial vector data objects
defined in the sf or sp packages.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'character'
vect(x, layer="", query="", dialect="", extent=NULL, filter=NULL,
crs="", proxy=FALSE, what="", opts=NULL)

## S4 method for signature 'matrix'

vect(x, type="points", atts=NULL, crs="")

## S4 method for signature '[Link]'

vect(x, geom=NULL, crs=NULL, keepgeom=FALSE, quiet=TRUE)

## S4 method for signature 'list'

330 vect

vect(x, type="points", crs="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

vect(x, crs="")

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVectorCollection'

vect(x)

## S4 method for signature 'sf'

vect(x)

Arguments
x character. A filename; or a "Well Known Text" string; SpatExtent, [Link]
(to make a SpatVector of points); a "geom" matrix to make a SpatVector of
any supported geometry (see examples and geom); a spatial vector data object
defined in the sf or sp packages; or a list with either matrices with coordinates,
or raw "Well Known Binary" (WKB) blobs
layer character. layer name to select a layer from a file (database) with multiple layers
query character. A query to subset the dataset
dialect character. The SQL dialect to use (if any). For example: "SQLite". "" refers to
the default OGR-SQL dialect
extent Spat* object. The extent of the object is used as a spatial filter to select the
geometries to read. Ignored if filter is not NULL
filter SpatVector. Used as a spatial filter to select geometries to read (the convex hull
is used for lines or points). It is guaranteed that all features that overlap with
the extent of filter will be returned. It can happen that additional geometries are
returned
type character. Geometry type. Must be "points", "lines", or "polygons". Ignored if
x is a WKB list
atts [Link] with the attributes. The number of rows must match the number of
geometrical elements
crs character. The coordinate reference system in one of the following formats:
WKT/WKT2, <authority>:<code>, or PROJ-string notation (see crs). If x is
a [Link], crs==NULL, and geom is c("lon", "lat") or a variation thereof,
"+proj=longlat" is assigned
proxy logical. If TRUE a SpatVectorProxy is returned
what character indicating what to read. Either "" for geometries and attributes, or
"geoms" to only read the geometries, "attributes" to only read the attributes
(that are returned as a [Link])
opts character. GDAL dataset open options. For example "ENCODING=LATIN1"
geom character. The field name(s) with the geometry data. Either two names for x and
y coordinates of points, or a single name for a single column with WKT geome-
tries. If NULL the function will use or c("x", "y"), c("lon", "lat"), c("longitude",
"latitude") and a few variations thereof, if one of these pairs is in the data
vect 331

keepgeom logical. If TRUE the geom variable(s), e.g. spatial coordinates, is (are) also
included in the attributes table
quiet logical. If TRUE a warning is given when x is a [Link] and the values for
geom and/or the crs are guessed from the data

Value
SpatVector

See Also
geom, vector_layers

Examples
### SpatVector from file
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
f
v <- vect(f)
v

## subsetting (large) files

## with attribute query
v <- vect(f, query="SELECT NAME_1, NAME_2, ID_2 FROM lux WHERE ID_2 < 4")

## with an extent
e <- ext(5.9, 6.3, 49.9, 50)
v <- vect(f, extent=e)

## with polygons
p <- [Link](e)
v <- vect(f, filter=p)

### SpatVector from a geom matrix

x1 <- rbind(c(-180,-20), c(-140,55), c(10, 0), c(-140,-60))
x2 <- rbind(c(-10,0), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55))
x3 <- rbind(c(-125,0), c(0,60), c(40,5), c(15,-45))
hole <- rbind(c(80,0), c(105,13), c(120,2), c(105,-13))
z <- rbind(cbind(object=1, part=1, x1, hole=0), cbind(object=2, part=1, x3, hole=0),
cbind(object=3, part=1, x2, hole=0), cbind(object=3, part=1, hole, hole=1))
colnames(z)[3:4] <- c('x', 'y')

p <- vect(z, "polygons")

p

z[z[, "hole"]==1, "object"] <- 4

lns <- vect(z[,1:4], "lines")
plot(p)
lines(lns, col="red", lwd=2)

### from wkt

332 vector_layers

v <- vect("POLYGON ((0 -5, 10 0, 10 -10, 0 -5))")

wkt <- c("MULTIPOLYGON ( ((40 40, 20 45, 45 30, 40 40)),

((20 35, 10 30, 10 10, 30 5, 45 20, 20 35),(30 20, 20 15, 20 25, 30 20)))",
"POLYGON ((0 -5, 10 0, 10 -10, 0 -5))")
w <- vect(wkt)

# combine two SpatVectors

vw <- rbind(w, v)

# add a [Link]
d <- [Link](id=1:2, name=c("a", "b"))
values(w) <- d

# add [Link] on creation, here from a geom matrix

g <- geom(w)
d <- [Link](id=1:2, name=c("a", "b"))
m <- vect(g, "polygons", atts=d, crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")

### SpatVector from a [Link]

d$wkt <- wkt
x <- vect(d, geom="wkt")

d$wkt <- NULL

d$lon <- c(0,10)
d$lat <- c(0,10)
x <- vect(d, geom=c("lon", "lat"))

# SpatVector to sf
#sf::st_as_sf(x)

vector_layers List or remove layers from a vector file

Description
List or remove layers from a vector file that supports layers such as GPGK

Usage
vector_layers(filename, delete="", return_error=FALSE)

Arguments
filename character. filename
delete character. layers to be deleted (ignored if the value is ""
return_error logical. If TRUE, an error occurs if some layers cannot be deleted. Otherwise a
warning is given
viewshed 333

viewshed Compute a viewshed

Description

Use elevation data to compute the locations that can be seen, or how much higher they would have
to be to be seen, from a certain position. The raster data coordinate reference system must be
planar (not lon/lat), with the elevation values in the same unit as the distance unit of the coordinate
reference system.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

viewshed(x, loc, observer=1.80, target=0, curvcoef=6/7, output="yes/no", filename="", ...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster, single layer with elevation values. Values should have the same unit
as the map units
loc location (x and y coordinates) or a cell number
observer numeric. The height above the elevation data of the observer
target numeric. The height above the elevation data of the targets
curvcoef numeric. Coefficient to consider the effect of the curvature of the earth and re-
fraction of the atmosphere. The elevation values are corrected with: elevation
= elevation - curvcoeff * (distance)^2 / (earth_diameter). This means
that with the default value of 0.85714, you lose sight of about 1 meter of eleva-
tion for each 385 m of planar distance
output character. Can be "yes/no" to get a binary (logical) output showing what areas
are visible; "land" to get the height above the current elevation that would be
visible; or "sea" the elevation above sea level that would be visible
filename character. Output filename
... Options for writing files as in writeRaster

References

The algorithm used is by Wang et al.: [Link]

[Link].

See Also

terrain
334 voronoi

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
x <- project(r, "EPSG:2169")
p <- cbind(70300, 96982)
v <- viewshed(x, p, 0, 0, 0.85714)

voronoi Voronoi diagram and Delaunay triangles

Description
Get a Voronoi diagram or Delaunay triangles for points, or the nodes of lines or polygons

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
voronoi(x, bnd=NULL, tolerance=0, [Link]=FALSE, deldir=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

delaunay(x, tolerance=0, [Link]=FALSE, constrained=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatVector
bnd SpatVector to set the outer boundary of the voronoi diagram
tolerance numeric >= 0, snapping tolerance (0 is no snapping)
[Link] logical. If TRUE, lines are returned without the outer boundary
constrained logical. If TRUE, a constrained delaunay triangulation is returned
deldir logical. If TRUE, the deldir is used instead of the GEOS C++ library method.
It has been reported that deldir does not choke on very large data sets

Value
SpatVector

Examples
wkt <- c("MULTIPOLYGON ( ((40 40, 20 45, 45 30, 40 40)),
((20 35, 10 30, 10 10, 30 5, 45 20, 20 35),(30 20, 20 15, 20 25, 30 20)))",
"POLYGON ((0 -5, 10 0, 10 -10, 0 -5))")
x <- vect(wkt)
v <- voronoi(x)
v

d <- delaunay(x)
d
vrt 335

plot(v, lwd=2, col=rainbow(15))

lines(x, col="gray", lwd=2)
points(x)

vrt Virtual Raster Dataset

Description
Create a Virtual Raster Dataset (VRT) from a collection of file-based raster datasets (tiles). See
gdalbuildvrt for details.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'character'
vrt(x, filename="", options=NULL, overwrite=FALSE, set_names=FALSE, return_filename=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

vrt(x, filename="", options=NULL, overwrite=FALSE, return_filename=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRasterCollection or character vector with filenames of raster "tiles". That
is, files that have data for, typically non-overlapping, sub-regions of an raster.
See makeTiles
filename character. output VRT filename
options character. All arguments as separate vector elements. Options as for gdalbuild-
vrt
overwrite logical. Should filename be overwritten if it exists?
set_names logical. Add the layer names of the first tile to the vrt? If options includes
"-separate" the name of each source file is added, and each input goes into a
separate band in the VRT dataset
return_filename
logical. If TRUE the filename is returned, otherwise a SpatRaster is returned

Value
SpatRaster

Note
A VRT can reference very many datasets. These are not all opened at the same time. The default
is to open not more than 100 files. To increase performance, this maximum limit can be increased
by setting the GDAL_MAX_DATASET_POOL_SIZE configuration option to a bigger value with
setGDALconfig. Note that a typical user process on Linux is limited to 1024 simultaneously opened
files.
336 vrt_tiles

See Also
makeTiles to create tiles; makeVRT to create a .vrt file for a binary raster file that does not have a
header file. vrt_tiles to get the filenames of the tiles in a VRT.

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=100, nrows=100)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
x <- rast(ncols=2, nrows=2)
filename <- paste0(tempfile(), "_.tif")
ff <- makeTiles(r, x, filename)
ff

#vrtfile <- paste0(tempfile(), ".vrt")

#v <- vrt(ff, vrtfile)

## output in lower resolution

#vrtfile <- paste0(tempfile(), ".vrt")
#v <- vrt(ff, vrtfile, options = c("-tr", 5, 5))
#head(readLines(vrtfile))
#v

vrt_tiles filenames of VRT tiles

Description
Get the filenames of the tiles in a Virtual Raster Dataset (VRT)

Usage
vrt_tiles(x)

Arguments
x character (filename) or SpatRaster

Value
character

See Also
vrt
watershed 337

watershed Catchment delineation

Description

delineate the area covered by a catchment from a SpatRaster with flow direction and a pour-point
(catchment outlet).

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

watershed(x, pourpoint, filename="",...)

Arguments

x SpatRaster with flow direction. See terrain.

pourpoint matrix or SpatVector with the pour point location
filename character. Output filename
... additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster

Value

SpatRaster

Author(s)

Ezio Crestaz, Emanuele Cordano, Roman Seliger

Examples

elev <- rast([Link]('ex/elev_vinschgau.tif', package="terra"))

flowdir <- terrain(elev, "flowdir")
## pour point at Naturns
pp <- cbind(653358.3, 5168222)
w <- watershed(flowdir, pp)
338 [Link]

[Link] Weighted mean of layers

Description
Compute the weighted mean for each cell of the layers of a SpatRaster. The weights can be spatially
variable or not.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'
[Link](x, w, [Link]=FALSE, filename="", ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'

[Link](x, w, [Link]=FALSE, filename="", ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
w A vector of weights (one number for each layer), or for spatially variable weights,
a SpatRaster with weights (should have the same extent, resolution and number
of layers as x)
[Link] Logical. Should missing values be removed?
filename character. Output filename
... options for writing files as in writeRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
Summary-methods, [Link]

Examples
b <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))

# give least weight to first layer, most to last layer

wm1 <- [Link](b, w=1:3)

# spatially varying weights

# weigh by column number
w1 <- init(b, "col")

# weigh by row number

w2 <- init(b, "row")
where 339

w <- c(w1, w2, w2)

wm2 <- [Link](b, w=w)

where Where are the cells with the min or max values?

Description

This method returns the cell numbers for the cells with the min or max values of each layer in a
SpatRaster.

Usage

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, values=TRUE, list=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

[Link](x, values=TRUE, list=FALSE)

Arguments

x SpatRaster
values logical. If TRUE the min or max values are also returned
list logical. If TRUE a list is returned instead of a matrix

Value

matrix or list

See Also

which and Summary-methods for [Link] and [Link]

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
[Link](r)
340 width

[Link] Which cells are TRUE?

Description
This method returns a single layer SpatRaster with cell values indicating the first layer in the input
that is TRUE. All numbers that are not zero (or FALSE), are considered to be TRUE.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
[Link](x)

Arguments
x SpatRaster

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
isTRUE, which, See Summary-methods for [Link] and [Link]

Examples
s <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra"))
x <- [Link](s > 100)

width SpatVector geometric properties

Description
width returns the minimum diameter of the geometry, defined as the smallest band that contains the
geometry, where a band is a strip of the plane defined by two parallel lines. This can be thought of
as the smallest hole that the geometry can be moved through, with a single rotation.
clearance returns the minimum clearance of a geometry. The minimum clearance is the smallest
amount by which a vertex could be moved to produce an invalid polygon, a non-simple linestring,
or a multipoint with repeated points. If a geometry has a minimum clearance of ’mc’, it can be said
that "no two distinct vertices in the geometry are separated by less than "mc". No vertex is closer
than "mc" to a line segment of which it is not an endpoint".
If the minimum clearance cannot be defined for a geometry (such as with a single point), NA is
returned.
window 341

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
width(x, [Link]=FALSE)
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'
clearance(x, [Link]=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatVector of lines or polygons
[Link] logical. If TRUE lines are returned that define the width or clearance

Value
numeric or SpatVector

See Also
hull

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)

width(v)
clearance(v)

width_lines <- width(v, [Link]=TRUE)

plot(v)
lines(width_lines, col="blue")

window Set a window

Description
Assign a window (area of interest) to a SpatRaster with a SpatExtent, or set it to NULL to remove
the window. This is similar to crop without actually creating a new dataset.
The window is intersect with the extent of the SpatRaster. It is envisioned that in a future version,
the window may also go outside these boundaries.

Usage
## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster'
window(x)<-value

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

window(x)
342 wrap

Arguments

x SpatRaster
value SpatExtent

Value

none for window<- and logical for window

See Also

crop, extend

Examples

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

r <- rast(f)
global(r, "mean", [Link]=TRUE)
e <- ext(c(5.9, 6,49.95, 50))

window(r) <- e
global(r, "mean", [Link]=TRUE)
r

x <- rast(f)
xe <- crop(x, e)
global(xe, "mean", [Link]=TRUE)

b <- c(xe, r)
window(b)
b

window(r) <- NULL

r

wrap wrap and unwrap

Description

Use wrap to pack a SpatVector or SpatRaster* to create a Packed* object. Packed objects can be
passed over a connection that serializes (e.g. to nodes on a computer cluster). At the receiving end
they need to be unpacked with unwrap.
wrapCache 343

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
wrap(x, proxy=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

wrap(x, proxy=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterCollection'

wrap(x, proxy=FALSE)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

wrap(x)

## S4 method for signature 'ANY'

unwrap(x)

Arguments
x SpatVector, SpatRaster, SpatRasterDataset or SpatRasterCollection
proxy logical. If FALSE raster cell values are forced to memory if possible. If TRUE, a
reference to source filenames is stored for data sources that are not in memory

Value
wrap: Packed* object
unwrap: SpatVector, SpatRaster, SpatRasterCollection, SpatRasterDataset

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
v <- vect(f)
p <- wrap(v)
p
vv <- vect(p)
vv

wrapCache SpatRaster wrap with caching options

Description
Use wrap to pack a SpatRaster with caching options. See wrap for the general approach that is
easier and better to use in most cases.
This method allows for specifying a folder, or filenames, to cache all sources of a SpatRaster in a
specific location (on disk).
344 writeCDF

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
wrapCache(x, filename=NULL, path=NULL, overwrite=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
filename character. A single filename, or one filename per SpatRaster data source. If not
NULL, the raster sources are saved in these files
path character. If not NULL, the path where raster sources will be saved. Ignored if
filenames is not NULL
overwrite Should existing files be overwritten when files or path is not NULL? If this
value is not TRUE or FALSE, only files that do not exist are created
... Additional arguments for writeRaster. Only used for raster sources that are in
memory, as other sources are cached by copying the files

Value
PackedSpatRaster

See Also
wrap, unwrap

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)

x <- wrapCache(r, path=tempdir())

x

writeCDF Write raster data to a NetCDF file

Description
Write a SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset to a NetCDF file.
When using a SpatRasterDataset, the varname, longname, and unit should be set in the object (see
examples).
Always use the ".nc" or ".cdf" file extension to assure that the file can be properly read again by
GDAL
You can write multiple rasters (variables) that are two (x, y), three (x, y, z or x, y, time) or four
dimensional (x, y, z, time).
See depth and time for specifying the axes of the thrid and/or fourth dimension(s).
writeCDF 345

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
writeCDF(x, filename, varname, longname="", unit="", split=FALSE, ...)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRasterDataset'

writeCDF(x, filename, overwrite=FALSE, timename="time", atts="",
gridmap="", prec="float", compression=NA, missval, tags=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatRasterDataset
filename character. Output filename
varname character. Name of the dataset
longname character. Long name of the dataset
unit character. Unit of the data
split logical. If TRUE each layer of x is treated as a sub-dataset
atts character. A vector of additional global attributes to write. The must be format-
ted like c("x=a value", "y=abc")
gridmap character. The crs is always written to the file in standard formats. With this ar-
gument you can also write the format commonly used in netcdf files. Something
like c("grid_mapping_name=lambert_azimuthal_equal_area", "longitude_of_projection_orig
"latitude_of_projection_origin=52", "false_easting=4321000", "false_northing=3210000"
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
timename character. The name of the "time" dimension
prec character. One of "double", "float", "integer", "short", "byte" or "char"
compression Can be set to an integer between 1 (least compression) and 9 (most compression)
missval numeric, the number used to indicate missing values
tags logical. If TRUE the value returned by metags are written to the file as attributes
... additional arguments passed on to the SpatRasterDataset method, and from there
possibly to ncvar_def

Value
SpatRaster or SpatDataSet

See Also
see writeRaster for writing other file formats

Examples
f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")
r <- rast(f)
fname <- paste0(tempfile(), ".nc")
rr <- writeCDF(r, fname, overwrite=TRUE, varname="alt",
346 writeRaster

longname="elevation in m above sea level", unit="m")

a <- rast(ncols=5, nrows=5, nl=50)

values(a) <- 1:prod(dim(a))
time(a) <- [Link]("2020-12-31") + 1:nlyr(a)
aa <- writeCDF(a, fname, overwrite=TRUE, varname="power",
longname="my nice data", unit="U/Pa")

b <- sqrt(a)
s <- sds(a, b)
names(s) <- c("temp", "prec")
longnames(s) <- c("temperature (C)", "precipitation (mm)")
units(s) <- c("°C", "mm")
ss <- writeCDF(s, fname, overwrite=TRUE)

# four dimensional
r1 <- rast(nrow=5, ncol=5, vals=1:100, nlyr=4)
depth(r1) <- c(0, 2, 0, 2)
time(r1) <- c([Link]("2012-12-12") + c(1,1,2,2))
depthName(r1) <- "angle"

r2 <- rast(nrow=5, ncol=5, vals=1:150, nlyr=6)

depth(r2) <- c(10, 10, 20, 20, 30, 30)
time(r2) <- c([Link]("2012-12-12") + c(1:2, 1:2, 1:2))
depthName(r2) <- "height"
depthUnit(r2) <- "cm"

s <- sds(r1, r2)

names(s) <- c("TH", "DBZH")
units(s) <- c("-", "Pa")
x <- writeCDF(s, filename = fname, overwrite=TRUE)
x[1]
time(x[1])
depth(x[1])

x[2]
time(x[2])
depth(x[2])

# for CRAN
[Link](fname)

writeRaster Write raster data to a file

Description

Write a SpatRaster to a file.

writeRaster 347

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,character'
writeRaster(x, filename, overwrite=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename. Can be a single filename, or as many filenames as
nlyr(x) to write a file for each layer
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
... additional arguments for for writing files. See Details

Details
In writeRaster, and in other methods that generate SpatRasters, options for writing raster files to
disk can be provided as additional arguments or, in a few cases, as the wopt argument (a named list)
if the additional arguments are already used for a different purpose. See terraOptions to get or set
default values. The following options are available:
name description
datatype values accepted are "INT1U", "INT2U", "INT2S", "INT4U", "INT4S", "FLT4S", "FLT8S". With GDAL >= 3.5 y
filetype file format expresses as GDAL driver names. If this argument is not supplied, the driver is derived from the filena
gdal GDAL driver specific datasource creation options. See the GDAL documentation. For example, with the GeoTiff
tempdir the path where temporary files are to be written to.
progress positive integer. If the number of chunks is larger, a progress bar is shown.
memfrac numeric between 0 and 0.9 (higher values give a warning). The fraction of available RAM that terra is allowed to
memmax memmax - the maximum amount of RAM (in GB) that terra can use when processing a raster dataset. Should be l
names output layer names.
NAflag numeric. value to represent missing (NA or NaN) values. See note
scale numeric. Cell values written to disk are divided by this value (default is 1). See scoff
offset numeric. Value that is subtracted from the cell values written to disk (default is 0). See scoff
verbose logical. If TRUE debugging information is printed
steps positive integers. In how many steps (chunks) do you want to process the data (for debugging)
todisk logical. If TRUE processing operates as if the dataset is very large and needs to be written to a temporary file (for d
metadata character, see metags<- to write metadata

Value
SpatRaster. This function is used for the side-effect of writing values to a file.

Note
GeoTiff files are, by default, written with LZW compression. If you do not want compression, use
gdal="COMPRESS=NONE".
When writing integer values the lowest available value (given the datatype) is used to represent NA
for signed types, and the highest value is used for unsigned values. This can be a problem with byte
data (between 0 and 255) as the value 255 is reserved for NA. To keep the value 255, you need to set
another value as NAflag, or do not set a NAflag (with NAflag=NA)
348 writeVector

See Also
see writeCDF for writing NetCDF files.

Examples
r <- rast(nrows=5, ncols=5, vals=1:25)

# create a temporary filename for the example

f <- [Link](tempdir(), "[Link]")

writeRaster(r, f, overwrite=TRUE)

writeRaster(r, f, overwrite=TRUE, gdal=c("COMPRESS=NONE", "TFW=YES"), datatype='INT1U')

## Or with a wopt argument:

writeRaster(r, f, overwrite=TRUE, wopt= list(gdal=c("COMPRESS=NONE"), datatype='INT1U'))

## remove the file

unlink(f)

writeVector Write SpatVector data to a file

Description
Write a SpatVector to a file. You can choose one of many file formats.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,character'
writeVector(x, filename, filetype=NULL, layer=NULL, insert=FALSE,
overwrite=FALSE, options="ENCODING=UTF-8")

Arguments
x SpatVector
filename character. Output filename
filetype character. A file format associated with a GDAL "driver" such as "ESRI Shape-
file". See gdal(drivers=TRUE) or the GDAL docs. If NULL it is attempted to
guess the filetype from the filename extension
layer character. Output layer name. If NULL the filename is used
insert logical. If TRUE, a new layer is inserted into the file, or an existing layer over-
written (if overwrite=TRUE), if the format supports it (e.g. GPKG allows that).
See vector_layers to remove a layer
xapp 349

overwrite logical. If TRUE and insert=FALSE, filename is overwritten if the file format
and layer structure permits it. If TRUE and insert=TRUE, only the target layer is
overwritten if the format supports it (e.g. GPKG).
options character. Format specific GDAL options such as "ENCODING=UTF-8". Use
NULL or "" to not use any options

Examples
v <- vect(cbind(1:5,1:5))
crs(v) <- "+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84"
v$id <- 1:length(v)
v$name <- letters[1:length(v)]
tmpf1 <- paste0(tempfile(), ".gpkg")
writeVector(v, tmpf1, overwrite=TRUE)
x <- vect(tmpf1)

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)
tmpf2 <- paste0(tempfile(), ".gpkg")
writeVector(v, tmpf2, overwrite=TRUE)
y <- vect(tmpf2)

xapp Apply a function to the cells of two SpatRasters

Description
Apply a function to the values of each cell of two (multilayer) SpatRasters.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
xapp(x, y, fun, ..., filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

Arguments
x SpatRaster
y SpatRaster with the same geometry as x
fun a function that operates on two vectors
... additional arguments for fun. These are typically numerical constants. They
should *never* be another SpatRaster
filename character. Output filename
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with named options for writing files as in writeRaster
350 xmin

Value
SpatRaster

See Also
app, lapp, tapp, Math-methods, roll

Examples
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10, nlyr=5)
[Link](1)
r <- init(r, runif)
s <- init(r, runif)
x <- xapp(r, s, fun=cor)

xmin Get or set single values of an extent

Description
Get or set single values of an extent. Values can be set for a SpatExtent or SpatRaster, but not for a
SpatVector)

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'
xmin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

xmax(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

ymin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatExtent'

ymax(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

xmin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

xmax(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

ymin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'

xmin 351

ymax(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

xmin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

xmax(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

ymin(x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

ymax(x)

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

xmin(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

xmax(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

ymin(x)<-value

## S4 replacement method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

ymax(x)<-value

Arguments
x SpatRaster, SpatExtent, or SpatVector
value numeric

Value
SpatExtent or numeric coordinate

See Also
ext

Examples
r <- rast()
ext(r)
ext(c(0, 20, 0, 20))

xmin(r)
xmin(r) <- 0
xmin(r)
352 xyRowColCell

xyRowColCell Coordinates from a row, column or cell number and vice versa

Description
Get coordinates of the center of raster cells for a row, column, or cell number of a SpatRaster. Or
get row, column, or cell numbers from coordinates or from each other.
Cell numbers start at 1 in the upper left corner, and increase from left to right, and then from top
to bottom. The last cell number equals the number of cells of the SpatRaster (see ncell). Row
numbers start at 1 at the top, column numbers start at 1 at the left.
When computing row, column, or cell numbers from coordinates, and coordinates fall on the edge
of two or four cells, they are assigned to the right-most and/or lowest cell. That is, in these cases of
ambiguity, the highest row, column, or cell number is returned.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'
xFromCol(object, col)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

yFromRow(object, row)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

xyFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

xFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

yFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

colFromX(object, x)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

rowFromY(object, y)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric,numeric'

cellFromRowCol(object, row, col)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric,numeric'

cellFromRowColCombine(object, row, col)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric,numeric'

rowColCombine(object, row, col)
xyRowColCell 353

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

rowFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

colFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,numeric'

rowColFromCell(object, cell)

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,matrix'

cellFromXY(object, xy)

Arguments
object SpatRaster
cell integer. cell number(s)
col integer. column number(s) or missing (equivalent to all columns)
row integer. row number(s) or missing (equivalent to all rows)
x x coordinate(s)
y y coordinate(s)
xy matrix of x and y coordinates

Value
xFromCol, yFromCol, xFromCell, yFromCell: vector of x or y coordinates
xyFromCell: matrix(x,y) with coordinate pairs
colFromX, rowFromY, cellFromXY, cellFromRowCol, rowFromCell, colFromCell: vector of row,
column, or cell numbers
rowColFromCell, rowColCombine: matrix of row and column numbers

See Also
crds

Examples
r <- rast()

xFromCol(r, c(1, 120, 180))

yFromRow(r, 90)
xyFromCell(r, 10000)
xyFromCell(r, c(0, 1, 32581, ncell(r), ncell(r)+1))

cellFromRowCol(r, 5, 5)
cellFromRowCol(r, 1:2, 1:2)
cellFromRowCol(r, 1, 1:3)
354 zonal

# all combinations
cellFromRowColCombine(r, 1:2, 1:2)

colFromX(r, 10)
rowFromY(r, 10)
xy <- cbind(lon=c(10,5), lat=c(15, 88))
cellFromXY(r, xy)

# if no row/col specified all are returned

range(xFromCol(r))
length(yFromRow(r))

zonal Zonal statistics

Description
Compute zonal statistics, that is summarize values of a SpatRaster for each "zone" defined by an-
other SpatRaster, or by a SpatVector with polygon geometry.
If fun is a true R function, the <SpatRaster,SpatRaster> method may fail when using very large
SpatRasters, except for the functions ("mean", "min", "max", "sum", "isNA", and "notNA").
You can also summarize values of a SpatVector for each polygon (zone) defined by another SpatVec-
tor.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatRaster'
zonal(x, z, fun="mean", ..., w=NULL, wide=TRUE,
[Link]=FALSE, filename="", overwrite=FALSE, wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster,SpatVector'

zonal(x, z, fun="mean", [Link]=FALSE, w=NULL, weights=FALSE,
exact=FALSE, touches=FALSE, small=TRUE, [Link]=FALSE,
[Link]=FALSE, wide=TRUE, filename="", wopt=list())

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector,SpatVector'

zonal(x, z, fun=mean, ..., weighted=FALSE, [Link]=FALSE)

Arguments
x SpatRaster or SpatVector
z SpatRaster with cell-values representing zones or a SpatVector with each poly-
gon geometry representing a zone. z can have multiple layers to define inter-
secting zones
fun function to be applied to summarize the values by zone. Either as character:
"mean", "min", "max", "sum", "isNA", and "notNA" and, for relatively small
SpatRasters, a proper function
zonal 355

... additional arguments passed to fun, such as [Link]=TRUE

w SpatRaster with weights. Should have a single-layer with non-negative values
wide logical. Should the values returned in a wide format? For the SpatRaster,
SpatRaster method this only affects the results when nlyr(z) == 2. For the
SpatRaster, SpatVector method this only affects the results when fun=table
[Link] logical. If TRUE, a SpatRaster is returned with the zonal statistic for each zone
filename character. Output filename (ignored if [Link]=FALSE
overwrite logical. If TRUE, filename is overwritten
wopt list with additional arguments for writing files as in writeRaster
weights logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the approximate fraction of each cell that is
covered is returned as well, for example to compute a weighted mean
exact logical. If TRUE and y has polygons, the exact fraction of each cell that is covered
is returned as well, for example to compute a weighted mean
touches logical. If TRUE, values for all cells touched by lines or polygons are extracted,
not just those on the line render path, or whose center point is within the poly-
gon. Not relevant for points; and always considered TRUE when weights=TRUE
or exact=TRUE
small logical. If TRUE, values for all cells in touched polygons are extracted if none of
the cells center points is within the polygon; even if touches=FALSE
weighted logical. If TRUE, a [Link] is computed and fun is ignored. Weights are
based on the length of the lines or the area of the polygons in x that intersect
with z. This argument is ignored of x is a SpatVector or points
[Link] logical. Should the zonal statistics be combined with the geometry of z?
[Link] logical. If TRUE, NAs are removed

Value
A [Link] with a value for each zone, or a SpatRaster, or SpatVector of polygons.

See Also
See global for "global" statistics (i.e., all of x is considered a single zone), app for local statistics,
and extract for an alternative way to summarize values of a SpatRaster with a SpatVector. With
aggregate you can compute statistics for cell blocks defined by a number of rows and columns.

Examples
### SpatRaster, SpatRaster
r <- rast(ncols=10, nrows=10)
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
z <- rast(r)
values(z) <- rep(c(1:2, NA, 3:4), each=20)
names(z) <- "zone"
zonal(r, z, "sum", [Link]=TRUE)

# with weights
356 zoom

w <- init(r, "col")

zonal(r, z, w=w, "mean", [Link]=TRUE)

# multiple layers
r <- rast([Link]("ex/[Link]", package = "terra"))
# zonal layer
z <- rast(r, 1)
names(z) <- "zone"
values(z) <- rep(c(1:2, NA, c(3:4)), each=ncell(r)/5, [Link]=ncell(r))

zonal(r, z, "mean", [Link] = TRUE)

# raster of zonal values

zr <- zonal(r, z, "mean", [Link] = TRUE, [Link]=TRUE)

### SpatRaster, SpatVector

x <- rast(ncol=2,nrow=2, vals=1:4, xmin=0, xmax=1, ymin=0, ymax=1, crs="+proj=utm +zone=1")
p <- [Link](x)
pp <- shift(p, .2)
r <- disagg(x, 4)

zonal(r, p)
zonal(r, p, sum)
zonal(x, pp, exact=TRUE)
zonal(c(x, x*10), pp, w=x)

### SpatVector, SpatVector

f <- [Link]("ex/[Link]", package="terra")

v <- vect(f)[,c(2,4)]

p <- spatSample(v, 100)

values(p) <- [Link](b2=1:100, ssep1=100:1)

zonal(p, v, mean)

zoom Zoom in on a map

Description
Zoom in on a map (plot) by providing a new extent, by default this is done by clicking twice on the
map.

Usage
## S4 method for signature 'SpatRaster'
zoom(x, e=draw(), maxcell=100000, layer=1, new=FALSE, ...)
zoom 357

## S4 method for signature 'SpatVector'

zoom(x, e=draw(), new=FALSE, ...)

Arguments
x SpatRaster
e SpatExtent
maxcell positive integer. Maximum number of cells used for the map
layer positive integer to select the layer to be used
new logical. If TRUE, the zoomed in map will appear on a new device (window)
... additional arguments passed to plot

Value
SpatExtent (invisibly)

See Also
draw, plot
Index

!,SpatRaster-method (Compare-methods), crosstab, 82

72 datatype, 85
∗ classes deepcopy, 87
options, 203 densify, 87
SpatExtent-class, 287 diff, 92
SpatRaster-class, 287 disagg, 96
SpatVector-class, 290 dots, 102
∗ math elongate, 104
Arith-methods, 37 erase, 105
atan2, 46 expanse, 106
Compare-methods, 72 extract, 111
Math-methods, 185 extractAlong, 114
modal, 191 extractRange, 115
∗ methods extremes, 116
activeCat, 22 factors, 117
add_abline, 24 fillHoles, 119
add_box, 24 fillTime, 121
add_grid, 25 focalValues, 134
add_legend, 26 gaps, 136
add_mtext, 26 geomtype, 140
aggregate, 29 graticule, 142
animate, 33 headtail, 145
app, 34 hist, 146
Arith-methods, 37 hull, 147
[Link], 40 image, 150
[Link], 42 impose, 151
[Link], 45 inset, 155
barplot, 48 interpolation, 159
boundaries, 51 intersect, 162
cartogram, 56 [Link], 164
catalyze, 57 [Link], 166
cells, 58 [Link], 168
cellSize, 59 lapp, 171
colors, 69 lines, 176
combineGeoms, 70 makeTiles, 177
Compare-methods, 72 makeVRT, 179
concats, 75 map_extent, 182
contour, 76 mask, 182
cover, 78 match, 184

358
INDEX 359

Math-methods, 185 union, 322

merge, 187 values, 326
mergeTime, 189 vect, 329
meta, 190 vector_layers, 332
mosaic, 192 vrt, 335
[Link], 199 vrt_tiles, 336
[Link], 201 width, 340
nseg, 202 window, 341
panel, 206 wrap, 342
patches, 207 wrapCache, 343
perim, 208 writeCDF, 344
persp, 209 writeRaster, 346
plet, 211 writeVector, 348
plot, 214 xapp, 349
plot_extent, 222 ∗ package
plot_graticule, 222 terra-package, 8
plotRGB, 220 ∗ spatial
predict, 225 activeCat, 22
quantile, 233 add, 23
query, 234 add_abline, 24
rapp, 236 add_box, 24
rast, 237 add_grid, 25
readwrite, 247 add_legend, 26
regress, 249 add_mtext, 26
relate, 250 adjacent, 27
replace_layers, 255 aggregate, 29
replace_values, 256 align, 31
RGB, 259 [Link], 32
sapp, 265 animate, 33
scatterplot, 270 app, 34
scoff, 271 approximate, 36
sds, 272 ar_info, 39
selectRange, 276 Arith-methods, 37
serialize, 277 [Link], 39
setValues, 279 [Link], 40
sharedPaths, 281 [Link], 41
simplifyGeom, 284 [Link], 42
sources, 286 [Link], 43
split, 292 [Link], 44
sprc, 293 [Link], 45
summarize, 302 atan2, 46
summary, 305 autocorrelation, 47
svc, 307 barplot, 48
symdif, 308 bestMatch, 49
tapp, 309 boundaries, 51
text, 313 boxplot, 52
toMemory, 318 buffer, 53
topology, 319 c, 54
360 INDEX

cartogram, 56 fillTime, 121

catalyze, 57 flip, 122
cells, 58 flowAccumulation, 123
cellSize, 59 focal, 125
centroids, 61 focal3D, 127
chunk, 62 focalCpp, 128
clamp, 63 focalMat, 130
clamp_ts, 64 focalPairs, 131
classify, 65 focalReg, 133
click, 67 focalValues, 134
coerce, 68 forceCCW, 134
colors, 69 freq, 135
combineGeoms, 70 gaps, 136
Compare-methods, 72 gdal, 137
compareGeom, 73 geom, 139
concats, 75 geomtype, 140
contour, 76 global, 141
costDist, 77 graticule, 142
cover, 78 gridDist, 143
crds, 79 headtail, 145
crop, 81 hist, 146
crosstab, 82 hull, 147
crs, 83 identical, 148
datatype, 85 ifel, 149
deepcopy, 87 image, 150
densify, 87 impose, 151
density, 89 initialize, 152
depth, 90 inplace, 153
describe, 91 inset, 155
diff, 92 interpIDW, 157
dimensions, 93 interpNear, 158
direction, 95 interpolation, 159
disagg, 96 intersect, 162
distance, 97 [Link], 164
divide, 100 [Link], 166
dots, 102 [Link], 166
draw, 103 [Link], 167
elongate, 104 [Link], 168
erase, 105 [Link], 169
expanse, 106 k_means, 170
ext, 108 lapp, 171
extend, 109 linearUnits, 175
extract, 111 lines, 176
extractAlong, 114 makeTiles, 177
extractRange, 115 makeVRT, 179
extremes, 116 [Link], 180
factors, 117 map_extent, 182
fillHoles, 119 mask, 182
INDEX 361

match, 184 replace_dollar, 254

Math-methods, 185 replace_layers, 255
mem, 186 replace_values, 256
merge, 187 resample, 257
mergeTime, 189 rescale, 258
meta, 190 RGB, 259
metags, 190 roll, 261
mosaic, 192 rotate, 262
[Link], 194 rowSums, 264
NAflag, 194 [Link], 265
names, 195 sapp, 265
nearest, 196 sbar, 266
NIDP, 198 scale, 268
[Link], 199 scale_linear, 269
north, 200 scatterplot, 270
[Link], 201 scoff, 271
nseg, 202 sds, 272
options, 203 segregate, 273
origin, 204 sel, 274
pairs, 205 selectHighest, 275
panel, 206 selectRange, 276
patches, 207 serialize, 277
perim, 208 setValues, 279
persp, 209 shade, 280
pitfinder, 210 sharedPaths, 281
plet, 211 shift, 282
plot, 214 sieve, 283
plot_extent, 222 simplifyGeom, 284
plot_graticule, 222 sort, 285
plotRGB, 220 sources, 286
prcomp, 224 SpatExtent-class, 287
predict, 225 SpatRaster-class, 287
princomp, 228 spatSample, 288
project, 230 SpatVector-class, 290
quantile, 233 spin, 291
query, 234 split, 292
rangeFill, 235 sprc, 293
rapp, 236 stretch, 294
rast, 237 subset, 295
rasterize, 241 subset_dollar, 297
rasterizeGeom, 243 subset_double, 298
rasterizeWin, 244 subset_single, 300
rcl, 246 subst, 301
readwrite, 247 summarize, 302
rectify, 249 summary, 305
regress, 249 surfArea, 306
relate, 250 svc, 307
rep, 253 symdif, 308
362 INDEX

tapp, 309 [,SpatRaster,ANY,ANY,ANY-method

terra-package, 8 (subset_single), 300
terrain, 310 [,SpatRaster,ANY,ANY-method
text, 313 (subset_single), 300
thresh, 314 [,SpatRaster,SpatExtent,missing-method
tighten, 315 (subset_single), 300
time, 316 [,SpatRaster,SpatRaster,missing-method
tmpFiles, 317 (subset_single), 300
toMemory, 318 [,SpatRaster,SpatVector,missing-method
topology, 319 (subset_single), 300
transpose, 320 [,SpatRaster,[Link],missing-method
trim, 321 (subset_single), 300
union, 322 [,SpatRaster,matrix,missing-method
unique, 323 (subset_single), 300
units, 324 [,SpatRaster,missing,missing-method
update, 325 (subset_single), 300
values, 326 [,SpatRaster,missing,numeric-method
varnames, 328 (subset_single), 300
vect, 329 [,SpatRaster,numeric,missing-method
vector_layers, 332 (subset_single), 300
viewshed, 333 [,SpatRaster,numeric,numeric-method
voronoi, 334 (subset_single), 300
vrt, 335 [,SpatRasterCollection,numeric,missing-method
vrt_tiles, 336 (subset_single), 300
watershed, 337 [,SpatRasterDataset,character,missing-method
where, 339 (subset_single), 300
[Link], 340 [,SpatRasterDataset,logical,missing-method
width, 340 (subset_single), 300
window, 341 [,SpatRasterDataset,missing,logical-method
wrap, 342 (subset_single), 300
wrapCache, 343 [,SpatRasterDataset,missing,numeric-method
writeCDF, 344 (subset_single), 300
writeRaster, 346 [,SpatRasterDataset,numeric,logical-method
writeVector, 348 (subset_single), 300
xapp, 349 [,SpatRasterDataset,numeric,missing-method
xmin, 350 (subset_single), 300
xyRowColCell, 352 [,SpatRasterDataset,numeric,numeric-method
zonal, 354 (subset_single), 300
zoom, 356 [,SpatVector,SpatExtent,missing-method
∗ univar (subset_single), 300
freq, 135 [,SpatVector,SpatVector,missing-method
modal, 191 (subset_single), 300
[, 15, 17, 163, 164, 296, 298, 299 [,SpatVector,character,missing-method
[ (subset_single), 300 (subset_single), 300
[,SpatExtent,missing,missing-method [,SpatVector,[Link],ANY-method
(subset_single), 300 (subset_single), 300
[,SpatExtent,numeric,missing-method [,SpatVector,[Link],missing-method
(subset_single), 300 (subset_single), 300
INDEX 363

[,SpatVector,logical,character-method (subset_double), 298

(subset_single), 300 [[,SpatRaster,character,missing-method
[,SpatVector,logical,logical-method (subset_double), 298
(subset_single), 300 [[,SpatRaster,logical,missing-method
[,SpatVector,logical,missing-method (subset_double), 298
(subset_single), 300 [[,SpatRaster,numeric,missing-method
[,SpatVector,logical,numeric-method (subset_double), 298
(subset_single), 300 [[,SpatRasterDataset,ANY,ANY-method
[,SpatVector,matrix,missing-method (subset_double), 298
(subset_single), 300 [[,SpatVector,character,missing-method
[,SpatVector,missing,character-method (subset_double), 298
(subset_single), 300 [[,SpatVector,logical,missing-method
[,SpatVector,missing,logical-method (subset_double), 298
(subset_single), 300 [[,SpatVector,numeric,missing-method
[,SpatVector,missing,missing-method (subset_double), 298
(subset_single), 300 [[,SpatVectorCollection,ANY,missing-method
[,SpatVector,missing,numeric-method (subset_double), 298
(subset_single), 300 [[,SpatVectorCollection,numeric,missing-method
[,SpatVector,numeric,character-method (svc), 307
(subset_single), 300 [[<- (replace_layers), 255
[,SpatVector,numeric,logical-method [[<-,SpatRaster,character-method
(subset_single), 300 (replace_layers), 255
[,SpatVector,numeric,missing-method [[<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(subset_single), 300 (replace_layers), 255
[,SpatVector,numeric,numeric-method [[<-,SpatVector,character-method
(subset_single), 300 (replace_layers), 255
[[<-,SpatVector,numeric-method
[,SpatVectorCollection,numeric,missing-method
(replace_layers), 255
(svc), 307
$, 254, 296, 299, 300
[<- (replace_values), 256
$ (subset_dollar), 297
[<-,SpatExtent,numeric,missing-method
$,SpatExtent-method (subset_dollar), 297
(replace_values), 256
$,SpatRaster-method (subset_dollar), 297
[<-,SpatRaster,ANY,ANY,ANY-method
$,SpatRasterDataset-method
(replace_values), 256
(subset_dollar), 297
[<-,SpatRaster,ANY,ANY-method
$,SpatVector-method (subset_dollar), 297
(replace_values), 256
$,SpatVectorCollection-method
[<-,SpatRasterDataset,numeric,missing-method (subset_dollar), 297
(sds), 272 $<- (replace_dollar), 254
[<-,SpatVector,ANY,ANY-method $<-,SpatExtent-method (replace_dollar),
(replace_values), 256 254
[<-,SpatVector,ANY,missing-method $<-,SpatRaster-method (replace_dollar),
(replace_values), 256 254
[<-,SpatVector,missing,ANY-method $<-,SpatVector-method (replace_dollar),
(replace_values), 256 254
[<-,SpatVectorCollection,numeric,missing-method
%in% (match), 184
(svc), 307 %in%,SpatRaster-method (match), 184
[[, 296, 298, 300
[[ (subset_double), 298 abline, 24
[[,SpatRaster,ANY,missing-method activeCat, 13, 22, 57, 118
364 INDEX

activeCat,SpatRaster-method allNA,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302

(activeCat), 22 animate, 33
activeCat<- (activeCat), 22 animate,SpatRaster-method (animate), 33
activeCat<-,SpatRaster-method any (summarize), 302
(activeCat), 22 any,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302
add, 23 anyNA (summarize), 302
add<-, 8, 20 anyNA,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302
add<- (add), 23 app, 9, 20, 34, 38, 73, 142, 171, 172, 184, 186,
add<-,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method 233, 236, 237, 266, 302, 304, 309,
(add), 23 310, 350, 355
add<-,SpatRasterCollection,SpatRaster-method app,SpatRaster-method (app), 34
(add), 23 app,SpatRasterDataset-method (app), 34
add<-,SpatRasterDataset,SpatRaster-method apply, 34
(add), 23 approx, 36
add_abline, 24, 25 approximate, 10, 20, 36, 121
add_box, 19, 24, 24, 25–27, 182, 218 approximate,SpatRaster-method
add_grid, 24, 25, 25, 26, 27, 182, 217 (approximate), 36
add_legend, 19, 24, 25, 26, 27, 182, 218 ar_info, 39, 91, 239
add_mtext, 24–26, 26 area (expanse), 106
addCats (factors), 117 area,SpatRaster-method (expanse), 106
addCats,SpatRaster-method (factors), 117 area,SpatVector-method (expanse), 106
adjacent, 10, 15, 27, 197, 251 Arith,logical,SpatRaster-method
adjacent,SpatRaster-method (adjacent), (Arith-methods), 37
27 Arith,matrix,SpatRaster-method
adjacent,SpatVector-method (adjacent), (Arith-methods), 37
27 Arith,missing,SpatRaster-method
aggregate, 9, 16, 29, 71, 97, 257, 258, 309, (Arith-methods), 37
322, 355 Arith,numeric,SpatExtent-method
aggregate,SpatRaster-method (Arith-methods), 37
(aggregate), 29 Arith,numeric,SpatRaster-method
aggregate,SpatVector-method (Arith-methods), 37
(aggregate), 29 Arith,SpatExtent,numeric-method
align, 18, 31 (Arith-methods), 37
align,SpatExtent,numeric-method Arith,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method
(align), 31 (Arith-methods), 37
align,SpatExtent,SpatRaster-method Arith,SpatRaster,logical-method
(align), 31 (Arith-methods), 37
all (summarize), 302 Arith,SpatRaster,matrix-method
all,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302 (Arith-methods), 37
[Link], 32, 73, 148, 149 Arith,SpatRaster,missing-method
[Link],SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method (Arith-methods), 37
([Link]), 32 Arith,SpatRaster,numeric-method
[Link],SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method (Arith-methods), 37
([Link]), 32 Arith,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
[Link],SpatVector,SpatVector-method (Arith-methods), 37
([Link]), 32 Arith,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
[Link], 32 (Arith-methods), 37
allNA (summarize), 302 Arith-methods, 9, 37, 73
INDEX 365

arrows, 177 ([Link]), 42

[Link], 11 [Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]),
[Link] (coerce), 68 164
[Link],SpatRaster-method (coerce), 68 [Link], 11, 41, 327
[Link],SpatRasterDataset-method [Link] (coerce), 68
(coerce), 68 [Link],SpatExtent-method (coerce), 68
[Link], 10, 85 [Link],SpatRaster-method (coerce), 68
[Link] ([Link]), 164 [Link], 13
[Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]), 164 [Link] (catalyze), 57
[Link], 39 [Link],SpatRaster-method
[Link],SpatExtent-method (catalyze), 57
([Link]), 39 [Link], 19, 21, 41, 43, 44, 45
[Link],SpatRaster-method [Link],SpatExtent-method
([Link]), 39 ([Link]), 43
[Link], 19 [Link],SpatRaster-method
[Link] (contour), 76 ([Link]), 43
[Link],SpatRaster-method (contour), [Link],SpatVector-method
76 ([Link]), 43
[Link], 11, 16, 40, 69, 318, 326, 327 [Link], 19, 21, 41, 44, 69
[Link],SpatRaster-method [Link],SpatExtent-method
([Link]), 40 ([Link]), 44
[Link],SpatVector-method [Link],SpatRaster-method
([Link]), 40 ([Link]), 44
[Link],SpatVector-method
[Link], 13, 118
([Link]), 44
[Link] ([Link]), 164
[Link], 45, 45
[Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]),
[Link],SpatRaster-method
164
([Link]), 45
[Link], 10
[Link] (coerce), 68
[Link] ([Link]), 164
[Link],SpatExtent-method (coerce), 68
[Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]), 164
[Link],SpatRaster-method (coerce), 68
[Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]),
atan2, 46
164
atan2,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
[Link], 19, 41, 44, 45 (atan2), 46
[Link],matrix-method ([Link]), 41 atan_2 (atan2), 46
[Link],SpatExtent-method ([Link]), atan_2,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
41 (atan2), 46
[Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]), autocor, 11
41 autocor (autocorrelation), 47
[Link],SpatVector-method ([Link]), autocor,numeric-method
41 (autocorrelation), 47
[Link], 16, 21, 41, 42 autocor,SpatRaster-method
[Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]), 42 (autocorrelation), 47
[Link],SpatRasterCollection-method autocorrelation, 47
([Link]), 42 axis, 216
[Link],SpatRasterDataset-method
([Link]), 42 barplot, 20, 48, 49, 218
[Link],SpatVector-method ([Link]), 42 barplot,SpatRaster-method (barplot), 48
[Link],SpatVectorCollection-method bestMatch, 49
366 INDEX

bestMatch,SpatRaster,[Link]-method cellFromXY, 12
(bestMatch), 49 cellFromXY (xyRowColCell), 352
bestMatch,SpatRaster,matrix-method cellFromXY,SpatRaster,[Link]-method
(bestMatch), 49 (xyRowColCell), 352
bestMatch,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method cellFromXY,SpatRaster,matrix-method
(bestMatch), 49 (xyRowColCell), 352
blocks, 14 cells, 13, 20, 58, 112
blocks (readwrite), 247 cells,SpatRaster,missing-method
blocks,SpatRaster-method (readwrite), (cells), 58
247 cells,SpatRaster,numeric-method
boundaries, 10, 51, 207 (cells), 58
boundaries,SpatRaster-method cells,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method
(boundaries), 51 (cells), 58
box, 24 cells,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method
boxplot, 20, 49, 52, 52, 146, 205, 218 (cells), 58
boxplot,SpatRaster-method (boxplot), 52 cellSize, 10, 20, 59, 107, 307
buffer, 16, 53, 104, 163 cellSize,SpatRaster-method (cellSize),
buffer,SpatRaster-method (buffer), 53 59
buffer,SpatVector-method (buffer), 53 centroids, 15, 61
bxp, 52 centroids,SpatRaster-method
(centroids), 61
c, 8, 20, 23, 54, 189
centroids,SpatVector-method
c,SpatRaster-method (c), 54
(centroids), 61
c,SpatRasterCollection-method (c), 54
chunk, 62
c,SpatRasterDataset-method (c), 54
chunk,SpatRaster-method (chunk), 62
c,SpatVector-method (c), 54
clamp, 10, 63, 64, 66, 302
c,SpatVectorCollection-method (c), 54
clamp,numeric-method (clamp), 63
cartogram, 19, 56, 102
cartogram,SpatVector-method clamp,SpatRaster-method (clamp), 63
(cartogram), 56 clamp_ts, 64
catalyze, 13, 57, 118 clamp_ts,numeric-method (clamp_ts), 64
catalyze,SpatRaster-method (catalyze), clamp_ts,SpatRaster-method (clamp_ts),
57 64
categories, 153 classify, 10, 21, 63, 65, 149, 187, 188, 194,
categories (factors), 117 195, 256, 301, 302
categories,SpatRaster-method (factors), classify,SpatRaster-method (classify),
117 65
cats, 13, 22, 57, 75, 164, 165 clearance, 17
cats (factors), 117 clearance (width), 340
cats,SpatRaster-method (factors), 117 clearance,SpatVector-method (width), 340
cellFromRowCol, 12, 246 clearVSIcache (gdal), 137
cellFromRowCol (xyRowColCell), 352 click, 16, 19, 67, 103, 275
click,missing-method (click), 67
cellFromRowCol,SpatRaster,numeric,numeric-method
(xyRowColCell), 352 click,SpatRaster-method (click), 67
cellFromRowColCombine, 13 click,SpatVector-method (click), 67
cellFromRowColCombine (xyRowColCell), coerce, 43, 68
352 colFromCell (xyRowColCell), 352
cellFromRowColCombine,SpatRaster,numeric,numeric-method
colFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xyRowColCell), 352 (xyRowColCell), 352
INDEX 367

colFromX, 12 (compareGeom), 73
colFromX (xyRowColCell), 352 compareGeom,SpatVector,missing-method
colFromX,SpatRaster,numeric-method (compareGeom), 73
(xyRowColCell), 352 compareGeom,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
colMeans (rowSums), 264 (compareGeom), 73
colMeans,SpatRaster-method (rowSums), concats, 13, 75
264 concats,SpatRaster-method (concats), 75
colorize, 19, 220, 221 contour, 19, 76, 76, 218
colorize (RGB), 259 contour,SpatRaster-method (contour), 76
colorize,SpatRaster-method (RGB), 259 convHull (hull), 147
colorRamp, 180 convHull,SpatVector-method (hull), 147
colors, 69 cor, 205
colSums (rowSums), 264 costDist, 11, 77, 99, 144
colSums,SpatRaster-method (rowSums), 264 costDist,SpatRaster-method (costDist),
coltab (colors), 69 77
coltab,SpatRaster-method (colors), 69 countNA (summarize), 302
coltab<- (colors), 69 countNA,SpatRaster-method (summarize),
coltab<-,SpatRaster-method (colors), 69 302
combineGeoms, 17, 70, 322 [Link], 174
combineGeoms,SpatVector,SpatVector-method cover, 10, 16, 78, 149
(combineGeoms), 70 cover,SpatRaster,missing-method
combineLevels (factors), 117 (cover), 78
compare (Compare-methods), 72 cover,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
Compare,matrix,SpatRaster-method (cover), 78
(Compare-methods), 72 cover,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
Compare,numeric,SpatRaster-method (cover), 78
(Compare-methods), 72 cppFunction, 129
Compare,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method crds, 15, 20, 79, 140, 353
(Compare-methods), 72 crds,SpatRaster-method (crds), 79
Compare,SpatRaster,character-method crds,SpatVector-method (crds), 79
(Compare-methods), 72 crop, 9, 14, 16, 18, 81, 104, 105, 110, 163,
Compare,SpatRaster,matrix-method 164, 178, 183, 251, 257, 258, 275,
(Compare-methods), 72 322, 341, 342
Compare,SpatRaster,numeric-method crop,SpatGraticule-method (crop), 81
(Compare-methods), 72 crop,SpatRaster-method (crop), 81
Compare,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method crop,SpatRasterCollection-method
(Compare-methods), 72 (crop), 81
compare,SpatRaster-method crop,SpatRasterDataset-method (crop), 81
(Compare-methods), 72 crop,SpatVector-method (crop), 81
Compare-methods, 9, 72 crosstab, 10, 82
compareGeom, 12, 20, 32, 73, 149, 251 crosstab,SpatRaster,missing-method
compareGeom,SpatRaster,list-method (crosstab), 82
(compareGeom), 73 crs, 15, 17, 41, 44, 45, 83, 175, 231, 232, 239,
compareGeom,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method 289, 330
(compareGeom), 73 crs,character-method (crs), 83
crs,sf-method (crs), 83
compareGeom,SpatRaster,SpatRasterCollection-method
(compareGeom), 73 crs,SpatExtent-method (crs), 83
compareGeom,SpatRasterCollection,missing-method
crs,SpatRaster-method (crs), 83
368 INDEX

crs,SpatRasterDataset-method (crs), 83 depthName<-,SpatRaster-method (depth),

crs,SpatVector-method (crs), 83 90
crs,SpatVectorCollection-method (crs), depthUnit, 13
83 depthUnit (depth), 90
crs,SpatVectorProxy-method (crs), 83 depthUnit,SpatRaster-method (depth), 90
crs<- (crs), 83 depthUnit<- (depth), 90
crs<-,SpatRaster,ANY-method (crs), 83 depthUnit<-,SpatRaster-method (depth),
crs<-,SpatRaster-method (crs), 83 90
crs<-,SpatVector,ANY-method (crs), 83 describe, 39, 91, 138, 272, 273
crs<-,SpatVector-method (crs), 83 describe,character-method (describe), 91
cummax, 64 describe,SpatRaster-method (describe),
cummin, 64 91
cumsum, 261, 262 diff, 92
cumsum (Math-methods), 185 diff,SpatRaster-method (diff), 92
cumsum,SpatRaster-method dim (dimensions), 93
(Math-methods), 185 dim,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93
cut, 49 dim,SpatRasterCollection-method
(dimensions), 93
[Link], 40, 248, 327 dim,SpatRasterDataset-method
datatype, 85, 140 (dimensions), 93
datatype,SpatRaster-method (datatype), dim,SpatVector-method (dimensions), 93
85 dim,SpatVectorProxy-method
datatype,SpatVector-method (datatype), (dimensions), 93
85 dim<-,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93
Date, 316 dimensions, 93
deepcopy, 87 direction, 11, 95
deepcopy,SpatRaster-method (deepcopy), direction,SpatRaster-method
87 (direction), 95
deepcopy,SpatVector-method (deepcopy), disagg, 9, 16, 20, 30, 81, 96, 257, 258
87 disagg,SpatRaster-method (disagg), 96
delaunay, 15 disagg,SpatVector-method (disagg), 96
delaunay (voronoi), 334 distance, 10, 20, 54, 78, 95, 97, 144, 197
delaunay,SpatVector-method (voronoi), distance,[Link],[Link]-method
334 (distance), 97
deldir, 334 distance,[Link],missing-method
densify, 87, 284, 292 (distance), 97
densify,SpatVector-method (densify), 87 distance,matrix,matrix-method
density, 20, 89, 218 (distance), 97
density,SpatRaster-method (density), 89 distance,matrix,missing-method
deprecated, 89 (distance), 97
depth, 13, 90, 316, 344 distance,SpatRaster,missing-method
depth,SpatRaster-method (depth), 90 (distance), 97
depth<- (depth), 90 distance,SpatRaster,sf-method
depth<-,SpatRaster-method (depth), 90 (distance), 97
depthName, 13 distance,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method
depthName (depth), 90 (distance), 97
depthName,SpatRaster-method (depth), 90 distance,SpatVector,ANY-method
depthName<- (depth), 90 (distance), 97
INDEX 369

distance,SpatVector,SpatVector-method ext,SpatRasterDataset-method (ext), 108

(distance), 97 ext,SpatRasterGraticule-method (ext),
divide, 100, 178, 314 108
divide,SpatRaster-method (divide), 100 ext,SpatVector-method (ext), 108
divide,SpatVector-method (divide), 100 ext,SpatVectorCollection-method (ext),
dots, 19, 102 108
dots,SpatVector-method (dots), 102 ext,SpatVectorProxy-method (ext), 108
draw, 18–20, 31, 68, 103, 275, 357 ext<- (ext), 108
draw,character-method (draw), 103 ext<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method (ext),
draw,missing-method (draw), 103 108
droplevels (factors), 117 ext<-,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method
droplevels,SpatRaster-method (factors), (ext), 108
117 extend, 9, 81, 82, 104, 109, 257, 321, 322, 342
extend,SpatExtent-method (extend), 109
elongate, 17, 54, 104, 110 extend,SpatRaster-method (extend), 109
elongate,SpatVector-method (elongate), extract, 11, 16, 21, 111, 114–116, 142, 276,
104 277, 298–300, 355
emptyGeoms (topology), 319 extract,SpatRaster,[Link]-method
emptyGeoms,SpatVector-method (extract), 111
(topology), 319 extract,SpatRaster,matrix-method
erase, 16, 17, 71, 104, 105, 308 (extract), 111
erase,SpatGraticule,SpatVector-method extract,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(erase), 105 (extract), 111
erase,SpatVector,missing-method extract,SpatRaster,sf-method (extract),
(erase), 105 111
erase,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method extract,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method
(erase), 105 (extract), 111
erase,SpatVector,SpatVector-method extract,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method
(erase), 105 (extract), 111
expanse, 10, 16, 20, 60, 106, 307 extract,SpatRasterCollection,ANY-method
expanse,SpatRaster-method (expanse), 106 (extract), 111
expanse,SpatVector-method (expanse), 106 extract,SpatRasterDataset,ANY-method
ext, 12, 15, 18, 20, 31, 81, 94, 108, 110, 287, (extract), 111
351 extract,SpatVector,[Link]-method
ext,bbox-method (ext), 108 (extract), 111
ext,[Link]-method (ext), 108 extract,SpatVector,matrix-method
ext,Extent-method (ext), 108 (extract), 111
ext,matrix-method (ext), 108 extract,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
ext,missing-method (ext), 108 (extract), 111
ext,numeric-method (ext), 108 extractAlong, 11, 113, 114
ext,PackedSpatExtent-method (ext), 108 extractRange, 113, 115
ext,Raster-method (ext), 108 extractRange,SpatRaster,ANY-method
ext,sf-method (ext), 108 (extractRange), 115
ext,SpatExtent-method (ext), 108 extractRange,SpatRaster-method
ext,SpatGraticule-method (ext), 108 (extractRange), 115
ext,Spatial-method (ext), 108 extremes, 116
ext,SpatRaster-method (ext), 108
ext,SpatRasterCollection-method (ext), factor, 117
108 factors, 117
370 INDEX

fileBlocksize (readwrite), 247 gaps,SpatVector-method (gaps), 136

[Link], 76 gdal, 137, 240, 347
fillHoles, 15, 17, 119, 136, 319 gdalCache (gdal), 137
fillHoles,SpatRaster-method geom, 15, 41, 43, 80, 139, 145, 329–331
(fillHoles), 119 geom,SpatVector-method (geom), 139
fillHoles,SpatVector-method geomtype, 140
(fillHoles), 119 geomtype,Spatial-method (geomtype), 140
fillTime, 13, 37, 121, 189 geomtype,SpatVector-method (geomtype),
fillTime,SpatRaster-method (fillTime), 140
121 geomtype,SpatVectorProxy-method
flip, 9, 17, 122, 166, 167, 239, 259, 272, 282, (geomtype), 140
293, 320 getGDALconfig (gdal), 137
flip,SpatRaster-method (flip), 122 getTileExtents, 62
flip,SpatVector-method (flip), 122 getTileExtents (makeTiles), 177
flowAccumulation, 123, 198, 210 getTileExtents,SpatRaster-method
flowAccumulation,SpatRaster-method (makeTiles), 177
(flowAccumulation), 123 global, 10, 20, 35, 107, 141, 174, 233, 264,
focal, 11, 36, 37, 51, 62, 125, 127–133, 142, 305, 306, 355
178, 207, 261, 262, 283, 312 global,SpatRaster-method (global), 141
focal,SpatRaster-method (focal), 125 graticule, 18, 24, 25, 142, 217, 222, 223
focal3D, 11, 126, 127, 132, 133 grid, 25
focal3D,SpatRaster-method (focal3D), 127 gridDist, 10, 78, 89, 99, 143
focalCor (focalPairs), 131 gridDist,SpatRaster-method (gridDist),
focalCor,SpatRaster-method 143
(focalPairs), 131 gridDistance (deprecated), 89
focalCpp, 11, 126, 128 gridDistance,SpatRaster-method
focalCpp,SpatRaster-method (focalCpp), (deprecated), 89
128
focalMat, 126, 130 halo, 19, 144, 313
focalPairs, 11, 20, 126, 131 [Link] (colors), 69
focalPairs,SpatRaster-method [Link],SpatRaster-method (colors),
(focalPairs), 131 69
focalReg, 11, 126, 132, 133 [Link] (RGB), 259
focalReg,SpatRaster-method (focalReg), [Link],SpatRaster-method (RGB), 259
133 [Link] (time), 316
focalValues, 126, 129, 133, 134, 327 [Link],SpatRaster-method (time), 316
focalValues,SpatRaster-method [Link],SpatRasterDataset-method
(focalValues), 134 (time), 316
forceCCW, 17, 134, 319 hasMinMax (extremes), 116
forceCCW,SpatVector-method (forceCCW), hasMinMax,SpatRaster-method (extremes),
134 116
formatC, 216 hasValues (sources), 286
free_RAM (mem), 186 hasValues,SpatRaster-method (sources),
freq, 10, 83, 135 286
freq,SpatRaster-method (freq), 135 head (headtail), 145
head,SpatRaster-method (headtail), 145
gaps, 17, 120, 136, 281, 284, 319 head,SpatVector-method (headtail), 145
gaps,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method headtail, 145
(gaps), 136 hist, 20, 49, 52, 146, 146, 205, 218
INDEX 371

hist,SpatRaster-method (hist), 146 intersect, 16, 18, 71, 81, 82, 105, 162, 251,
hull, 15, 147, 341 275, 322
hull,SpatVector-method (hull), 147 intersect,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method
(intersect), 162
identical, 32, 148, 324 intersect,SpatExtent,SpatRaster-method
identical,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method (intersect), 162
(identical), 148 intersect,SpatExtent,SpatVector-method
identical,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method (intersect), 162
(identical), 148 intersect,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method
identical,SpatVector,SpatVector-method (intersect), 162
(identical), 148 intersect,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
ifel, 38, 73, 149 (intersect), 162
ifel,SpatRaster-method (ifel), 149 intersect,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method
ifelse, 149 (intersect), 162
image, 19, 150, 150, 218, 223 intersect,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
image,SpatRaster-method (image), 150 (intersect), 162
impose, 14, 151 [Link], 164
impose,SpatRasterCollection-method [Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]), 164
(impose), 151 [Link], 166
inext (inset), 155 [Link],SpatExtent-method ([Link]),
inext,SpatVector-method (inset), 155 166
init, 10, 279 [Link],SpatVector-method ([Link]),
init (initialize), 152 166
init,SpatRaster-method (initialize), 152 [Link], 13, 118
initialize, 152 [Link] ([Link]), 164
inMemory, 12, 14, 318 [Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]),
inMemory (sources), 286 164
inMemory,SpatRaster-method (sources), [Link],SpatRaster-method
286 (Compare-methods), 72
inplace, 153 [Link], 166, 168
inset, 19, 155, 201, 258, 259, 267 [Link],SpatRaster-method
inset,SpatRaster-method (inset), 155 ([Link]), 166
inset,SpatVector-method (inset), 155 [Link],SpatRaster-method
interpIDW, 11, 157, 159, 160, 245 (Compare-methods), 72
interpIDW,SpatRaster,matrix-method [Link] ([Link]), 164
(interpIDW), 157 [Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]), 164
interpIDW,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method [Link] (geomtype), 140
(interpIDW), 157 [Link],SpatVector-method (geomtype),
interpNear, 11, 158, 158, 160, 245 140
interpNear,SpatRaster,matrix-method [Link], 15, 18, 20, 167
(interpNear), 158 [Link],character-method ([Link]),
interpNear,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method 167
(interpNear), 158 [Link],SpatRaster-method
interpolate, 11, 158, 159, 226 ([Link]), 167
interpolate (interpolation), 159 [Link],SpatVector-method
interpolate,SpatRaster-method ([Link]), 167
(interpolation), 159 [Link], 319
interpolation, 159 [Link],SpatRaster-method
372 INDEX

(Compare-methods), 72 lapp, 9, 20, 35, 171, 237, 266, 350

[Link],SpatVector-method ([Link]), 194 lapp,SpatRaster-method (lapp), 171
[Link],SpatRaster-method lapp,SpatRasterDataset-method (lapp),
(Compare-methods), 72 171
[Link] ([Link]), 164 lapply, 266
[Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]), 164 layerCor, 10, 20, 132, 173, 229
[Link] (geomtype), 140 layerCor,SpatRaster-method (layerCor),
[Link],SpatVector-method (geomtype), 173
140 legend, 26, 216
[Link] (geomtype), 140 length, 14, 17
[Link],SpatVector-method length (dimensions), 93
(geomtype), 140 length,SpatRasterCollection-method
[Link], 163 (dimensions), 93
[Link] (relate), 250 length,SpatRasterDataset-method
[Link],SpatExtent,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93
(relate), 250 length,SpatVector-method (dimensions),
[Link],SpatExtent,SpatVector-method 93
(relate), 250 length,SpatVectorCollection-method
[Link],SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method (dimensions), 93
(relate), 250 levels, 13, 22, 164, 165
[Link],SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method levels (factors), 117
(relate), 250 levels,SpatRaster-method (factors), 117
[Link],SpatRaster,SpatVector-method levels<- (factors), 117
(relate), 250 levels<-,SpatRaster-method (factors),
[Link],SpatVector,SpatExtent-method 117
(relate), 250 libVersion (gdal), 137
[Link],SpatVector,SpatRaster-method linearUnits, 15, 18, 175
(relate), 250 linearUnits,SpatRaster-method
[Link],SpatVector,SpatVector-method (linearUnits), 175
(relate), 250 linearUnits,SpatVector-method
[Link], 167, 168, 249 (linearUnits), 175
[Link],SpatRaster-method lines, 19, 25, 176, 214, 218, 222, 223
([Link]), 168 lines,leaflet-method (plet), 211
[Link], 17, 106, 169, 284 lines,sf-method (lines), 176
[Link],SpatExtent-method ([Link]), lines,SpatExtent-method (lines), 176
169 lines,SpatGraticule,missing-method
[Link],SpatVector-method ([Link]), (plot_graticule), 222
169 lines,SpatGraticule-method (lines), 176
isFALSE,SpatRaster-method ([Link]), 164 lines,SpatRaster-method (lines), 176
isTRUE, 340 lines,SpatVector-method (lines), 176
isTRUE,SpatRaster-method ([Link]), 164 locator, 67
log (Math-methods), 185
jitter, 177, 313 log,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods),
185
k_means, 11, 170, 288, 289 logic (Compare-methods), 72
k_means,ANY-method (k_means), 170 Logic,logical,SpatRaster-method
k_means,SpatRaster-method (k_means), 170 (Compare-methods), 72
kmeans, 101, 170 Logic,numeric,SpatRaster-method
INDEX 373

(Compare-methods), 72 mask,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
Logic,SpatRaster,logical-method (mask), 182
(Compare-methods), 72 match, 184, 184
Logic,SpatRaster,numeric-method match,SpatRaster-method (match), 184
(Compare-methods), 72 math, 172
Logic,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method math (Math-methods), 185
(Compare-methods), 72 Math,SpatExtent-method (Math-methods),
logic,SpatRaster-method 185
(Compare-methods), 72 Math,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods),
Logic-methods, 9 185
Logic-methods (Compare-methods), 72 math,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods),
longnames (varnames), 328 185
longnames,SpatRaster-method (varnames), Math-methods, 9, 18, 185
328 Math2,SpatExtent-method (Math-methods),
longnames,SpatRasterDataset-method 185
(varnames), 328 Math2,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods),
longnames<- (varnames), 328 185
longnames<-,SpatRaster-method Math2,SpatVector-method (Math-methods),
(varnames), 328 185
longnames<-,SpatRasterDataset-method Math2-methods (Math-methods), 185
(varnames), 328 max (summarize), 302
max,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302
[Link], 196, 225
mean (summarize), 302
[Link], 196, 329
mean,SpatExtent-method (summarize), 302
makeNodes, 17
makeNodes (topology), 319 mean,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302
makeNodes,SpatVector-method (topology), mean,SpatVector-method (summarize), 302
319 median (summarize), 302
makeTiles, 101, 177, 335, 336 median,SpatRaster-method (summarize),
makeTiles,SpatRaster-method 302
(makeTiles), 177 median,SpatVector-method (summarize),
makeValid, 17, 106, 284 302
makeValid ([Link]), 169 mem, 186
makeValid,SpatVector-method ([Link]), mem_info, 14, 203, 347
169 mem_info (mem), 186
makeVRT, 179, 336 merge, 9, 14, 16, 110, 118, 187, 187, 192, 193,
[Link], 19, 180 293, 322
map_extent, 19, 182 merge,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
mask, 10, 81, 105, 149, 182, 231, 242 (merge), 187
mask,SpatRaster,sf-method (mask), 182 merge,SpatRasterCollection,missing-method
mask,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method (merge), 187
(mask), 182 merge,SpatVector,[Link]-method
mask,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method (merge), 187
(mask), 182 merge,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
mask,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method (merge), 187
(mask), 182 mergeLines, 17
mask,SpatVector,sf-method (mask), 182 mergeLines (topology), 319
mask,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method mergeLines,SpatVector-method
(mask), 182 (topology), 319
374 INDEX

mergeTime, 13, 189 names,SpatVectorProxy-method (names),

mergeTime,SpatRasterDataset-method 195
(mergeTime), 189 names<- (names), 195
meta, 190 names<-,SpatRaster-method (names), 195
meta,SpatRaster-method (meta), 190 names<-,SpatRasterCollection-method
metags, 190, 239, 240, 272, 294, 345 (names), 195
metags,SpatRaster-method (metags), 190 names<-,SpatRasterDataset-method
metags,SpatRasterCollection-method (names), 195
(metags), 190 names<-,SpatVector-method (names), 195
metags,SpatRasterDataset-method names<-,SpatVectorCollection-method
(metags), 190 (names), 195
metags<-, 347 nany (summarize), 302
metags<- (metags), 190 nany,ANY-method (summarize), 302
metags<-,SpatRaster-method (metags), 190 nany,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302
metags<-,SpatRasterCollection-method ncell, 12, 352
(metags), 190 ncell (dimensions), 93
metags<-,SpatRasterDataset-method ncell,ANY-method (dimensions), 93
(metags), 190 ncell,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93
min (summarize), 302 ncell,SpatRasterDataset-method
min,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302 (dimensions), 93
minmax, 11 ncol, 12, 15
minmax (extremes), 116 ncol (dimensions), 93
minmax,SpatRaster-method (extremes), 116 ncol,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93
modal, 191, 302, 304 ncol,SpatRasterCollection-method
modal,SpatRaster-method (modal), 191 (dimensions), 93
mosaic, 9, 14, 188, 192, 293, 322
ncol,SpatRasterDataset-method
mosaic,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
(dimensions), 93
(mosaic), 192
ncol,SpatVector-method (dimensions), 93
mosaic,SpatRasterCollection,missing-method
ncol<- (dimensions), 93
(mosaic), 192
ncol<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
mtext, 26
(dimensions), 93
[Link], 15, 194 ncvar_def, 345
[Link],SpatVector-method ([Link]), 194 nearby, 16, 28, 99, 251
NAflag, 12, 20, 194 nearby (nearest), 196
NAflag,SpatRaster-method (NAflag), 194 nearby,SpatVector-method (nearest), 196
NAflag<- (NAflag), 194 nearest, 16, 28, 99, 196
NAflag<-,SpatRaster-method (NAflag), 194 nearest,SpatVector-method (nearest), 196
name (names), 195 NIDP, 123, 198, 210
name<- (names), 195 NIDP,SpatRaster-method (NIDP), 198
names, 12, 14, 15, 146, 195, 225, 325 nlyr, 12, 20
names,SpatRaster-method (names), 195 nlyr (dimensions), 93
names,SpatRasterCollection-method nlyr,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93
(names), 195 nlyr,SpatRasterCollection-method
names,SpatRasterDataset-method (names), (dimensions), 93
195 nlyr,SpatRasterDataset-method
names,SpatVector-method (names), 195 (dimensions), 93
names,SpatVectorCollection-method nlyr<- (dimensions), 93
(names), 195 nlyr<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
INDEX 375

(dimensions), 93 pitfinder, 210

noNA, 72 pitfinder,SpatRaster-method
noNA (summarize), 302 (pitfinder), 210
noNA,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302 plet, 211
[Link], 17, 199, 263 plet,missing-method (plet), 211
[Link],SpatVector-method plet,SpatRaster-method (plet), 211
([Link]), 199 plet,SpatRasterCollection-method
north, 19, 200, 218, 223, 267 (plet), 211
[Link], 9, 72, 201 plet,SpatVector-method (plet), 211
[Link],SpatRaster-method ([Link]), 201 plet,SpatVectorCollection-method
nrow, 12, 15 (plet), 211
nrow (dimensions), 93 plot, 19, 20, 33, 56, 76, 89, 102, 145, 150,
nrow,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93 201, 206, 211, 213, 214, 220–223,
nrow,SpatRasterCollection-method 259, 267, 313, 357
(dimensions), 93 plot,SpatExtent,missing-method
nrow,SpatRasterDataset-method (plot_extent), 222
(dimensions), 93 plot,SpatGraticule,missing-method
nrow,SpatVector-method (dimensions), 93 (plot_graticule), 222
nrow<- (dimensions), 93 plot,SpatRaster,character-method
nrow<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method (plot), 214
(dimensions), 93 plot,SpatRaster,missing-method (plot),
nseg, 202 214
nseg,SpatVector-method (nseg), 202 plot,SpatRaster,numeric-method (plot),
nsrc (dimensions), 93 214
nsrc,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93 plot,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
(scatterplot), 270
options, 203
plot,SpatVector,character-method
origin, 12, 204
(plot), 214
origin,SpatRaster-method (origin), 204
plot,SpatVector,[Link]-method
origin<- (origin), 204
(plot), 214
origin<-,SpatRaster-method (origin), 204
plot,SpatVector,missing-method (plot),
PackedSpatRaster-class 214
(SpatRaster-class), 287 plot,SpatVector,numeric-method (plot),
PackedSpatVector-class 214
(SpatVector-class), 290 plot,SpatVectorCollection,missing-method
pairs, 20, 52, 146, 205, 205, 218 (plot), 214
pairs,SpatRaster-method (pairs), 205 plot,SpatVectorCollection,numeric-method
panel, 19, 206, 218 (plot), 214
panel,SpatRaster-method (panel), 206 plot,SpatVectorProxy,missing-method
par, 177, 213 (plot), 214
patches, 11, 20, 51, 207 plot<SpatGraticule>, 18, 19, 143
patches,SpatRaster-method (patches), 207 plot_extent, 222
perim, 16, 208 plot_graticule, 222
perim,SpatVector-method (perim), 208 plotRGB, 19, 212, 218, 220, 259
perimeter (perim), 208 plotRGB,SpatRaster-method (plotRGB), 220
perimeter,SpatVector-method (perim), 208 points, 19, 102, 177, 214, 218, 223
persp, 19, 209, 209, 218 points (lines), 176
persp,SpatRaster-method (persp), 209 points,leaflet-method (plet), 211
376 INDEX

points,sf-method (lines), 176 rast, 8, 18, 20, 237, 287

points,SpatExtent-method (lines), 176 rast,ANY-method (rast), 237
points,SpatRaster-method (lines), 176 rast,array-method (rast), 237
points,SpatVector-method (lines), 176 rast,character-method (rast), 237
polys, 19, 214, 218, 223 rast,[Link]-method (rast), 237
polys (lines), 176 rast,list-method (rast), 237
polys,leaflet-method (plet), 211 rast,matrix-method (rast), 237
polys,sf-method (lines), 176 rast,missing-method (rast), 237
polys,SpatExtent-method (lines), 176 rast,PackedSpatRaster-method (rast), 237
polys,SpatRaster-method (lines), 176 rast,SpatExtent-method (rast), 237
polys,SpatVector-method (lines), 176 rast,SpatRaster-method (rast), 237
POSIXlt, 316 rast,SpatRasterDataset-method (rast),
prcomp, 11, 224, 225, 229 237
prcomp,SpatRaster-method (prcomp), 224 rast,SpatVector-method (rast), 237
predict, 11, 66, 159, 160, 225 rast,stars-method (rast), 237
predict,SpatRaster-method (predict), 225 rast,stars_proxy-method (rast), 237
princomp, 11, 224, 225, 228, 229 rasterImage, 45
princomp,SpatRaster-method (princomp), rasterize, 18, 111, 158, 159, 241, 243–245
228 rasterize,[Link],SpatRaster-method
prod (summarize), 302 (rasterize), 241
prod,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302 rasterize,matrix,SpatRaster-method
proj_ok (gdal), 137 (rasterize), 241
project, 9, 12, 15, 21, 83, 209, 230, 257, 258 rasterize,sf,SpatRaster-method
project,matrix-method (project), 230 (rasterize), 241
project,SpatExtent-method (project), 230
rasterize,SpatVector,SpatRaster-method
project,SpatRaster-method (project), 230
(rasterize), 241
project,SpatVector-method (project), 230
rasterizeGeom, 19, 242, 243, 245
project,SpatVectorCollection-method
rasterizeGeom,SpatVector,SpatRaster-method
(project), 230
(rasterizeGeom), 243
projNetwork (gdal), 137
rasterizeWin, 19, 158, 159, 242, 244
projPaths (gdal), 137
rasterizeWin,[Link],SpatRaster-method
quantile, 10, 21, 233, 305, 306 (rasterizeWin), 244
quantile,SpatRaster-method (quantile), rasterizeWin,SpatVector,SpatRaster-method
233 (rasterizeWin), 244
quantile,SpatVector-method (quantile), RasterSource (SpatRaster-class), 287
233 RasterSource-class (SpatRaster-class),
query, 234 287
query,SpatVectorProxy-method (query), rbind, 71, 322
234 rbind (c), 54
rcl, 246
rainbow, 49 rcl,SpatRaster-method (rcl), 246
range (summarize), 302 Rcpp_RasterSource-class
range,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302 (SpatRaster-class), 287
rangeFill, 10, 235 Rcpp_SpatCategories-class
rangeFill,SpatRaster-method (SpatRaster-class), 287
(rangeFill), 235 Rcpp_SpatExtent-class
rapp, 9, 113, 236, 236, 276, 277 (SpatExtent-class), 287
rapp,SpatRaster-method (rapp), 236 Rcpp_SpatRaster-class
INDEX 377

(SpatRaster-class), 287 (relate), 250

Rcpp_SpatVector-class relate,SpatVector,SpatRaster-method
(SpatVector-class), 290 (relate), 250
readRDS (serialize), 277 relate,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
readRDS,character-method (serialize), (relate), 250
277 removeDupNodes, 17
readStart, 14 removeDupNodes (topology), 319
readStart (readwrite), 247 removeDupNodes,SpatVector-method
readStart,SpatRaster-method (topology), 319
(readwrite), 247 rep, 253, 253
readStart,SpatRasterDataset-method rep,SpatRaster-method (rep), 253
(readwrite), 247 replace_dollar, 254
readStop, 14 replace_layers, 255
readStop (readwrite), 247 replace_values, 256
readStop,SpatRaster-method (readwrite), res, 12, 240
247 res (dimensions), 93
readStop,SpatRasterDataset-method res,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93
(readwrite), 247 res,SpatRasterDataset-method
readValues, 14, 318 (dimensions), 93
readValues (readwrite), 247 res<- (dimensions), 93
readValues,SpatRaster-method res<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(readwrite), 247 (dimensions), 93
readValues,SpatRasterDataset-method res<-,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93
(readwrite), 247 resample, 9, 21, 29–31, 81, 97, 110, 151, 188,
readwrite, 247 232, 249, 257
rectify, 168, 249 resample,SpatRaster,numeric-method
rectify,SpatRaster-method (rectify), 249 (resample), 257
regress, 10, 249 resample,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
regress,SpatRaster,numeric-method (resample), 257
(regress), 249 rescale, 17, 56, 108, 156, 258, 291
regress,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method rescale,SpatRaster-method (rescale), 258
(regress), 249 rescale,SpatVector-method (rescale), 258
relate, 16, 28, 164, 197, 250 rev (flip), 122
relate,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method rev,SpatRaster-method (flip), 122
(relate), 250 RGB, 221, 259
relate,SpatExtent,SpatRaster-method RGB,SpatRaster-method (RGB), 259
(relate), 250 RGB<- (RGB), 259
relate,SpatExtent,SpatVector-method RGB<-,SpatRaster-method (RGB), 259
(relate), 250 roll, 10, 20, 35, 186, 261, 350
relate,SpatRaster,SpatExtent-method roll,numeric-method (roll), 261
(relate), 250 roll,SpatRaster-method (roll), 261
relate,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method rotate, 9, 17, 122, 200, 259, 262, 282, 320
(relate), 250 rotate,SpatRaster-method (rotate), 262
relate,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method rotate,SpatVector-method (rotate), 262
(relate), 250 round, 49
relate,SpatVector,missing-method round (Math-methods), 185
(relate), 250 round,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods),
relate,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method 185
378 INDEX

round,SpatVector-method (Math-methods), scoff,SpatRaster-method (scoff), 271

185 scoff<- (scoff), 271
rowColCombine, 246 scoff<-,SpatRaster-method (scoff), 271
rowColCombine (xyRowColCell), 352 sds, 14, 240, 272, 294
rowColCombine,SpatRaster,numeric,numeric-method
sds,array-method (sds), 272
(xyRowColCell), 352 sds,character-method (sds), 272
rowColFromCell, 12 sds,list-method (sds), 272
rowColFromCell (xyRowColCell), 352 sds,missing-method (sds), 272
rowColFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method sds,SpatRaster-method (sds), 272
(xyRowColCell), 352 sds,stars-method (sds), 272
rowFromCell (xyRowColCell), 352 sds,stars_proxy-method (sds), 272
rowFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method segregate, 10, 20, 273, 292
(xyRowColCell), 352 segregate,SpatRaster-method
rowFromY, 12 (segregate), 273
rowFromY (xyRowColCell), 352 sel, 16, 19, 274
rowFromY,SpatRaster,numeric-method sel,SpatRaster-method (sel), 274
(xyRowColCell), 352 sel,SpatVector-method (sel), 274
rowMeans (rowSums), 264 selectHighest, 275
rowMeans,SpatRaster-method (rowSums), selectHighest,SpatRaster-method
264 (selectHighest), 275
rowSums, 264 selectRange, 8, 21, 236, 237, 276
rowSums,SpatRaster-method (rowSums), 264
selectRange,SpatRaster-method
runif, 152
(selectRange), 276
[Link], 265 serialize, 277, 278
sapp, 9, 172, 265 serialize,SpatExtent-method
sapp,SpatRaster-method (sapp), 265 (serialize), 277
sapp,SpatRasterDataset-method (sapp), serialize,SpatRaster-method
265 (serialize), 277
saveRDS, 8, 278 serialize,SpatRasterCollection-method
saveRDS (serialize), 277 (serialize), 277
saveRDS,SpatExtent-method (serialize), serialize,SpatRasterDataset-method
277 (serialize), 277
saveRDS,SpatRaster-method (serialize), serialize,SpatVector-method
277 (serialize), 277
saveRDS,SpatRasterCollection-method [Link], 13, 118
(serialize), 277 [Link] (inplace), 153
saveRDS,SpatRasterDataset-method [Link],SpatRaster-method (inplace),
(serialize), 277 153
saveRDS,SpatVector-method (serialize), [Link] (inplace), 153
277 [Link],SpatRaster-method (inplace), 153
sbar, 19, 156, 201, 218, 223, 266 [Link],SpatVector-method (inplace), 153
scale, 10, 224, 268, 268, 269 [Link], 87, 108
scale,SpatRaster-method (scale), 268 [Link] (inplace), 153
scale_linear, 268, 269 [Link],SpatRaster-method (inplace), 153
scale_linear,SpatRaster-method [Link],SpatVector-method (inplace), 153
(scale_linear), 269 [Link], 195
scatterplot, 218, 270 [Link] (inplace), 153
scoff, 239, 271, 347 [Link],SpatRaster-method (inplace),
INDEX 379

153 (SpatRaster-class), 287

[Link],SpatRasterCollection-method show,SpatVector-method
(inplace), 153 (SpatVector-class), 290
[Link],SpatRasterDataset-method sieve, 11, 283
(inplace), 153 sieve,SpatRaster-method (sieve), 283
[Link],SpatVector-method (inplace), simplifyGeom, 17, 88, 284, 319
153 simplifyGeom,SpatVector-method
[Link],SpatVectorCollection-method (simplifyGeom), 284
(inplace), 153 simplifyLevels (factors), 117
[Link], 260 simplifyLevels,SpatRaster-method
[Link] (inplace), 153 (factors), 117
[Link],SpatRaster-method (inplace), 153 size (dimensions), 93
[Link], 256 size,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93
[Link] (inplace), 153 smoothScatter, 270
[Link],SpatRaster-method (inplace), snap, 17, 120
153 snap (topology), 319
[Link],SpatRasterDataset-method snap,SpatVector-method (topology), 319
(inplace), 153 sort, 16, 285
[Link] (inplace), 153 sort,[Link]-method (sort), 285
[Link],SpatRaster-method (inplace), sort,SpatRaster-method (sort), 285
153 sort,SpatVector-method (sort), 285
setGDALconfig, 239, 335 sources, 12, 14, 286
setGDALconfig (gdal), 137 sources,SpatRaster-method (sources), 286
setMinMax, 11 sources,SpatRasterCollection-method
setMinMax (extremes), 116 (sources), 286
setMinMax,SpatRaster-method (extremes), sources,SpatRasterDataset-method
116 (sources), 286
setValues, 11, 279 sources,SpatVector-method (sources), 286
setValues,SpatRaster,ANY-method sources,SpatVectorProxy-method
(setValues), 279 (sources), 286
setValues,SpatRaster-method SpatCategories (SpatRaster-class), 287
(setValues), 279 SpatCategories-class
setValues,SpatVector,ANY-method (SpatRaster-class), 287
(setValues), 279 SpatExtent, 109, 214, 218, 273
setValues,SpatVector-method SpatExtent (SpatExtent-class), 287
(setValues), 279 SpatExtent-class, 287
shade, 11, 280 SpatGraticule, 214, 218
sharedPaths, 17, 71, 136, 281, 284, 319 SpatRaster (SpatRaster-class), 287
sharedPaths,SpatVector-method SpatRaster-class, 287
(sharedPaths), 281 SpatRasterCollection
shift, 9, 16, 156, 259, 263, 282, 291 (SpatRaster-class), 287
shift,SpatExtent-method (shift), 282 SpatRasterCollection-class
shift,SpatRaster-method (shift), 282 (SpatRaster-class), 287
shift,SpatVector-method (shift), 282 SpatRasterDataset (SpatRaster-class),
show, 145 287
show,SpatExtent-method SpatRasterDataset-class
(SpatExtent-class), 287 (SpatRaster-class), 287
show,SpatRaster-method spatSample, 11, 16, 21, 288, 305
380 INDEX

spatSample,SpatExtent-method summary,SpatRaster-method (summary), 305

(spatSample), 288 Summary,SpatVector-method (summary), 305
spatSample,SpatRaster-method summary,SpatVector-method (summary), 305
(spatSample), 288 Summary-methods, 9, 21
spatSample,SpatVector-method Summary-methods (summarize), 302
(spatSample), 288 surfArea, 60, 107, 306
SpatVector (SpatVector-class), 290 surfArea,SpatRaster-method (surfArea),
SpatVector-class, 290 306
SpatVectorCollection svc, 17, 307
(SpatVector-class), 290 svc,character-method (svc), 307
SpatVectorCollection-class svc,list-method (svc), 307
(SpatVector-class), 290 svc,missing-method (svc), 307
SpatVectorProxy (SpatVector-class), 290 svc,sf-method (svc), 307
SpatVectorProxy-class svc,SpatVector-method (svc), 307
(SpatVector-class), 290 symdif, 16, 308
spin, 16, 263, 291 symdif,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
spin,SpatVector-method (spin), 291 (symdif), 308
split, 274, 292
split,SpatRaster,ANY-method (split), 292 t, 9, 17, 259, 291
split,SpatVector,ANY-method (split), 292 t (transpose), 320
split,SpatVector,SpatVector-method t,SpatRaster-method (transpose), 320
(split), 292 t,SpatVector-method (transpose), 320
sprc, 14, 240, 272, 273, 293, 308 tail (headtail), 145
sprc,character-method (sprc), 293 tail,SpatRaster-method (headtail), 145
sprc,list-method (sprc), 293 tail,SpatVector-method (headtail), 145
sprc,missing-method (sprc), 293 tapp, 9, 21, 35, 171, 172, 237, 266, 277, 309,
sprc,SpatRaster-method (sprc), 293 350
sqrt (Math-methods), 185 tapp,SpatRaster-method (tapp), 309
sqrt,SpatRaster-method (Math-methods), tapply, 309
185 terra (terra-package), 8
stdev (summarize), 302 terra-package, 8
stdev,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302 terrain, 11, 123, 198, 210, 266, 280, 281,
stretch, 10, 221, 294 310, 333, 337
stretch,SpatRaster-method (stretch), 294 terrain,SpatRaster-method (terrain), 310
subset, 8, 20, 236, 295, 298–300 [Link], 181
subset,SpatRaster-method (subset), 295 terraOptions, 14, 318, 347
subset,SpatVector-method (subset), 295 terraOptions (options), 203
subset_dollar, 297 text, 19, 27, 144, 145, 218, 275, 313, 313
subset_double, 298 text,SpatRaster-method (text), 313
subset_single, 300 text,SpatVector-method (text), 313
subst, 10, 63, 66, 183, 256, 301 thresh, 101, 314
subst,SpatRaster-method (subst), 301 thresh,SpatRaster-method (thresh), 314
sum (summarize), 302 tighten, 315
sum,SpatRaster-method (summarize), 302 tighten,SpatRaster-method (tighten), 315
summarize, 302 tighten,SpatRasterDataset-method
summary, 10, 305, 305 (tighten), 315
Summary,SpatExtent-method (summary), 305 time, 13, 90, 309, 316, 325, 344
Summary,SpatRaster-method (summary), 305 time,SpatRaster-method (time), 316
INDEX 381

time,SpatRasterDataset-method (time), units<-,SpatRasterDataset-method

316 (units), 324
time<- (time), 316 unloadGDALdrivers (gdal), 137
time<-,SpatRaster-method (time), 316 unserialize (serialize), 277
time<-,SpatRasterDataset-method (time), unserialize,ANY-method (serialize), 277
316 unwrap, 344
timeInfo (time), 316 unwrap (wrap), 342
timeInfo,SpatRaster-method (time), 316 unwrap,ANY-method (wrap), 342
timeInfo,SpatRasterDataset-method unwrap,PackedSpatExtent-method (wrap),
(time), 316 342
title, 218 unwrap,PackedSpatRaster-method (wrap),
tmpFiles, 14, 317 342
toMemory, 12, 21, 286, 318 unwrap,PackedSpatRasterDC-method
toMemory,SpatRaster-method (toMemory), (wrap), 342
318 unwrap,PackedSpatVector-method (wrap),
toMemory,SpatRasterDataset-method 342
(toMemory), 318 update, 325
topology, 136, 169, 281, 319 update,SpatRaster-method (update), 325
trans, 122
values, 11, 16, 20, 21, 113, 256, 279, 318, 326
trans (transpose), 320
values,SpatRaster-method (values), 326
trans,SpatRaster-method (transpose), 320
values,SpatVector-method (values), 326
transpose, 320
values<-, 11, 16
Trig, 46
values<- (setValues), 279
trim, 9, 110, 321
values<-,SpatRaster,ANY-method
trim,SpatRaster-method (trim), 321
(setValues), 279
values<-,SpatVector,ANY-method
union, 16–18, 71, 164, 188, 322 (setValues), 279
union,SpatExtent,SpatExtent-method values<-,SpatVector,[Link]-method
(union), 322 (setValues), 279
union,SpatVector,missing-method values<-,SpatVector,matrix-method
(union), 322 (setValues), 279
union,SpatVector,SpatExtent-method values<-,SpatVector,NULL-method
(union), 322 (setValues), 279
union,SpatVector,SpatVector-method varnames, 328
(union), 322 varnames,SpatRaster-method (varnames),
unique, 10, 15, 323, 324 328
unique,SpatRaster,ANY-method (unique), varnames,SpatRasterDataset-method
323 (varnames), 328
unique,SpatRaster-method (unique), 323 varnames<- (varnames), 328
unique,SpatVector,ANY-method (unique), varnames<-,SpatRaster-method
323 (varnames), 328
unique,SpatVector-method (unique), 323 varnames<-,SpatRasterDataset-method
units, 324 (varnames), 328
units,SpatRaster-method (units), 324 vect, 15, 18, 21, 234, 240, 329
units,SpatRasterDataset-method (units), vect,character-method (vect), 329
324 vect,[Link]-method (vect), 329
units<- (units), 324 vect,list-method (vect), 329
units<-,SpatRaster-method (units), 324 vect,matrix-method (vect), 329
382 INDEX

vect,missing-method (vect), 329 window<-,SpatRaster-method (window), 341

vect,PackedSpatVector-method (vect), 329 wrap, 8, 240, 277, 342, 343, 344
vect,sf-method (vect), 329 wrap,SpatExtent-method (wrap), 342
vect,sfc-method (vect), 329 wrap,SpatRaster-method (wrap), 342
vect,SpatExtent-method (vect), 329 wrap,SpatRasterCollection-method
vect,SpatGraticule-method (vect), 329 (wrap), 342
vect,Spatial-method (vect), 329 wrap,SpatRasterDataset-method (wrap),
vect,SpatVector-method (vect), 329 342
vect,SpatVectorCollection-method wrap,SpatVector-method (wrap), 342
(vect), 329 wrapCache, 343
vect,XY-method (vect), 329 wrapCache,SpatRaster-method
vector_layers, 15, 331, 332, 348 (wrapCache), 343
viewshed, 11, 312, 333 writeCDF, 13, 344, 348
viewshed,SpatRaster-method (viewshed), writeCDF,SpatRaster-method (writeCDF),
333 344
voronoi, 15, 334 writeCDF,SpatRasterDataset-method
voronoi,SpatVector-method (voronoi), 334 (writeCDF), 344
vrt, 178, 180, 188, 335, 336 writeRaster, 8, 13, 29, 35, 37, 46, 50, 51, 54,
vrt,character-method (vrt), 335 57, 60, 62–64, 66, 73, 75, 77, 79, 82,
vrt,SpatRasterCollection-method (vrt), 85, 92, 95, 96, 98, 110, 118,
335 121–123, 125, 128, 129, 132, 133,
vrt_tiles, 336, 336 143, 149, 151, 152, 157, 158, 160,
165, 170, 172, 178, 183, 185,
watershed, 123, 210, 337 187–189, 192, 193, 198, 202, 203,
watershed,SpatRaster-method 207, 210, 226, 231, 233, 235, 237,
(watershed), 337 240, 242, 243, 245, 248–250, 258,
[Link], 174, 338, 338 260, 261, 263, 266, 269, 274, 277,
[Link],SpatRaster,numeric-method 280, 282, 283, 285, 295, 296, 301,
([Link]), 338 304, 306, 310, 311, 314, 320, 321,
[Link],SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method 333, 337, 338, 345, 346, 349, 355
([Link]), 338 writeRaster,SpatRaster,character-method
where, 339 (writeRaster), 346
[Link], 117 writeStart, 14
[Link], 117 writeStart (readwrite), 247
which, 339, 340 writeStart,SpatRaster,character-method
[Link], 10, 304, 340 (readwrite), 247
[Link],SpatRaster-method writeStop, 14
([Link]), 340 writeStop (readwrite), 247
[Link] (summarize), 302 writeStop,SpatRaster-method
[Link],SpatRaster-method (readwrite), 247
(summarize), 302 writeValues, 14
[Link] (summarize), 302 writeValues (readwrite), 247
[Link],SpatRaster-method writeValues,SpatRaster,vector-method
(summarize), 302 (readwrite), 247
width, 17, 340 writeVector, 15, 348
width,SpatVector-method (width), 340 writeVector,SpatVector,character-method
window, 239, 341 (writeVector), 348
window,SpatRaster-method (window), 341
window<- (window), 341 xapp, 349
INDEX 383

xapp,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method yFromRow,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xapp), 349 (xyRowColCell), 352
xFromCell, 12 ymax, 12, 109
xFromCell (xyRowColCell), 352 ymax (xmin), 350
xFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method ymax,SpatExtent-method (xmin), 350
(xyRowColCell), 352 ymax,SpatRaster-method (xmin), 350
xFromCol, 12 ymax,SpatVector-method (xmin), 350
xFromCol (xyRowColCell), 352 ymax<- (xmin), 350
xFromCol,SpatRaster,missing-method ymax<-,SpatExtent,numeric-method
(xyRowColCell), 352 (xmin), 350
xFromCol,SpatRaster,numeric-method ymax<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xyRowColCell), 352 (xmin), 350
xmax, 12, 109 ymin, 12, 109
xmax (xmin), 350 ymin (xmin), 350
xmax,SpatExtent-method (xmin), 350 ymin,SpatExtent-method (xmin), 350
xmax,SpatRaster-method (xmin), 350 ymin,SpatRaster-method (xmin), 350
xmax,SpatVector-method (xmin), 350 ymin,SpatVector-method (xmin), 350
xmax<- (xmin), 350 ymin<- (xmin), 350
xmax<-,SpatExtent,numeric-method ymin<-,SpatExtent,numeric-method
(xmin), 350 (xmin), 350
xmax<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method ymin<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xmin), 350 (xmin), 350
xmin, 12, 109, 350 yres, 12
xmin,SpatExtent-method (xmin), 350 yres (dimensions), 93
xmin,SpatRaster-method (xmin), 350 yres,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93
xmin,SpatVector-method (xmin), 350
zonal, 10, 83, 107, 111, 113, 142, 354
xmin<- (xmin), 350
zonal,SpatRaster,SpatRaster-method
xmin<-,SpatExtent,numeric-method
(zonal), 354
(xmin), 350
zonal,SpatRaster,SpatVector-method
xmin<-,SpatRaster,numeric-method (zonal), 354
(xmin), 350 zonal,SpatVector,SpatVector-method
xres, 12 (zonal), 354
xres (dimensions), 93 zoom, 19, 356
xres,SpatRaster-method (dimensions), 93 zoom,SpatRaster-method (zoom), 356
xyFromCell, 12, 80, 112, 114, 140 zoom,SpatVector-method (zoom), 356
xyFromCell (xyRowColCell), 352
xyFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xyRowColCell), 352
xyRowColCell, 352

yFromCell, 12
yFromCell (xyRowColCell), 352
yFromCell,SpatRaster,numeric-method
(xyRowColCell), 352
yFromRow, 12
yFromRow (xyRowColCell), 352
yFromRow,SpatRaster,missing-method
(xyRowColCell), 352