1

TABEL OF CONTENTS

OVERVIEW OF GROUP ALLOCATIONS PER MODULE

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PROCESS ENGINEEERING
Definition of Food Process Engineering
Importance of Food Process Engineering
Applications of Food Process Engineering
Key Concepts/ Principles
MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
Law of Conservation of Mass
Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy Balance for Closed System
Material Balance
APPLICATION OF FLUID FLOW IN AB MATERIALS
Hydrostatic Pressure
Continuity Equation
Bernoulli’s Equation
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
APPLICATION OF FLUID HEAT TRANSFER IN AB MATERIALS
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Steady State of Heat Transfer
DRYING OF AB MATERIALS
Equilibrium Moisture Content
Sorption Isotherms
Heat and Mass Transfer
Moisture Removal
EVAPORATION OF AB MATERIALS
Heat Transfer Coefficient
Phase Change
 3

Energy Efficiency
Multiple Effect Evaporation
Boiling Point Elevation
SIZE ALTERATION OF AB MATERIALS
Fineness Modulus / Particle Size
Agglomeration
Extrusion
Pelletization
MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL SEPARATION OF AB MATERIALS
Size-based Separation (Sieving / Screening)
Density-based Separation (Sedimentation)
Centrifugation
Filtration
Magnetic Separation
MIXING OF AB MATERIALS
Mixing Uniformity
Mixing Time and Power
Mixing Scale-up and Flow Regimes
High Shear Mixing
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OVERVIEW OF GROUP ALLOCATIONS PER MODULE

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MODULE 1
DAVID, Adrian Chester G.
LUGTU, Edzel L.
MODULE 2
CUELLAR, Warren C.
DIZON, Vince Joshua S.
MERCADO, Mark T.
MODULE 3
CASTRO, Trisha Mae R.
VALERA, Francine Danielle D.
VINUYA, Jay Mark G.
MODULE 4
CANLAS, Princes Dianne B.
RAGODON, Alfonso B.
SILVA, Kathrina M.
MODULE 5
MANABAT, Marjorie Anne A.
TAGALAG, Fherciel Kaye R.
MODULE 6
BALBABOCO, Mariel L.
BIONGA, Juldwin B.
SUNGA, Charles C.
MODULE 7
CAYABYAB, Peejay R.
FORMENTO, Renz Emmanuelle S.
MODULE 8
DAVID, Kristian Edyi S.
MANANSALA, Tanisha I.
ZAPATA, Seanelli Anne V.
MODULE 9
DATU, Luis Enrique T.
SUPAN, Mikaella T.
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INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING

DEFINITION OF FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING

Food Process Engineering is the branch of applied science and engineering that focuses
on the design, optimization, control, and evaluation of processes involved in converting raw
biological materials into safe, nutritious, stable, and high-quality food products. It integrates
principles from chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, microbiology, chemistry, and
physics to understand and manipulate the physical, chemical, and biochemical transformations
that occur during food production.

This discipline deals with:

Unit operations such as heating, cooling, drying, freezing, mixing, separation, and packaging.
Process design and scale-up, ensuring that methods are efficient, economically viable, and
environmentally sustainable.
Quality and safety assurance, including microbial stability, preservation techniques, and hazard
control.
Engineering of food materials, examining properties like rheology, thermodynamics, mass/heat
transfer, and fluid flow.
Development of new technologies, such as high-pressure processing, extrusion, and novel
preservation systems.

IMPORTANCE OF FOOD ENGINEERING

Food Process Engineering is rucial in modern food production because it ensures that
food is safe, nutritious, high-quality, economically viable, and sustainable. Its importance can be
understood through the following key points:

1. Ensures Food Safety

 Applies scientific and engineering principles to control pathogens and spoilage
organisms.
 Designs processes like pasteurization, sterilization, dehydration, and packaging to extend
shelf life and prevent foodborne illnesses.
2. Preserves and Enhances Food Quality
 9

 Maintains or improves sensory attributes (taste, color, texture, aroma).

 Prevents nutrient losses during processing and storage.
 Optimizes conditions such as temperature, pressure, and moisture to retain product
quality.
3. Reduces Post-Harvest Losses
 Provides effective preservation techniques (e.g., freezing, canning, drying).
 Reduces spoilage and waste, which is vital in regions with high food-loss rates.
4. Allows Large-Scale, Efficient Food Production
 Designs equipment and processes that achieve mass production while maintaining
consistency.
 Enhances productivity, reduces production costs, and ensures reliable supply to markets.
5. Supports Food Innovation and Product Development
 Enables creation of new food products such as fortified foods, convenience foods, plant-
based alternatives, and functional foods.
 Helps adapt products to meet consumer demands, such as health consciousness or
sustainability.
6. Ensures Sustainability and Energy Efficiency
 Helps minimize water and energy use in food manufacturing.
 Reduces environmental impact through waste valorization, recycling, and eco-friendly
processing technologies.
7. Facilitates Process Control and Automation
 Uses sensors, modeling, and control systems to ensure consistency and reliability.
 Improves safety and reduces human error through automation and smart manufacturing.
8. Enhances Economic Development
 Powers the growth of the food industry, which is one of the largest global economic
sectors.
 Creates employment in engineering, production, quality control, logistics, and research.
9. Ensures Global Food Security
 Helps stabilize food supplies through preservation and long shelf life.
 Enables transportation of food over long distances without spoilage.
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APPLICATIONS OF FOOD ENGINEERING

Food Process Engineering is applied across the entire food production chain—from
harvesting and raw material handling to packaging and distribution. Its applications involve
using engineering principles to design, improve, and optimize food processing systems.
1. Food Preservation
Engineering concepts are used to extend shelf life and prevent spoilage through:
 Pasteurization and sterilization
 Refrigeration and freezing
 Drying and dehydration
 Canning and bottling
 Fermentation-based preservation
These processes help maintain safety and quality over long periods.

2. Thermal Processing
Used to control temperature during operations such as:
 Heating, blanching, cooking
 Evaporation and concentration
 Thermal sterilization of packaged foods
Ensures destruction of microorganisms while maintaining quality.

3. Mechanical Processing
Application of mechanical engineering in:
 Mixing, grinding, cutting, milling
 Extrusion (e.g., snacks, pasta, cereals)
 Homogenization (e.g., milk, sauces)
Improves texture, size uniformity, and product structure.

4. Food Packaging Engineering

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Design of:
 Protective packaging materials
 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
 Vacuum packaging
 Aseptic and intelligent packaging systems
Packaging extends shelf life and ensures product safety.

5. Separation Processes
Used to separate components for purification or concentration:
 Filtration, centrifugation
 Membrane processing (ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis)
 Extraction and clarification
Used in dairy processing, beverages, edible oils, etc.

6. Process Control and Automation

Integration of engineering tools such as:
 Sensors, PLCs, and automated control systems
 Real-time monitoring of temperature, pH, flow, viscosity
 Predictive modeling and simulation
Ensures consistent product quality and efficiency.

7. Product Development and Formulation

Engineering is used to:
 Develop new food products (convenience foods, fortified foods).
 Optimize texture, stability, and nutritional value.
 Scale up production from laboratory to industrial levels.

8. Food Safety Engineering

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Use of engineering principles to:

 Control microbial contamination.
 Design hygienic equipment and sanitation systems.
 Validate critical control points (HACCP).
Essential for compliance with safety regulations.

9. Environmental and Waste Management

Application in:
 Treatment of wastewater from food industries
 Valorization of by-products (e.g., turning waste into animal feed, enzymes, bioenergy)
 Energy-efficient process design
Supports sustainability and reduces environmental impact.

10. Material Handling and Storage

Engineering systems for:
 Cold storage and warehousing
 Transport systems (conveyors, pumps, elevators)
 Bulk storage of grains, oils, and liquids
Ensures quality maintenance and smooth industrial operations

KEY CONCEPTS / PRINCIPLES

Food Process Engineering draws on fundamental scientific and engineering principles to
design, analyze, and optimize processes that convert raw materials into safe, nutritious, and high-
quality food products. The major concepts include:

1. Mass Transfer
Mass transfer refers to the movement of molecules from one place to another.
It is essential in processes such as:
 Drying
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 Osmosis and diffusion

 Evaporation and concentration
 Absorption and extraction
 Membrane separation (RO, ultrafiltration)
Understanding diffusion rates helps engineers control drying time, moisture removal, and
component separation.

2. Heat Transfer
Heat moves between objects or materials through conduction, convection, and radiation.
This principle is central in:
 Pasteurization, sterilization
 Cooking, blanching, baking
 Freezing and thawing
 Evaporation and concentration
Correct heat transfer ensures microbial safety, nutrient retention, and product quality.

3. Momentum Transfer (Fluid Flow)

Describes how fluids (liquids, gases, semi-solids) flow under applied forces.
Key in:
 Pumping and mixing
 Transport through pipes
 Extrusion and homogenization
 Agitation and emulsification
Understanding viscosity, flow profiles (laminar/turbulent), and pressure drop ensures efficient
equipment design.

4. Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic principles explain energy transformations during food processing. They are
used to:
 Predict phase changes (melting, evaporation, freezing)
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 Design refrigeration and thermal systems

 Analyze energy requirements
 Understand reaction equilibria and stability
Critical for controlling temperature-dependent changes in foods.

5. Rheology (Flow and Deformation of Food Materials)

Rheology deals with how food materials respond to applied forces.
Important for:
 Texture design
 Mixing and pumping behavior
 Quality control in products like dough, sauces, yogurt, and purees
Helps determine equipment specifications and consumer acceptability.

6. Microbial Kinetics and Food Safety

Food Process Engineering incorporates principles of microbial growth and inactivation to:
 Design safe thermal processing conditions
 Determine shelf life
 Validate preservation techniques
 Ensure compliance with HACCP and regulatory standards
Ensures that food products are microbiologically safe.

7. Chemical and Biochemical Reactions

Foods undergo various reactions during processing and storage, such as:
 Maillard browning
 Enzymatic reactions
 Lipid oxidation
 Nutrient degradation
Understanding reaction kinetics helps engineers minimize quality losses and develop stable food
products.
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8. Material and Energy Balances

Fundamental engineering tools used to:
 Design and analyze processes
 Estimate raw material requirements
 Predict product output and energy needs
 Optimize efficiency and reduce waste
Every industrial food process requires accurate balances.

9. Unit Operations
Unit operations are the building blocks of food processing.
Examples include:
 Size reduction, mixing, and separation
 Heat exchange, drying, freezing
 Packaging and fermentation
Each unit operation uses one or more of the main engineering principles listed above.

10. Process Control and Automation

Ensures precise control of conditions like:
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Flow rate
 pH
 Moisture content
Uses sensors, feedback systems, and automation to ensure consistency and safety.

11. Food Properties and Characterization

Knowledge of physical, chemical, thermal, and mechanical properties of foods is essential.
These include:
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 Density, viscosity
 Thermal conductivity
 Water activity
 Particle size distribution
 Dielectric properties
These properties guide equipment design and process optimization.
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MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE

Definition:

A systematic method used to account for the flow, transformation, and conservation of

mass and energy within a process or system. Based on the laws of conservation stating that mass

and energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred, or converted.

Importance:

Material and energy balance is essential in food processing because it ensures the

accurate design and proper sizing of equipment by quantifying all inputs, outputs, and losses

within a system. By understanding how materials and energy flow through each stage of

production, processes can be optimized to improve efficiency, maximize yield, and maintain

consistent product quality. Accurate balancing also minimizes waste, reduces production losses,

and lowers operational costs by identifying where excess materials or energy are being

consumed. Additionally, material and energy balance supports troubleshooting and process

control, allowing engineers to pinpoint inefficiencies and correct them quickly. Overall, MEB

plays a critical role in sustainability by promoting energy conservation, efficient resource

utilization, and environmentally responsible operations.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

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Problem 1
Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe that expands from a smaller diameter to a larger
one. Determine the velocity at the outlet and the mass flow rate of the fluid.

Given:
ρ = 1000 kg/m³
D₁ = 0.10 m, V₁ = 2.5 m/s
D₂ = 0.20 m
Required:
1. Outlet velocity, V₂
2. Mass flow rate, ṁ
Solution:
Continuity equation:
A₁V₁ = A₂V₂
V₂ = (A₁ / A₂) × V₁
A₁ = (πD₁ ²)/4 = 7.85×10⁻³ m²
A₂ = (πD₂ ²)/4 = 3.14×10⁻² m²
V₂ = (7.85×10⁻³ / 3.14×10⁻²) × 2.5 = 0.625 m/s
ṁ = ρA₁V₁ = 1000 × 7.85×10⁻³ × 2.5 = 19.63 kg/s

Problem 2

An oil stream enters a junction and divides into two outlet pipes. Given the areas of each outlet,
determine the velocities of the two outlet flows assuming the flow splits proportionally to the
outlet areas.

Given:

ρ = 850 kg/m³
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A in = 0.04 m², Vin = 3.0 m/s

Aₐ = 0.01 m², Ab = 0.02 m

Required:

Velocity at outlet A (Vₐ)

Velocity at outlet B (Vb)

Solution:

Qin = Ain × Vin = 0.04 × 3.0 = 0.12 m³/s

A to t a l= 0.01 + 0.02 = 0.03 m²

Qₐ = Qin × (Aₐ / Atotal ) = 0.12 × (0.01 / 0.03) = 0.04 m³/s

Qb = Qin × (Ab / Atotal ) = 0.12 × (0.02 / 0.03) = 0.08 m³/s

Vₐ = Qₐ / Aₐ = 0.04 / 0.01 = 4.0 m/s

Vb = Qb / Ab = 0.08 / 0.02 = 4.0 m/s

Check: Qₐ + Qb = 0.12 = Qin ✅

Problem 3

A mixing tank initially contains 200 kg of liquid. Fresh liquid enters at 5kg/min, and the outflow
is 4.6 kg/min. How long will it take for the tank’s mass to increase by 40 kg?

Given:

Wi - 200 kg
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Inflow - 5 kg/min

Outflow - 4.6 kg/min

Mass increase - 40 kg

Required:

time

Solution:

ⅆm / dt = min- mout = 5kg/min – 4.6 kg/min

ⅆm / dt= 0.4 kg/min

∆m = 0.4 kg/min = 40kg

0.4 kg/min / 0.4 kg/min = 40 kg / 0.4 kg/min

t = 100 min

Problem 4

A steady-state dryer has two inlets: 1) wet air (1.5 kg/s) containing 10% moisture, and 2) wet
product (0.8 kg/s) containing 60% water. The outlet streams are dry air and dried product (10%
moisture). Find the mass flow rate of dried product assuming no other losses.

Given:

Wet air – 1.5 kg/s with 10 % moisture

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Wet product – 0.8 kg/s with 60 % water

Dry air – 10 % moisture

Required:

Mass flow rate

Solution:

Let x = mass of dried product (kg/s)

x = mass of dried product (kg/s).

Solids in = Solids out

(0.8) (1 – 0.60) = x (1 – 0.10)

0.32 = 0.9 x

0.32 / 0.9= 0.9 x / 0.9

x = 0.356 kg/s

Problem 5

A f ruit juice with a solid concentration of 10% is fed into an evaporator at a rate of 1000 kg/hr
to produce a concentrated juice containing 40% solids. Assume that only water is removed
during evaporation.

Given:

Feed = 1000 kg/hr

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Solids in feed = 10%

Solids in product = 40%

Only water is evaporated

Required:

Mass of concentrated juice (product)

Mass of water evaporated

Solution:

Total mass in = Total mass out

1000 = mproduct + mevaporated

Solid Balance

1000 (0.10) = mproduc t (0.40)

mproduct = 250 kg/hr

Water Balance

mevaporated = 1000 - 250 = 750 kg/hr

Problem 6

A sealed container holds 2.50 kg of substance A and 1.50 kg of substance B. They react
completely to form product C (no mass lost to surroundings). Determine the mass of product C
formed.

Given:

A = 2.50 kg
 24

B = 1.50 kg

Required;

Find the mass of product C after the reaction.

Solution:

By the Law of Conservation of Mass: Total mass before = Total mass after.

Total mass before = 2.50 kg + 1.50 kg = 4.00 kg.

Therefore, mass of product C = 4.00 kg.

Problem 7

A separator receives 1200 kg/h of feed mixture and splits it into a product stream of 750 kg/h and
a waste stream. Assuming steady-state operation with no accumulation, find the mass flow rate
of the waste [Link]:

Given:
 25

Feed = 1200 kg/h

Product = 750 kg/h

Required:

Determine the mass flow rate of the waste stream.

Solution:

Mass in = Mass out.

Waste = Feed - Product = 1200 - 750 = 450 kg/h.

Problem 8

In a fertilizer preparation system, liquid fertilizer continuously flows into a mixing tank at a rate
of 4.0 kg/s from a supply pump. The fertilizer leaves the tank through an outlet pipe going to the
sprayer system. After some time, it is observed that the liquid level inside the tank remains
constant.

Given: (Bahrami, M., 2009)

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Inlet flow rate of fertilizer, min = 4.0 kg/s

System is steady (liquid level constant): dmsystem / dt = 0

Required:

Outlet flow rate of fertilizer, mout

Solution:

Use the Law of Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation):

dm system
m ¿ −mout =
dt

4.0−mout =0 mout =4.0 kg /s

Problem 9

A tank initially contains 800 kg of a salt solution with 10% salt by mass. During an evaporation
process, 100 kg of pure water is removed as vapor. No salt leaves with the vapor. Find the final
mass of the solution and the new salt concentration.

Given:

Initial mass, m_i = 800 kg

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Salt concentration = 10%

Water removed = 100 kg

Required:

Final mass of the solution

Final salt concentration

Solution:

Total salt remains constant: 80 kg.

Final total mass after water removal: 700 kg.

New salt concentration: (80/700) × 100 = 11.43%.

Problem 10

Two liquid streams enter a tank. Stream A enters at 6 kg/min and Stream B at 4 kg/min, while
the mixture leaves at 8 kg/min. The tank initially holds 50 kg of liquid. Determine the mass of
liquid in the tank after 30 minutes.

Given:

Initial mass, m_i = 50 kg

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Inflow A = 6 kg/min

Inflow B = 4 kg/min

Outflow = 8 kg/min

Time = 30 min

Required:

Final mass in the tank

Solution:

Net accumulation rate = (6 + 4) - 8 = 2 kg/min.

Total mass gained = 2 × 30 = 60 kg.

Final mass = 50 + 60 = 110 kg.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Problem 1

Milk is being heated in a plate heat exchanger using hot water. The milk enters at 25°C and
leaves at 65°C. The flow rate of milk is 500 kg/hr, and the specific heat capacity of milk is 3.93
kJ/kg·°C.

Given;
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Mass flow rate of milk, m = 500 kg/hr

Specific heat of milk, Cp = 3.93 kJ/kg\cdotp°C

Inlet temperature, T1 = 25°C

Outlet temperature, T2 = 65°C

Required:

Amount of heat energy required (in kJ/hr and kW)

Solution:

Energy supplied = Energy gained by milk

Q = m×Cp×(T2 − T1)

Q = 500 × 3.93 × (65 − 25)

Q = 78,600kJ/hr or 21.83 kW

Problem 2

A 6 kg sample of milk is heated from 20°C to 75°C using steam. The specific heat of milk is 3.9
kJ/kg·°C. Find the total heat supplied (Q) in kJ

Given;

m = 6 kg,
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ΔT = 75 − 20 = 55°C,

cp = 3.9 kJ/kg·°C

Required:

Heat Added

Solution:

Q = m cp ∆T

Q = 6(3.9)(55)

Q = 1287kJ

Problem 3

In an insulated mixing tank, 3 kg of hot coffee at 90°C is mixed with 2 kg of cold milk at 15°C.
Assume there is no heat loss to the surroundings and that the specific heat of both coffee and
milk is 3.9 kJ/kg·°C. Determine the final equilibrium temperature (Tₒ) of the mixture

Given;
 31

m1 = 3kg°C

T1 = 90

m2 = 2kg

T2 = 15°C

Cp = 3.9kJ/kg°C

Required:

Final equilibrium temperature (Tₒ) of the mixture

Solution:

Heat lost by hot liquid = Heat gained by cold liquid

m1cp(T1−T0 ) = m2 cp(T0 − T2 )

m1(T1−T0 ) = m2 (T0 −T2 )

3(90−T0 ) = 2(T0 −15)

270 − 3T0 = 2T0 − 30

270 +30= 5T0

T0 = 300 / 5 = 60°C

Problem 4

A 5-kg sample of water is heated from 40°C to 90°C at constant pressure. Determine the total
heat energy supplied to the water

Given;

Mass = 5 kg
 32

T1 = 40°C

m2 = 2kg

T2 = 90°C

Cp = 4.182 kJ/kg∙K

Required:

Total heat energy (Q) required

Solution:

Q = mcpT2 - T1

Q = 5 (4.182) (90 - 40)

Q = 1045.5 kJ

Problem 5

How much heat is necessary to vaporize 1.5 kg of water at 100°C into

steam at 100°C?

Given;
 33

Mass = 1.5 kg

Latent heat of vaporization (Lv) = 2257 kJ/kg

Required:

Total heat energy (Q) required

Solution:

Q = m x Lv

= (1.5) (2257)

= 3385.5 kJ

Problem 6

A 1 kg sample of water is heated from 25°C to 75°C in a kettle. Determine the amount of heat
energy absorbed by the water using the Law of Conservation of Energy.

Given;

Mass of water, m = 1 kg
 34

Initial temperature, T₁ = 25°C

Final temperature, T₂ = 75°C

Specific heat of water, c = 4.18 kJ/kg·°C

Required:

Heat energy gained, Q

Solution:

Q = mc (T₂ - T₁)

Q = 1(4.18) (75 - 25) = 209 kJ

Problem 7

A 2 kg ball is dropped from a height of 5 meters. Find the velocity of the ball just before it hits
the ground using the Law of Conservation of Energy.

Given;

Mass, m = 2 kg
 35

Height, h = 5 m

Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.8 m/s²

Required:

Velocity before impact, v

Solution:

mgh = ½mv²

v = √(2gh) = √(2 × 9.8 × 5) = 9.9 m/s

Problem 8

A milk pasteurizer heats 500 kg of milk from 25°C to 72°C. The specific heat of milk is 3.93
kJ/kg·K. Determine the heat required.

Given;
 36

Mass = 500 kg
T1 = 25°C, T2 = 72°C
Cp = 3.93 kJ/kg·K

Required:

Heat required (Q)

Solution:

Q = mCp(T2 - T1)
Q = 500(3.93)(72 - 25)
Q = 500(3.93)(47) = 92,355 kJ

Problem 9

Assume no phase change; no work done. Use the given data in getting the heat added Q(kJ). The
calorimeter is insulated meaning there is no heat lost.

Given;
 37

m = 5kg

tf = 80 ℃

ti = 30 ℃

Cp = 4.1867 kJ

Required:

Find the heat added Q(kJ).

Solution:

Q=∆ U=mc p ∆ T

∆ T =T f −T i=80−30=50 k

Q=mc p ∆ T

Q=(5)(4.1867)(50)

Q=1,046.67 kJ

Problem 10

On a perfect steady mixing device, there are two liquid streams mix together. Assume there is no
heat loss. Stream A has a mass flow of 2 kg and stream B flows at a mass 0.95 kg. Their
temperatures are 65 ℃ and 30 ℃, respectively. The specific heat is 4.18 kj/( kgK), assume same
for both streams and mixtures.
 38

Given;

ma = 2 kg

mb = 0.95 kg

Cp = 4.28 kj/( kgK)

ta = 65 ℃

tb = 30 ℃

Required:

Find the outlet temperature To(°C)

Solution:

Energy in = Energy out

mA cp TA + mB cp TB =(mA + mB) cp To

m A T A + mB T B
T o=
m A +m B

(2 ×65)+(0.95 ×30)
T o= =53.73 ℃
2+0.95

ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEM

Problem 1

A 2 kg batch of soup is heated f rom 25°C to 90°C. cp = 4.0 kJ/kg°C.

 39

Determine enthalpy change.

Given;

m = 2 kg

cp = 4.0 kJ/kg°C

ΔT = 65°C

Required:

Determine enthalpy change ΔH

Solution:

ΔH = m cp ΔT

= 2 × 4.0 × 65

= 520 kJ

Problem 2

A rigid, insulated tank contains 3.00 kg of liquid water at 25.0°C. Heat is added until the water
reaches 80.0°C. Assume the tank is rigid (no boundary work) and there are no heat losses except
the heat added. Use Cp = Cv ≈ Cfor liquid water = 4.18 kJ·kg⁻¹·K⁻¹ (constant over this range).
 40

Given;

Mass m = 3.00 kg

Initial temperature T1 = 25.0°C

Final temperature T2 = 80.0°C

Specific heat C = 4.18 kJ·kg -1 ·K -1

Rigid tank → boundary work Wb = 0

Required:

Heat added Q(kJ).

Solution:

ΔE= Q-W

Q = mC(T2 - T1)

Q = 3.0 × 4.18 × (80.0 - 25.0)

Q = 689.70 kJ

Problem 3

A gas is contained inside a piston–cylinder device. Initially, the gas is at 100 kPa and 25 °C, and
it is compressed slowly until the final temperature becomes 75 °C. During the process, the work
done on the gas is 40 kJ. If the mass of the gas is 1.8 kg and the specific heat at constant volume
 41

is 0.72 kJ/(kg·K), determine the amount of heat transferred (Q) between the system and
surroundings. (Note: work done on the gas is positive)

Given;

Mass of gas, m = 1.8 kg

Initial temperature, Ti = 25°C

Final temperature, Tf = 75°C

Work done on gas, W = +40 kJ

Specific heat at constant volume, Cv = 0.72 kJ/kg∙K

Required:

Find the heat transferred (Q) in kJ..

Solution:

ΔU = Q − W

Q = ΔU - W

ΔU = mCv (Tf - Ti)

ΔU = (1.8) (0.72) (75 - 25) = 64 .8 kJ

Q = 64.8 - 40 = 24.8 kJ (heat added to the gas)

Problem 4

A metal block is placed inside a well-insulated container and heated using an electric coil.
During heating, the temperature of the metal rises by 45K. The specific heat of the metal is 2.10
kJ/(kg·K). If the electrical heater supplied 283.5 kJ of heat energy, determine the mass of the
 42

metal block in kilograms. Assume no heat loss to the surroundings and no work interaction other
than the electrical energy supplied.

Given;

Heat supplied, Q = 283.5 kJ

Specific heat, Cp = 2.10kJ/kg∙K

Temperature rise, ΔT = 45 K

Required:

Find the mass (m) of the metal block in kg

Solution:

ΔU = Q − W

ΔU=Q

ΔU = m Cp ΔT

m = Q / Cp ΔT

m = 283.5 kJ / 2.10kJ/kg∙K × 45 K

m = 3 kg of metal

Problem 5

A corn steamer processes 700 kg/h of corn. The theoretical energy required to heat the corn is
1.05 GJ/h. The steamer is poorly insulated, causing 0.25 GJ/h of energy loss. Additionally, 5% of
 43

the total energy input is lost through steam venting. If the total energy supplied to the steamer is
2.50 GJ/h, calculate:

a.) The energy used to heat and maintain water.

b.) The overall thermal efficiency of the steamer.

Given;

Product mass flow rate = 700 kg/h

Energy required to heat corn = 1.05 GJ/h

Energy lost due to insulation = 0.25 GJ/h

Steam vent losses = 5% of total energy input

Total energy input = 2.50 GJ/h

Required:

a. Energy used to reheat and maintain water (GJ/h)

b. Overall Thermal Efficiency (%)

Solution:

Event = 0.05 x Einput = 0.05 x 2.50 = 0.125 GJ/h

Einput = Eproduct + Einsulation + Event +E water

η = (E / E )x 100

useful input

η = ( 1.05 / 2.50) x 100 = 42%

Problem 6
 44

A chemical reactor is operating in a closed system. 1500 kJ of heat is added to the system. The
internal energy of the system increases by 1200 kJ, and the system performs 200 kJ of work.
Calculate the energy leaving the system as heat.

Given;

ΔE = 1,500 kJ

W = 200 kJ

ΔE stored = 1,200 kJ

Required:

Energy leaving the system as heat.

Solution:

ΔE=Q+W+ΔEstored

1500kj = Q + 200kj + 1200kj

Q = 100 kJ

Problem 7
 45

In a closed container, 1000 J of heat is added, and the system does 200 J of work. The internal
energy of the system changes by 500 J. Find the output energy.

Given;

ΔE stored = 1000 J

ΔE in = 200 J

Required:

Output energy.

Solution:

ΔEin−ΔEout=ΔEstored

ΔEstored = ΔEout - ΔEin

1000j = ΔEout – 200j + 500j

ΔEout = 300 J

Problem 8
 46

A 1.2 m³ gas sample in a piston–cylinder is compressed from 1.2 m³ to 0.8 m³ at a constant

external pressure of 180 kPa. Determine the work done on the gas and the heat transfer if the
internal energy increases by 40 kJ.

Given;

P = 180 kPa
V₁ = 1.2 m³
V₂ = 0.8 m³
ΔU = + 40 kJ

Required:

Work done (W)

Heat transferred (Q)

Solution:

W = P (V₂−V₁)

= 180 (0.8−1.2)

= −72 kJ (work done on gas)

Q = ΔU + W = 40 + (−72)

Q = −32 kJ.

Problem 9
 47

A sealed container holds 3 kg of air. The air is heated, and its internal energy increases by 250
kJ. The container does no boundary work. Determine the heat added to the air.

Given;

Mass = 3 kg
ΔU = 250 kJ
W=0

Required:

Heat added (Q)

Solution:

Q = ΔU + W

= 250 + 0

Q = 250 kJ.

Problem 10
 48

A metal block (10 kg, cp = 0.5 kJ/kg°C) cools from 150°C to 50°C. Determine ΔH.

Given;

m = 10 kg

cp = 0.5 kJ/kg°C

ΔT = -100°C

Required:

ΔH

Solution:

ΔH = m cp ΔT = 10 × 0.5 × (–100)
ΔH = –500 kJ

MATERIAL BALANCE
 49

Problem 1

A mixing tank receives two liquid streams that are combined into a single outlet stream under
steady-state conditions. Stream A has a flow rate of 300 kg/h and contains 12 % solute X by
mass, while Stream B has a flow rate of 200 kg/h containing 30 % solute X by mass. Assume
there are no chemical reactions, and accumulation in the tank is negligible.

Given;

Stream A: Flow rate = 300 kg/h, solute X = 12 % by mass

Stream B: Flow rate = 200 kg/h, solute X = 30 % by mass

Required:

Total outlet flow rate (kg/h)

Mass f raction of solute X in the outlet stream (%)

Solution:

Fout = FA + FB = 300 + 200 = 500kg/h

mx = (FA × xA) + (FB × xb) = (300 × 0.12) + (200 × 0.30) = 96 kg/h

xout = ( mx / Fout ) x 100

xout = ( 96 / 500 ) x 100 = 19.2 %

Problem 2
 50

A mixing process combines 300 kg of a 10% salt solution with 200 kg of a 25% salt solution.
Find the concentration of salt in the final mixture.

Given;

- Stream 1: 300 kg, 10% salt

- Stream 2: 200 kg, 25% salt

Required:

Final salt concentration (% mass)

Solution:

Σmsalt,in = Σmsalt,out

(300)(0.10) + (200)(0.25) = (500)(x)

30 + 50 = 500x

x = 0.16 = 16%

Problem 3
 51

A continuous mixer blends two liquid streams. Stream A has a flow rate of 100 kg/h with 40%
ethanol, and Stream B has a flow rate of 50 kg/h with 80% ethanol. Determine the composition
of the outlet stream assuming steady-state operation and complete mixing.

Given;

Initial mass, mi = 200 kg

Inflow rate = 5 kg/min

Outflow rate = 4 kg/min

Time = 50 min

Required:

Final mass in the tank

Solution:

Net rate of accumulation = Inflow - Outflow = 5 - 4 = 1 kg/min

Mass gained = 1 × 50 = 50 kg

Final mass = 200 + 50 = 250 kg

Problem 4
 52

A mixing tank initially contains 200 kg of liquid. Fresh liquid enters at a rate of 5 kg/min, and
the mixture leaves at a rate of 4 kg/min. Determine the mass of liquid in the tank after 50
minutes, assuming perfect mixing and no chemical reaction.

Given;

Initial mass, mi = 200 kg

Inflow rate = 5 kg/min

Outflow rate = 4 kg/min

Time = 50 min

Required:

Final mass in the tank

Solution:

Net rate of accumulation = Inflow - Outflow = 5 - 4 = 1 kg/min

Mass gained = 1 × 50 = 50 kg

Final mass = 200 + 50 = 250 kg

Problem 5
 53

A juice product containing 10% solids is concentrated to 40% solids. If 200 kg of diluted juice
enters the evaporator, determine (a) mass of concentrate produced and (b) mass of water
removed.

Given;

• Feed: 200 kg, 10% solids

• Final: 40% solids

Required:

a. mass concentrate
b. mass water removed

Solution:

Solids in feed = 200×0.10 = 20 kg

Concentrate mass = 20 / 0.40 = 50 kg
Water removed = 200 – 50 = 150 kg
 54

Problem 6

Two oil streams are blended. Stream A: 30 kg at 98% oil; Stream B: 70 kg at 92% oil. Determine
final oil percentage.

Given;

• A = 30 kg, 98%
• B = 70 kg, 92%

Required:

Product % oil

Solution:

Oil A = 30×0.98 = 29.4 kg

Oil B = 70×0.92 = 64.4 kg
Total oil = 93.8 kg
Total mass = 100 kg
Oil % = 93.8/100 = 93.8%
 55

Problem 7

Determine the amount of juice concentrate containing 65% solids and single-strength juice
containing 15% solids that must be mixed to produce 100 kgs of a concentrate containing 45%
solids.

Given;

Concentrate Stream 1 (MC) = 65% solids

Single-Strength Stream 2 (MSS) = 15% solids

Product Stream (P) = 100 kgs, 45% solids

Required:

Mass of concentrate (MC) in kgs

Mass of single-strength juice (MSS) in kgs

Solution:

Materials In = Materials Out

MC + MSS = 100 (Equation 1)

Solids In = Solids Out

(MC * 0.65) + (MSS * 0.15) = (100 * 0.45)

0.65 MC + 0.15 MSS = 45 (Equation 2)

0.65 MC + 0.15 (100 - MC) = 45

0.65 MC + 15 - 0.15 MC = 45

0.50 MC = 30

MC = 30 / 0.50 = 60 kg

60 + MSS = 100

MSS = 100 - 60 = 40 kg
 56

Problem 8

A high-concentration syrup (80% sugar) flows into a mixing tank at a rate of 50 kg/h. Water (0%
sugar) is added to dilute the syrup to a final product of 20% sugar. Assuming a steady-state
process, determine the mass flow rate of water required (MW) and the mass flow rate of the final
product (MP).

Given;

Syrup Flow Rate (MS) = 50 kg/h, 80% sugar

Water Flow Rate (MW) = Unknown, 0% sugar

Product Flow Rate (MP) = Unknown, 20% sugar

Required:

Mass flow rate of water (MW) in kg/h

Mass flow rate of final product (MP) in kg/h

Solution:

Materials In = Materials Out

MS + MW = MP

50 + MW = MP (Equation 1)

Sugar In = Sugar Out

(MS × 0.80) + (MW × 0.00) = (MP × 0.20)

(50 ×0.80) + 0 = 0.20 MP

40 = 0.20 MP (Equation 2)

MP = 40 / 0.20

MP = 200 kg/h

0 + MW = 200

MW = 200 - 50 = 150 kg/h

Problem 9
 57

Fresh cassava (70% water) is processed into flour containing 12% moisture. If 200 kg of fresh
cassava is used, determine the mass of flour produced and the water removed.

Given;

Fresh cassava = 200 kg, 70% water

Final moisture = 12%

Required:

Mass of cassava flour

Water removed

Solution:

Solids in = 200 × 0.30 = 60 kg

60 = x (0.88)

x = 68.18 kg flour
Water removed = 200−68.18 = 131.82 kg.
 58

Problem 10

A feed solution of 600 kg containing 20% solute is concentrated by evaporation until the product
has 50% solute. Determine the mass of concentrate and the amount of water evaporated.

Given;

Feed = 600 kg, 20% solute

Product = 50% solute

Required:

Mass of concentrate

Water evaporated

Solution:

Solute in = 600×0.20 = 120 kg

Solute out: 120 = 0.50x

x = 240 kg concentrate
Water evaporated = 600−240 = 360 kg
59
 60

APPLICATION OF FLUID FLOW IN AB MATERIALS

Definition:
Fluid flow refers to the movement of liquids or gases caused by pressure differences,

gravity, or mechanical force. It is described through principles such as viscosity, velocity, flow

rate, laminar/turbulent flow, and energy losses in pipes or open channels.

Importance:
Understanding fluid flow is crucial for designing efficient systems that save energy and

reduce operational costs. It ensures uniform water distribution, proper nutrient application,

effective aeration in aquaculture, and safe, sanitary transport of liquid foods. Proper fluid flow

analysis minimizes pressure losses, prevents equipment failure, reduces waste, and enhances the

productivity and sustainability of agricultural operations.

 61

APPLICATION OF FLUID FLOW IN AB MATERIALS

Hydrostatic Pressure

Problem 1

A circular hatch on the side of a ship is located at a depth of 12.0 m below the free surface of
seawater. Seawater density may be taken as 1025 kg/m³. The hatch has an external diameter of
0.800 m. Atmospheric pressure at the surface is 101.3 kPa (Dizon, 2025).

Given:

Depth below free surface, h = 12.0 m

Seawater density, ρ = 1025 kg/m³
Diameter of hatch, D = 0.800 m
Atmospheric pressure, p_atm = 101.3 kPa = 101300 Pa
Assume g = 9.81 m/s².

Required:

(a) Determine the gauge pressure at the hatch (due to the water column) and the absolute
pressure on the hatch.
(b) Determine the hydrostatic force acting on the circular hatch (assume the pressure is
uniform over the hatch area at its center depth).
Solution:

Gauge pressure:

pgauge = ρ g h = 1025×9.81×12.0 = 1.2066e+05 Pa (120.7 kPa).

Absolute pressure:

pabs = pgauge + patm = 2.2196e+05 Pa (222 kPa).

Hatch area:

A = π (D/2)² = π (0.8/2)² = 0.5027 m².

Total hydrostatic force on hatch (use absolute pressure):

F = pabs × A = 1.1157e+05 N (111.6 kN).

 62

Problem 2

A vertical rectangular plate is mounted on a tank wall from the free surface down to 2.50
m depth. The fluid above is an oil layer of thickness 0.50 m (density ρ_oil = 850 kg/m³) on top of
water (density ρ_water = 1000 kg/m³) filling the rest. The plate is 1.20 m wide (horizontal width)
and extends from the surface to the bottom at 2.50 m. Atmospheric pressure p atm = 101.3 kPa
(Dizon, 2025).

Given:

Oil layer thickness = 0.50 m, density ρ_oil = 850 kg/m³

Water layer thickness beneath oil = 2.00 m, density ρ_water = 1000 kg/m³
Plate width (into page) = 1.20 m, plate height = 2.50 m
Assume g = 9.81 m/s², patm = 101.3 kPa.

Required:

(a) Determine the pressure at the oil–water interface and at the bottom of the plate (absolute
pressures).
(b) Find the resultant hydrostatic force on the vertical plate and locate the center of pressure
(distance from the free surface).

Solution:

Pressure at oil-water interface (gage):

pint,g = ρo g hoil = 850×9.81×0.5 = 4.1692e+03 Pa. Absolute: 1.0547e+05 Pa.

Pressure at bottom (gage):

pbottom,g = ρo g hoil + ρw g hwater = 2.3789e+04 Pa. Absolute: 1.2509e+05 Pa.

Resultant hydrostatic force on the plate:

F = width × [ρo g (1/2 hoil²) + ρw g (1/2 (htotal² – hoil²))] = 3.6567e+04 N (36.57 kN).

Center of pressure (measured from free surface downward):

ycp = 1.675 m.
 63

Problem 3

A rectangular gate 1.2 m wide and 0.8 m high is submerged with its top edge 0.5 m below the
free surface of fresh water. Determine the hydrostatic pressure at the mid-height of the gate and
the total hydrostatic force acting on the gate

Given:
ρ = 1000 kg/m³ (water)
g = 9.81 m/s²
Top gap from free surface to top of gate, hₜ = 0.5 m
Gate height, H = 0.8 m
Gate width, b = 1.2 m

Required:

1. Pressure at mid-height, p̄ (Pa)

2. Total hydrostatic force on gate, F (N)

Solution:
Mid-height depth: h̄ = hₜ + H/2 = 0.5 + 0.8/2 = 0.5 + 0.4 = 0.9 m.
Hydrostatic pressure at mid-height:
p̄ = ρ g h̄ = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.9 = 8829 Pa.

Total hydrostatic force on a vertical plane:

F = ρ g b ∫₀ᴴ (hₜ + y) dy = ρ g b [hₜH + H²/2].
Compute: hₜH = 0.5 × 0.8 = 0.4 m²; H²/2 = 0.8² / 2 = 0.64 / 2 = 0.32 m².
Sum = 0.4 + 0.32 = 0.72 m².
F = 1000 × 9.81 × 1.2 × 0.72 = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.864 = 1000 × 8.476 = 8,476 N (rounded).

Final Answer:
p̄ = 8,829 Pa
F ≈ 8,476 N
 64

Problem 4

A U-tube differential manometer contains mercury (ρ Hg = 13,600 kg/m³). One leg is connected to
a pressure tap on a vessel containing oil (ρ oil = 850 kg/m³) and the other leg is open to
atmosphere. The mercury column shows a difference of 0.120 m (mercury higher on the
atmospheric side). Determine the gauge pressure in the vessel (pressure above atmospheric)
(Lugtu, 2025).

Given:
ρHg = 13,600 kg/m³
ρoil = 850 kg/m³
g = 9.81 m/s²
Mercury column difference, ΔhHg = 0.120 m (Hg higher on atm side)

Required:
Gauge pressure in vessel, pgauge (Pa)

Solution:
Sign convention: vessel pressure > atm pushes mercury down on vessel side, so mercury is
higher on atmospheric side by ΔhHg. Gauge pressure equals hydrostatic pressure equivalent of
mercury column difference minus hydrostatic effect of oil column (if oil column heights given).
For typical simple U-tube with same oil level on vessel side at same datum and mercury
difference Δh only, gauge pressure = ρHg g ΔhHg.

Thus: pgauge = ρHg g ΔhHg = 13,600 × 9.81 × 0.120 = 13,600 × 1.1772 = 16,012 Pa ≈ 1.60 × 10⁴ Pa
(gauge).

Final Answer:
pgauge ≈ 1.60 × 10⁴ Pa (≈ 16.0 kPa gauge)
 65

Problem 5

Column holds kerosene (ρ = 810 kg/m³) to depth 2.1 m with water below to additional 1.5 m.
Find pressure at the interface (from kerosene surface) and pressure at tank base (Pa) (Manabat,
2025).

Given: (Cengel and Cimbala, 2017)

ρkerosene = 810 kg/m³

hkerosene = 2.10 m
ρwater = 1000 kg/m³
hwater = 1.50 m
g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Find pressure at the interface

Solution:

Pressure at interface:
pint = ρkerosene·g·hkerosene
pint = 810 × 9.81 ×2.10
pint = 16,686 Pa
Pressure at base:
pbase = pint + ρwater·g·hwater
pbase = 16,686 + 1000 × 9.81 × 1.50
pbase = 31,401 Pa
 66

Problem 6

Vertical trapezoidal gate (width into page 0.8 m) has its top 0.6 m below free surface and bottom
at 1.6 m depth. If fluid density ρ = 950 kg/m³, compute hydrostatic force on the gate and depth of
resultant (Manabat, 2025).

Given: Required:

Top depth = 0.60 m Compute hydrostatic force on the gate and depth of resultant.

bottom depth = 1.60 m

width b = 0.8 m

ρ = 950 kg/m³

g = 9.81 m/s²

Solution:

Area A = b × height
= 0.8 × (1.60−0.60)
= 0.8 × 1.0
Area A = 0.8 m²

(0.60+ 1.60)
Centroid depth yc =
2
Centroid depth yc = 1.10 m
Pressure at centroid pc = ρ g yc
= 950×9.81×1.10
Pressure at centroid pc = 10,255 Pa

Hydrostatic force F = pc × A
= 10,255 × 0.8
Hydrostatic force F = 8,204 N
 67

Second moment for rectangular height h=1.0:

b·h ³ 1.10+0.06667
Ix = =
12 (1.10 x 0.8)

= 0.8×1.0³/12 = 1.10 + 0.0758

Ix = 0.06667 m⁴ Depth of resultant yR = 1.176 m

y c + Ix
Depth of resultant yR =
( yc x A)
 68

Problem 7

A vertical storage tank is used to hold freshly harvested coconut water before processing. The
tank is filled to a depth of 3.20 m. Determine the gauge pressure exerted by the coconut water at
the bottom of the tank. Assume the density of coconut water is approximately 1025 kg·m ⁻³. Also
determine the absolute pressure if atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa.

Given: The Engineering Toolbox. (n.d.)

 Depth, h=3.20 m

 Density of coconut water, ρ=1025 kg·m ³

 Gravitational acceleration, g=9.81 m/ s2

 Atmospheric pressure, Patm =101.3 kPa

Required:

1. Gauge pressure at the bottom: Pgauge

2. Absolute pressure at the bottom: Pabs

Solution:

Pgauge= ρgh

9.81 ×3.20=31.392

Pgauge=1025 × 31.392Pgauge=32 676.8 Pa

Pgauge=32.68 kPa

Pabs=P atm + Pgauge Pabs=101.3 kPa+ 32.68 kPa Pabs=133.98 kPa

Problem 8

A refrigerated tank holds molasses used for animal feed supplementation. The tank is filled to a
depth of 2.50 m. Estimate the gauge pressure at the bottom of the tank due to the molasses. Then
 69

determine the hydrostatic force acting on a tank bottom area of 1.20 m². Assume the density of
molasses is 1400 kg·m⁻³ and atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa (Manansala, 2025).

Given: Çengel, Y. A., & Cimbala, J. M. (2014)

 Depth: h=2.50 m

 Density of molasses: ρ=1400 kg·m ³

 Gravitational acceleration: g=9.81 m/ s2

 Bottom area: A=1.20 m2

Required:

1. Gauge pressure at the bottom, Pgauge

2. Hydrostatic force on the tank bottom, F

Solution:

Gauge Pressure

Pgauge= ρgh

Pgauge= (1400 )( 9.81 )( 2.50 )

Pgauge=34,335 Pa∨34.335 kPa

Hydrostatic Force on Bottom

F=Pgauge × A F=34,335 ×1.20 F=41,202 N

 70

Problem 9

A large tank is filled with olive oil (density = 910 kg/m³). Determine the hydrostatic pressure at a
depth of 3.5 m. Also, find the total force acting on a 2 m × 1.5 m vertical rectangular plate fully
submerged at that depth (David, 2025).

Given:
Density (ρ) = 910 kg/m³
Depth (h) = 3.5 m
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.81 m/s²
Plate area (A) = 2 × 1.5 m²

Required:
1. Hydrostatic pressure at 3.5 m
2. Total force on the plate

Solution:
Hydrostatic pressure, P = ρgh = 910 × 9.81 × 3.5 = 31,274.85 Pa

Force on the plate, F = P × A = 31,274.85 × (2 × 1.5) = 93,824.55 N

 71

Problem 10

A water tank used in an aquaculture system has a water depth of 2.2 m. Find the pressure at a
point 1.8 m below the surface and express it in kPa. Assume ρ = 1000 kg/m³ (David, 2025).

Given:
ρ = 1000 kg/m³
h = 1.8 m
g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Pressure at 1.8 m depth in kPa

Solution:
P = ρgh = 1000 × 9.81 × 1.8 = 17,658 Pa = 17.66 kPa
 72

Problem 11

A storage tank is filled with water to a depth of 5 meters. Determine the hydrostatic pressure
exerted on the bottom of the tank.

(Adapted from Çengel & Cimbala, 2020).

Given:

Depth, h = 5 m

Density of water, ρ = 1000 kg/m³

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Pressure at the bottom of the tank, P

Solution:

P = ρgh = (1000) (9.81) (5) = 49,050 Pa = 49.05 kPa

Final Answer:

Pressure = 49.05 kPa

 73

Problem 12

Two points in a tank are located at depths of 2 m and 6 m below the water surface. Find the
pressure difference between these two points.

(Based on White, 2016).

Given:

Depth difference, Δh = 6 - 2 = 4 m

Density of water, ρ = 1000 kg/m³

g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Pressure difference, ΔP

Solution:

ΔP = ρgΔh = (1000) (9.81) (4) = 39,240 Pa = 39.24 kPa

Final Answer:

Pressure difference = 39.24 kPa

 74

Problem 13

A tank contains oil with a specific gravity of 0.80, gasoline specific gravity of 0.90 and sea water
specific gravity of 1.03. If the depths of the liquids are 0.5 m, 0.8 m and 1 m for oil, gasoline and
sea water respectively. Find the following:

Given:

Liquid Specific Gravity Depth

Oil 0.80 0.5 m

Gasoline 0.90 0.8 m

Sea water 1.03 1m

Required:

1. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.2 m.

2. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.8 m
3. Find the pressure at the bottom of the tank.

Solution:

1. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.2 m.

P = ρ gh
P = [9.81 × 0.8 × 0.5] + [9.81× 0.90 × 0.7]
P = 10.104 kN/m2

2. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.8 m

P = ρ gh
P = [9.81 × 0.8 × 0.5] + [9.81× 0.90 × 0.8] + [9.81 × 1.03 × 0.5]
P = 16.039 kN/m2
 75

3. Find the pressure at the bottom of the tank.

P = ρ gh
P = [9.81 × 0.8 × 0.5] + [9.81× 0.90 × 0.8] + [9.81 × 1.03 × 1]
P = 21.092 kN/m2
 76

Problem 14

The pressure on the closed tank reads 58.86 kPa.

Given:

Pressure = 58.86 kPa.

Required:

1. What is the equivalent height in water?

2. What is the equivalent height in terms of oil having a specific gravity of 0.85?
3. What is the equivalent height in terms of mercury having a specific gravity of 13.6?

Solution:

1. Height in water

P = γ wh
58.86 = (9.81) h
h = 6 m.

2. Height in oil

P = γ wh
58.86 = (9.81) (0.85) h
h = 7.06 m. of oil

3. Height in mercury

P = γ wh
58.86 = (9.81) (13.6) h
h = 0.441 m. of mercury
 77

Problem 15

How high will liquid rise in the piezometers of shown in the figure if the pressure at M is 68.95
kPa and the liquid is (a) water, (b) oil (sp gr 0.85), (c) mercury, (d) brine (sp gr 1.15)?

Given:

M = 68.95kPa

Specific gravity of oil = 0.85

Specific gravity of brine = 1.15

Required:

a.) level of water

b.) level of oil

c.) level of mercury

d.) level of brine

Solution:

p
h=
y

a.) Level of water

68.95
h=
9.81
h = 7.03m
 78

b.) Level of oil (sp = 0.85)

68.95
h=
0.85 (9.81)
h = 8.27m

c.) Level of mercury

68.95
h=
13.6 (9.81)
h = 0.5168m

d.) Level of brine (sp = 1.15)

68.95
h=
1.15 (9.81)
h = 6.11m

Final Answer:

hw = 7.03m

ho = 8.27m

hm = 0.5168m

hb = 6.11m
 79

Problem 16

A vertical tank is filled with water to a height of 6 m. Determine the hydrostatic pressure at the
bottom of the tank in kPa. Assume the density of water is 1000 kg/m³ and g = 9.81 m/s2

Given:

h = 6m (height of water)

ρ = 1000kg/m³ (density of water)

g = 9.81m/s² (gravitational acceleration)

Required:

Hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the tank, P (in kPa).

Solution:

P = ρgh

P = (1000) (9.81) (6)

P = 58,860Pa

58,860
P= = 58.86kPa
1000

Final Answer: 58.86 kPa

 80

Problem 17

A cylindrical tank 4 m high is filled with oil (specific gravity = 0.85). Calculate the pressure at a
depth of 3.5 m from the surface, and the total force exerted on a circular hatch (diameter 0.6 m)
located at that depth.

Given:

Specific gravity = 0.85

Depth (h) = 3.5 m
Diameter of hatch = 0.6 m
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Pressure at depth and total force on the hatch

Solution:

Density of oil, ρ = 0.85 × 1000 = 850 kg/m³

Pressure at depth, P = ρgh = 850 × 9.81 × 3.5 = 29,197.5 Pa
Area of hatch, A = πd²/4 = 3.1416 × (0.6)² / 4 = 0.2827 m²
Force, F = P × A = 29,197.5 × 0.2827 = 8,259 N

Answer: Pressure = 29.2 kPa; Force = 8.26 kN

 81

Problem 18

A dam retains water to a depth of 15 m. Determine the total hydrostatic force on a 10 m wide
section of the dam and the location of the center of pressure.

Given:

Water depth h = 15 m

Width = 10 m

g = 9.81 m/s²; ρ = 1000 kg/m³

Required:

Total hydrostatic force and center of pressure location

Solution:

Pressure varies linearly from 0 at the surface to ρgh at the bottom.

Average pressure = ½ × ρgh = 0.5 × 1000 × 9.81 × 15 = 73,575 Pa
Area = width × height = 10 × 15 = 150 m²
Total force = Average pressure × Area = 73,575 × 150 = 11,036,250 N = 11.04 MN
Center of pressure (h_cp) = 2h/3 = 10 m from surface.

Answer: Force = 11.04 MN; Center of pressure = 10 m from surface

 82

Problem 19

A U-tube manometer contains water on one side and oil (specific gravity 0.8) on the other. The
oil column is 0.45 m higher than the water column. Determine the pressure difference between
the two connected tanks, P A −PB , assuming both legs are open to the respective tanks at the same
elevation.

Given:

Difference in height, h=0.45 m

Specific gravity of oil, SG=0.8 → ρoil =0.8 ( 1000 )=800 kg /m3

Density of water, ρwater =1000 kg /m3

Gravity, g=9.81 m/ s2

Required:

Find the pressure difference, P A −PB

Solution:

Formula Used:

P A −PB =(ρ ¿ ¿ water− ρoil )gh ¿

P A −PB =(1000−800)(9.81)(0.45)

P A −PB =(200)(9.81)(0.45)

882.8 Pa
P A −PB =
1000

P A −PB =0.883 kPa

 83

Problem 20

A vertical cylindrical tank is filled with glycerin (density = 1260 kg/m³) to a height of 5 m.
Determine:

a. The pressure exerted by the glycerin at the bottom of the tank in pascals (Pa).
b. If an outlet pipe is connected at the base of the tank and opens to the atmosphere, calculate
the theoretical discharge velocity of glycerin from the opening using Torricelli’s theorem.
Given:

kg
Density, ρ=1260 2
m

Height, h=5 m

Required:

(a) Pressure at the bottom, P

(b) Discharge velocity, v

Solution:

Hydrostatic Pressure:

P= ρgh

P=(1260)(9.81)(5)

P=61, 803 Pa ≈61.8 kPa

Theoretical Velocity (Torricelli’s Theorem):

v=√ 2 gh

v=√ 2(9.81)(5)

v=√ 98.1

v=9.90 m/s
 84

Problem 21

A large dam holds water at a depth of 50 meters. The water density is 1000 kg/m³, and the
acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s². What is the hydrostatic pressure exerted on the dam wall
at this depth? (BASA, Casielyn. 2016)

Required: Hydrostatic pressure exerted at 50 meters depth.

Solution:
Using the formula for hydrostatic pressure:

P=ρgh

Where:

P is the hydrostatic pressure (in pascals, Pa).

ρ (rho) is the density of the fluid (in kg/m³).

g is the acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s² on Earth).

h is the height of the fluid column above the point where pressure is being measured (in
meters, m).

P = (1000kg/m3)(9.81m/s2 )(50m)

P = 490,500 Pa, or 490.5 kPa.

 85

Problem 22

A tall building's water tank has a height of 20 meters. The tank is full of water, and the density of
water is 1000 kg/m³. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of the tank. Assume gravity is 9.81
m/s². (BASA, Casielyn. 2016)

Required: Hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the tank.

Solution:
Using the hydrostatic pressure formula:

P=ρgh

Where:

P is the hydrostatic pressure (in pascals, Pa).

ρ (rho) is the density of the fluid (in kg/m³).

g is the acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s² on Earth).

h is the height of the fluid column above the point where pressure is being measured (in
meters, m).

P = (1000kg/m3)(9.81m/s2 )(20m)

P = 196,200 Pa, or 196.2 kPa

 86

Problem 23

Pressure at Depth in Water

Given: ρ = 1000 kg/m³, h = 3.0 m, g = 9.81 m/s², p₀ = 101,325 Pa.

Required:

Find (a) gauge pressure and (b) absolute pressure.

Solution:

𝑝_𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑔 ℎ = 1000 × 9.81 × 3.0 = 29,430 𝑃𝑎

𝑝_𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝₀ + 𝑝_𝑔 = 101,325 + 29,430 = 130,755 𝑃𝑎 ≈ 131 𝑘𝑃𝑎

 87

Problem 24

Oil Column in a Tank

Given: ρ = 850 kg/m³, h = 2.0 m, g = 9.81 m/s².

Required:

Find gauge pressure at the bottom.

Solution:

𝑝_𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑔 ℎ = 850 × 9.81 × 2.0 = 16,677 𝑃𝑎 ≈ 16.7 𝑘𝑃𝑎

 88

Problem 25

A closed, cylindrical storage tank is filled with honey, which has a specific gravity (SG) of 1.42.
The tank is 4.0 meters tall. Calculate the gauge pressure (in kPa) at the bottom of the tank due to
the honey column.

Given

 Specific Gravity of honey (SG): 1.42

 Depth of fluid (h): 4.0 m

 Density of water ( ρ water): 1,000 kg/m

 Gravitational acceleration (g): 9.81 m/s2

Required

Gauge pressure at the bottom (Pgauge) in kPa

Solution

1. Calculate the density of honey ( ρ honey)

ρ honey= SG x ρ water

ρ honey = 1.42 x 1000 kg/m3

ρ honey = 1420 kg/m3

2. Calculate the gauge pressure (Pgauge)

Pgauge = ρgh

Pgauge = (1420 kg/m3) (9.81m/s2) (4.0m)

Pgauge = 55711.2 N/m2

3. Convert pressure to kPa:

Pgauge = 55711.2 Pa x 1kPa/ 1000 Pa

Pgauge = 55.71
kPa
 89

Problem 26

A large vat contains cooking oil with a density of 920 kg/m3. A pressure gauge attached to the
side of the vat reads a pressure of 18.5 kPa. Assuming the gauge is measuring the pressure
relative to the atmosphere, what is the depth of the cooking oil above the point where the gauge
is attached?

Given

 Gauge pressure (Pgauge ): 18.5 kPa (18500 N/m2)

 Density of cooking oil ( ρ ): 920 kg/m3

 Gravitational acceleration (g): 9.81 m/s2

Required

Depth of the oil (h) in meters.

Solution

Pgauge = ρgh

h = Pgauge / ρg
2
18,500 N/m
h=
( 920
kg
m3 ) m
(9.81 )
s2
¿
¿

2
18,500 N/m
h=
9025.2
¿
¿
h=¿2.05m
h=¿2.05m
 90

Problem 27

A water storage tank has a height of 5.0 m. Calculate the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of
the tank. Assume the water density is 1000 kg/m³ and acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s².

Given:

Height of water column: h=5.0 m

Water density: ρ=1000 kg/m³

Gravity: g=9.81 m/s²

Required:

Hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the tank, P(Pa and kPa).

Solution:

P= ρgh

1. Substitute values:

P=1000 × 9.81× 5.0

2. Compute step by step:

9.81 ×5.0=49.05

1000 × 49.05=49050 Pa

3. Convert to kPa:

P=49.05 kPa
 91

Problem 28

A U-tube manometer contains mercury ( ρ=13,600 kg/m³ ) connected to a water pipe. The water
level difference in the manometer is 0.20 m. Calculate the pressure difference between the two
points in the water pipe. Assume water density ρw =1000 kg/m³ and g=9.81 m/s² .

Given:

Mercury density: ρm =13,600 kg/m³

Water density: ρw =1000 kg/m³

Height difference: h=0.20 m

Gravity: g=9.81 m/s²

Required:

Pressure difference, Δ P (Pa and kPa).

Solution:

For a U-tube manometer:

Δ P=( ρm−ρ w )gh

1. Compute density difference:

ρm −ρw =13,600−1000=12,600 kg/m³

2. Compute hydrostatic pressure difference:

Δ P=12,600 ×9.81 ×0.20

9.81 ×0.20=1.962

12,600 ×1.962=24,721.2 Pa

3. Convert to kPa:

Δ P ≈ 24.72 kPa
 92

Problem 29

A cylindrical tank contains olive oil (density = 920 kg/m³) up to a height of 3.5 m. Calculate the
pressure at the bottom of the tank and the theoretical velocity if a pipe at the bottom is opened to
the atmosphere.

Given:

ρ = 920 kg/m³

h = 3.5 m

g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:

1. Pressure at bottom (Pa)

2. Velocity of discharge (m/s)

Solution:

P=ρgh

= (920) (9.81) (3.5)

= 31,629 Pa

v = √ (2 g h)

= √ (2) (9.81) (3.5)

=8.28 m/s
 93

Problem 30

A water storage tank has a depth of 6 m. Determine the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom and
the force exerted on a 2 m² bottom surface.

Given:

ρ = 1000 kg/m³

h=6m

g = 9.81 m/s²

A = 2 m²

Required:

1. Pressure at bottom (Pa)

2. Force on bottom (N)

Solution:

P=ρgh

= 1000 × 9.81 × 6

= 58,860 Pa

F=P×A

= 58,860 × 2

= 117,720 N

Answer: P = 58,860 Pa

F = 117,720 N
 94

Problem 31

A storage tank contains coconut water with a density of 1010 kg/m³. If the liquid depth is 3.5 m,
determine the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the tank.

Given:
• ρ = 1010 kg/m³
• h = 3.5 m
• g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
1. Pressure at bottom (P)

Solution:
P=ρgh
P = 1010 × 9.81 × 3.5
P = 34,663.5 Pa

Answer:
34,663.5 Pa (34.66 kPa)
 95

Problem 32

A tank contains honey (density = 1420 kg/m³). If a pressure gauge is located 2 m below the
liquid surface, determine the gauge pressure.

Given:
• ρ = 1420 kg/m³
•h=2m
• g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Gauge pressure

Solution:
P=ρgh
P = 1420 × 9.81 × 2
P = 27,852 Pa

Answer:
27.85 kPa
 96

Problem 33

A rectangular aquaculture tank has a vertical side of height 1.2 m filled with water (density =
1000 kg/m³). Consider the pressure at the bottom center of the side.

Required:

Hydrostatic pressure at the bottom (Pa) and in kPa.

Solution:

Pressure, p = ρ g h

ρ = 1000 kg/m³, g

= 9.81 m/s², h

= 1.2 m

p = 1000 × 9.81 × 1.2

= 11,772 Pa

= 11.772 kPa

p = 11,772 Pa (≈ 11.77 kPa).

 97

Problem 34

A circular fish pond has depth 2.5 m. Compute the hydrostatic pressure at 2.5 m depth.

Required:

Pressure in kPa and as gauge pressure.

Solution:

p=ρgh

= 1000 × 9.81 × 2.5

= 24,525 Pa

= 24.525 kPa (gauge).

24.525 kPa gauge (≈ 24.53 kPa).

 98

Problem 35

A vertical tank contains a corn syrup with a density of 1400 kg/m³. If the syrup depth is 6.5 m,
calculate the pressure exerted at the bottom of the tank in Pascals (Pa).

Given:

Density of corn syrup (ρ): 1400 kg/m³

Depth of syrup (h): 6.5 m

Gravitational acceleration (g): 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Pressure at the bottom of the tank (P)

Solution:

P=ρgh

P = (1400 kg/m³) x (9.81 m/s²) x (6.5 m)

P = 89,289 Pa
 99

Problem 36

The pressure gauge at the bottom of a water storage tank (containing only water with a density of
1000 kg/m³) reads 45,000 Pa. What is the depth of the water in meters (m)?

Given:

Pressure at depth (P): 45,000 Pa

Density of water (ρ): 1000 kg/m³

Gravitational acceleration (g): 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Depth below fluid surface (h)

Solution:

h = P / (ρ g)

h = 45,000 Pa / ((1000 kg/m³) x (9.81 m/s²))

h ≈ 4.587 m
 100

Problem 37

A cylindrical milk storage tank is filled to a depth of 4 m with milk (density = 1020 kg·m⁻³).
What is the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom in kPa?

Given:

h=4m
kg
ρ=1,020 3
m
Required:

Hydrostatic pressure at the bottom in kPa

Solution:

P= ρgh

(
P= 1,020
kg
m
3 )(m
)
9.81 2 ( 4 m )
s
1 kPa
P=40,024.8 Pa x
1,000 Pa
P=40.02 kPa
 101

Problem 38

A rectangular inspection hatch on the side of a tomato-pulp tank is 1.20 m wide and 0.80 m high.
The top edge of the hatch is 1.50 m below the pulp surface. Tomato pulp density = 1050 kg·m⁻³.
Find (a) the resultant hydrostatic force on the hatch and (b) the depth of the center of pressure
measured from the free surface.

Given:

w = 1.20 m top edge (ytop) = 1.50 m

h = 0.80 m kg
ρ=1,050 3
m

Required:
Resultant hydrostatic force (F) and depth of the center of pressure (ycp)
Solution:

Pc =ρg y c h
y c = y top +
2

(
Pc = 1,050
kg
m
3)( m
s )
9.81 2 ( 1.90 m )=19,570.95 Pa=19.57 kPa
y c =1.50 m+
0.80 m
2
=1.90 m
2
A=1.20 m x 0.80 m=0.96 m 3 3
b h (1.20 m)( 0.80 m) 4
I c= = =0.0512 m
12 12
F=PA Ic 0.0512m
4
y cp = y c + =1.90 m+
yc A ( 1.90 m ) (0.96 m2 )
¿ ( 19.57 kPa ) ( 0.96 m2 )
y cp =1.92 m
F=18.79 kN
 102

Problem 39

A vertical open tank contains two immiscible fluids: a layer of oil (density ρ = 850 kg/m³) 1.50
m deep resting on a layer of water (density ρw = 1000 kg/m³) 2.00 m deep. The top of the oil is
open to the atmosphere (atmospheric pressure Patm = 101,325 Pa). A circular hatch of diameter
D = 0.40 m is located 1.00 m below the oil–water interface (i.e., 1.00 m into the water layer).

Given:

a) A1=0.02 m^2

b) A2=0.05 m^2

c) V1=2m/s

Required:

1. Gauge pressure at the oil–water interface.

2. Gauge and absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank.

3. Hydrostatic force on the circular hatch (use gauge pressure for force due to fluid).

Use g = 9.81 m/s².

Solution:

Pressure at the oil–water interface (gauge)

P(interface) = ρ × g × h

= 850 × 9.81 × 1.50 = 12,507.8 Pa ≈ 12.51 kPa

Pressure at the bottom of the tank

P(bottom, gauge) = ρ × g × h + ρw × g × hw

= 12,507.8 + (1000 × 9.81 × 2.00) = 32,127.8 Pa ≈ 32.13 kPa

P(bottom, absolute) = Patm + P(bottom, gauge)

= 101,325 + 32,127.8 = 133,452.8 Pa ≈ 133.45 kPa

 103

Pressure at the hatch (1.00 m below the interface)

P(hatch, gauge) = ρ × g × h + ρw × g (1.00)

= 12,507.8 + 9,810 = 22,317.8 Pa ≈ 22.32 kPa

Force on circular hatch

A = πD²/4 = π(0.40)²/4 = 0.12566 m²

F = P(hatch, gauge) × A = 22,317.8 × 0.12566 = 2,803.6 N

 104

Problem 40

A cylindrical tank is filled with water to a depth of 5 meters. The density of water is 1000 kg/m³,
and the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s².

Given:

a) ρ is the fluid density (1000 kg/m³),

b) g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²),
c) h is the depth below the surface (5 m).

Required:

Part A: Calculate the pressure at the bottom of the tank.

Part B: Calculate the total force exerted by the water on the bottom of the tank.

Part C : If a small hole is opened 2 meters below the water surface, calculate the velocity
of the water exiting the hole using Torricelli’s principle.

Solution:

Pressure at the bottom Velocity of water exiting a hole 2 m below

surface
P=ρgh
Use Torricelli’s law:
P=1000×9.8×5

=9.8×5=49 1000×49=49000 Pa

Force on the bottom

A=πr2=π(1)2=πm²≈3.1416m²

F=P×A=49000×3.1416≈153,986N≈1.54×1
0^5N
 105

Continuity Equation

Problem 1

A pipe has a discharge of 0.08 m3/s. The velocity at point 1 is 0.95 m/s at a diameter of 0.5 m.
What is the diameter at point 2 if the velocity is equal to 4 m/s. Also find the discharge if the
velocity was 4 m/s constantly at a constant diameter of 0.5 m all through out.

Given:

Discharge: Q = 0.08 m3/s

Point 1 D = 0.5 m V = 0.95 m/s

Point 2 D =? V = 4 m/s

Required:

Find the diameter at point 2.

Discharge if the velocity is 4 m/s at 0.5 m diameter all through out.

Solution 1:

Q1 = Q2

A1 V 1 = A2 V 2

2
πD
( ¿ (V ¿¿ 1)¿ = ¿
4
2 2
π 0.5 πD
( ¿(0.95) = ( )(4)
4 4

D = 0.24 m

Solution 2:

Q = AV
2
πD ( )
Q=( ¿V
4
2
π 0.5 ( )
Q=( ¿4
4
 106

Q = 0.78 m3/s
 107

Problem 2

The volumetric flow in a pipe was 2 m3/s. Find the velocities at point 1 and 2 if the diameter at
point 1 is 0.2 m and at point 2 is 0.6 m. Show first the solution of your area.

Given:

Discharge: Q = 2 m3/s

Point 1 D = 0.2 m V=?

Point 2 D = 0.6 m V=?

Required: Fluid velocities V 1and V 2in each section and also the area per point.

Solution:

1. Area:
2
Point 1: πD
A=( ¿
4
2
π 0.2
A=( ¿
4

A = 0.0314m2
2
Point 2: πD
A=( ¿
4
2
π 0.6
A=( ¿
4

A = 0.2827m2

2. Velocities:

Point 1: Q
V=
A

2
V=
0.0314

V = 63.69 m/s
 108

Point 2: Q
V=
A

2
V= = 7.07 m/s
0.2827
 109

Problem 3

Given:

Q = 0.020 m³/s, A₁ = 0.010 m², A₂ = 0.005 m².

Required:

Find velocities v₁ and v₂.

Solution:

𝑣₁ = 𝑄 / 𝐴₁ = 0.020 / 0.010 = 2.0 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣₂ = 𝑄 / 𝐴₂ = 0.020 / 0.005 = 4.0 𝑚/𝑠

Problem 4

Given:

Dₕ = 0.020 m, Dₙ = 0.010 m, vₙ = 6.0 m/s.

Required:

Find volumetric flow rate Q and hose velocity vₕ.

Solution:

𝐴ₙ = 𝜋 𝐷ₙ² / 4 = 𝜋 (0.010)² / 4 = 7.85 × 10⁻⁵ 𝑚²

𝑄 = 𝑣ₙ 𝐴ₙ = 6.0 × 7.85 × 10⁻⁵ = 4.71 × 10⁻⁴ 𝑚³/𝑠

𝐴ₕ = 𝜋 𝐷ₕ² / 4 = 3.14 × 10⁻⁴ 𝑚²

𝑣ₕ = 𝑄 / 𝐴ₕ = 4.71 × 10⁻⁴ / 3.14 × 10⁻⁴ = 1.50 𝑚/𝑠

 110

Problem 4

Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe that narrows from a diameter of 0.20 m to 0.10 m.
At the wider section, the velocity of water is 1.5 m/s. Assume incompressible flow and negligible
friction losses. Calculate the velocity of water in the narrower section and the volumetric flow
rate of the water.

Given:

D1=0.20 m , V 1=1.5 m/ s

D2=0.10 m

Flow is steady and incompressible.

Required:

Velocity in the narrower section, V 2

Volumetric flow rate, Q

Solution:

The continuity equation for incompressible flow:

A1 V 1= A2 V 2
2
πD
where A= .
4

Volumetric flow rate:

Q= AV

Compute cross-sectional areas

Section 1:
2
π D1 π (0.04 )
A 1= =π ¿ ¿0.202 =0.04 A1= =0.031416 m² ≈ 0.0314 m²
4 4

Section 2:
2
π D2 π (0.01)
A 2= =π ¿ ¿0.102 =0.01 A2= =0.007854 m ² ≈ 0.00785 m ²
4 4
 111

Apply continuity equation to find V 2

A1 V 1 0.031416 × 1.5
V 2= =
A2 0.007854

Multiply numerator: 0.031416 ×1.5=0.047124

Divide by 0.007854: 0.047124 /0.007854 ≈ 6.0 m/s

Compute volumetric flow rate

Q= A 1 V 1=0.031416 ×1.5 ≈ 0.0471 m³ /s

Velocity in narrow section: V 2 ≈ 6.0 m/s

Volumetric flow rate: Q ≈ 0.0471 m³ /s

 112

Problem 5

Air flows steadily through a horizontal pipe. At section 1, the air density is 1.2 kg/m³ and the
velocity is 10 m/s. At section 2, the density decreases to 0.8 kg/m³ due to heating, and the pipe
diameter remains constant. Using the continuity equation for compressible flow, determine the
velocity of air at section 2 and the mass flow rate in the pipe.

Given:

Pipe diameter: D=0.15 m(constant)

ρ1=1.2 kg /m ³, V 1=10 m/ s

ρ2=0.8 kg/m ³

Required:

1. Velocity at section 2 (V 2)

2. Mass flow rate (ṁ )

Solution:

Continuity equation for compressible flow (steady-state):

ρ1 V 1
ṁ=ρ 1 A V 1=ρ2 A V 2V 2= ( pipe diameter constant , areacancels)
ρ2

Mass flow rate:

ṁ=ρ 1 A V 1

Cross-sectional area:
2
πD
A= =π ¿ ¿
4

Compute velocity at section 2:

ρ1 V 1 1.2 ×10 12
V 2= = = =15 m/s
ρ2 0.8 0.8

Compute mass flow rate:

ṁ=ρ 1 A V 1=1.2 ×0.01767 × 10

 113

0.01767 × 10=0.1767

Multiply by 1.2: 0.1767 × 1.2≈ 0.212 kg /s

Velocity at section 2: V 2=15 m/ s

Mass flow rate: ṁ ≈ 0.212 kg/ s

 114

Problem 6

Water flows through a horizontal pipe that tapers from a diameter of 8 in. at section A to 5 in. at
section B. The velocity of water at section A is 12 ft/s. Determine:

a) The velocity of water at section B

b) The volume flow rate of water in the pipe

Given:

DA = 8in = 0.667ft

DB = 5in = 0.417ft

VA = 12ft/s

Required:

a.) velocity at section B, VB

b.) volume flow rate, Q

Solution:

Step 1: Compute cross-sectional areas

πD2
A=
4

π (0.667)2
AA = = 0.3496 ft2
4

π (0.417)2
 115

A= = 0.1366 ft2
4

Step 2: Apply the continuity equation

Q = AAVA = ABVB

AAVA 0.3496 (12)

VB = = = 30.7ft/s
AB 0.1366

Step 3: Compute volume flow rate

Q = AAVA = 0.3496 (12) ≈ 4.195ft³/s

Final Answer: VB = 30.7ft/s & Q =4.20ft3/s

 116

Problem 7

The diameters of a pipe at section 1-1 and 2-2 are 200 mm and 300 mm respectively. If the
velocity of the water flowing through the pipe at section 1-1 is 4m/s find:

a) Discharge through the pipe

b) Velocity of the water at section 2-2

Given:

A1 = 200mm

A2 = 300m

V1 = 4 m/s

Required:

a) Discharge through the pipe (Q

b.)Velocity of the water at section 2-2 (V2)

Solution:

1m
200mm x = 0.2m
1000mm

1m
300mm x = 0.3m
1000mm

Q1 = Q2
 117

A1V1 = A2V2

a.) Q1 = A1V1

Q1 = π/2 (0.2)2 (4 m/s)

Q1 = 0.1275 m3/s

b.) from Q1 =Q2

A1V1 = A2V2

Q1 = A2V2

Q1 0.1257 m3/s
V2 = = = 1.78 m/s
A2 π/4 (0.3)2

Final answer: a.) 0.1275 m3/s

b.) 1.78 m/s
 118

Problem 8

Water flows through a horizontal pipe that narrows from a diameter of 250 mm to 150 mm. If the
velocity in the larger section is 2.5 m/s, determine the velocity in the smaller section and the
volumetric flow rate.

Given: D₁ = 0.25 m

D₂ = 0.15 m

V₁ = 2.5 m/s

Required:

V₂ and Q

Solution:

By continuity: A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ → V₂ = (A₁/A₂)V₁ = (D₁²/D₂²)V₁

V₂ = (0.25² / 0.15²) × 2.5 = (0.0625 / 0.0225) × 2.5 = 6.94 m/s
Flow rate Q = A₁V₁ = (π × 0.25² / 4) × 2.5 = 0.1227 m³/s

Answer: V₂ = 6.94 m/s; Q = 0.1227 m³/s

 119

Problem 9

In a branching pipe system, 0.08 m³/s of water enters a junction through a 0.3 m diameter pipe
and divides into two branches of diameters 0.2 m and 0.15 m. If the velocity in the 0.15 m pipe is
3 m/s, find the velocity in the 0.2 m pipe.

Given: Qtotal = 0.08 m³/s

D₁ = 0.3 m

D₂ = 0.2 m

D₃ = 0.15 m

V₃ = 3 m/s

Required:

Velocity in 0.2 m pipe (V₂)

Solution:

Q₃ = A₃V₃ = (π × 0.15² / 4) × 3 = 0.0530 m³/s

Q₂ =Qtotal - Q₃ = 0.08 - 0.0530 = 0.027 m³/s
A₂ = π × 0.2² / 4 = 0.0314 m²
V₂ = Q₂ / A₂ = 0.027 / 0.0314 = 0.86 m/s

Answer: V₂ = 0.86 m/s

 120

Problem 10

Water flows through a horizontal pipe that narrows from a diameter of 0.3 m to 0.15 m. If the
velocity in the larger section is 2 m/s, find the velocity in the smaller section.

Given:

D₁ = 0.3 m, D₂ = 0.15 m

V₁ = 2 m/s

Required:

Velocity in smaller section, V₂

Solution:

A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ → (π/4)D₁²V₁ = (π/4)D₂²V₂

V₂ = V₁(D₁/D₂)² = 2(0.3/0.15)² = 8 m/s

Final Answer:

Velocity in smaller section = 8 m/s

 121

Problem 11

Water flows in a pipe with a diameter of 0.25 m at a velocity of 3 m/s. Find the volumetric flow
rate.

Given:

D = 0.25 m

V = 3 m/s

Required:

Volumetric flow rate, Q

Solution:

Q=A×V

Q = (π/4) (0.25)² (3)

Q = 0.147 m³/s

Final Answer:

Volumetric flow rate = 0.147 m³/s

 122

Problem 12

Water flows through a pipe with a diameter of 0.3 meters at a velocity of 4 m/s. The pipe
narrows to a diameter of 0.1 meters. What is the velocity of water in the narrower section of the
pipe, assuming the flow rate is conserved? (JONES, Mark. 2018)

Required: Velocity at the narrower section.

Solution:
Using the continuity equation:

A1v1 = A2v2

Where:

A1and A2are the cross-sectional areas of two different points in the pipe or channel (in square
meters, m²).

v 1and v 2are the velocities of the fluid at those two points (in meters per second, m/s)

2
π ( 0.3 m)
A ₁= =¿ 0.0707 m²
4

2
π ( 0.1m )
A ₂= =¿ 0.00785 m².
4

A1v1 = A2v2

(0.0707 m²)(4 m/s) = (0.00785 m²)(v₂)

v₂ = 35.1 m/s
 123

Problem 13

Water flows through a channel with a velocity of 2 m/s and a width of 12 meters. The channel
narrows to a width of 6 meters. Assume the flow rate is conserved. What will be the new velocity
of the water in the narrower section? (JONES, Mark. 2018)

Required: New velocity in the narrower section.

Solution:
Using the continuity equation

A1v1 = A2v2

Where:

A1and A2are the cross-sectional areas of two different points in the pipe or channel (in square
meters, m²).

v 1and v 2are the velocities of the fluid at those two points (in meters per second, m/s)

A1v1 = A2v2

(12 m )(2 m/s) = (6 m)( v₂)

v₂ = 4 m/s
 124

Problem 14

Water flows through a pipeline that reduces in diameter from 0.12 m to 0.08 m. If the velocity at
the larger section is 1.6 m/s, determine the velocity at the smaller section.

Given:
D₁ = 0.12 m, D₂ = 0.08 m, V₁ = 1.6 m/s

Required:
Velocity at smaller section (V₂)

Solution:
Using continuity equation, A₁V₁ = A₂V₂
(πD₁²/4)V₁ = (πD₂²/4)V₂
V₂ = V₁(D₁/D₂)² = 1.6 × (0.12/0.08)² = 3.6 m/s
 125

Problem 15

Flows through a section of xylem with a diameter of 2 mm at 0.5 m/s. If the xylem branches into
two equal vessels, find the velocity of sap in each branch (diameter = 1.4 mm each).

Given:
D₁ = 2 mm, D₂ = 1.4 mm, V₁ = 0.5 m/s

Required:
Velocity in each branch (V₂)

Solution:
A₁V₁ = 2A₂V₂ → V₂ = (A₁V₁)/(2A₂)
A₁/A₂ = (D₁/D₂)² = (2/1.4)² = 2.04
V₂ = (2.04 × 0.5)/2 = 0.51 m/s
 126

Problem 16

Problem: Water flows through a pipe with diameter 0.10 m at a velocity of 2.5 m/s. The pipe
narrows to a diameter of 0.06 m. Determine the velocity in the smaller section.

Given:
• D1 = 0.10 m
• D2 = 0.06 m
• v1 = 2.5 m/s

Required:
v2

Solution:
A1= π(D1/2)² = π(0.05²) = 0.00785 m²
A2 = π(0.03²) = 0.00283 m²
A1v1= A2v2
v2 = (A1/A2)v1
v2 = (0.00785 / 0.00283) × 2.5
v2≈ 6.94 m/s

Answer:
6.94 m/s
 127

Problem 17

Milk flows at 0.02 m³/s through a pipe of diameter 0.08 m. Find the velocity of flow.
Given:

• Q = 0.02 m³/s
• D = 0.08 m

Required:
v

Solution:
A = π(D/2)² = π(0.04²) = 0.00503 m²
v = Q/A = 0.02 / 0.00503
v =3.98 m/s

Answer:
3.98 m/s
 128

Problem 18

Water flows through a pipe reducing in diameter from 0.4 m to 0.2 m. If the velocity in the larger
section is 1.5 m/s, calculate the velocity in the smaller section.

Given:

D1 = 0.4 m

D2 = 0.2 m

V1 = 1.5 m/s

Required:

1. Velocity 2 (m/s)

Solution:

A1 v1 = A2 v2

V2 = (A1/A2) v1

A1 = π (0.2) ²

= 0.1257 m²

A2 = π (0.1) ²

= 0.0314 m²

v2 = (0.1257/0.0314) 1.5

= 6.0 m/s

Answer: Velocity 2 = 6.0 m/s

 129

Problem 19

A milk flow in a pipe expands from 0.05 m² to 0.08 m². If the density is 1030 kg/m³ and velocity
in the smaller section is 2.2 m/s, determine the velocity in the larger section.

Given:

A1 = 0.05 m²

A2 = 0.08 m²

V1 = 2.2 m/s

ρ = 1030 kg/m³

Required:

1. Velocity 2 (m/s)

Solution:

v2 = (A1/A2) v1

= (0.05/0.08) 2.2

V2 = 1.375 m/s

Answer: Velocity 2 = 1.375 m/s

 130

Problem 20

Water flows steadily in a horizontal pipe. At section 1 the pipe diameter is D₁ = 0.15 m and
velocity V₁ = 2.0 m/s. The pipe expands to diameter D₂ = 0.30 m at section 2. Determine the
velocity at section 2 and the mass flow rate.

Given:
ρ = 1000 kg/m³
D₁ = 0.15 m, V₁ = 2.0 m/s
D₂ = 0.30 m

Required:

1. V₂ (m/s)

2. ṁ (kg/s)

Solution:
Area A = πD²/4.
A₁ = π(0.15)²/4 = π × 0.0225 / 4 = π × 0.005625 = 0.01767 m² (approx).
A₂ = π(0.30)²/4 = π × 0.09 / 4 = π × 0.0225 = 0.07069 m² (approx).

Continuity (incompressible): A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ → V₂ = (A₁/A₂) V₁ = (0.01767 / 0.07069) × 2.0 =

0.25 × 2.0 = 0.50 m/s.

Mass flow rate: ṁ = ρ A₁ V₁ = 1000 × 0.01767 × 2.0 = 35.34 kg/s.

Final Answer:
V₂ = 0.50 m/s
ṁ = 35.34 kg/s
 131

Problem 21

A pump supplies water at a volumetric flow rate Q = 0.18 m³/s into a junction that splits into two
pipes A and B. Pipe A has diameter DA = 0.15 m and pipe B has diameter DB = 0.10 m.
Determine the velocities VA and VB, and the mass flow rates ṁA and ṁB.

Given:
Q = 0.18 m³/s
DA = 0.15 m → AA = πDA²/4
DB = 0.10 m → AB = πDB²/4
ρ = 1000 kg/m³

Required:
VA, VB (m/s) and ṁA, ṁB (kg/s)

Solution:
Areas: AA = π(0.15)²/4 = 0.01767 m² (as earlier).
AB = π(0.10)²/4 = π × 0.01 / 4 = 0.00785 m² (approx).

Velocities from Qi = Ai Vi, and Q = QA + QB. Assume full split such that each outlet carries part
of Q determined by cross-sectional area fraction only if flow distribution unspecified; however
here continuity requires QA + QB = Q. Without extra info, compute velocities if pumps
proportion flow by area fraction:

Area fraction: fA = AA / (AA + AB) = 0.01767 / (0.01767 + 0.00785) = 0.01767 / 0.02552 = 0.692.
So QA = fA Q = 0.692 × 0.18 = 0.1246 m³/s.
QB = Q − QA = 0.18 − 0.1246 = 0.0554 m³/s.

Then velocities: VA = QA / AA = 0.1246 / 0.01767 = 7.05 m/s.

VB = QB / AB = 0.0554 / 0.00785 = 7.06 m/s (close, rounding).

Mass flow rates: ṁA = ρ QA = 1000 × 0.1246 = 124.6 kg/s.

ṁB = ρ QB = 1000 × 0.0554 = 55.4 kg/s.

Check: ṁA + ṁB = 180.0 kg/s = ρ Q → OK.

 132

Final Answer:
VA ≈ 7.05 m/s, ṁA ≈ 124.6 kg/s
VB ≈ 7.06 m/s, ṁB ≈ 55.4 kg/s
 133

Problem 22

Pipe flow reduces from diameter 0.25 m to 0.12 m, with side withdrawal of 0.004 m³/s taken
from the smaller section. If the larger-pipe velocity is 1.2 m/s, determine flow in the smaller
section after withdrawal and its velocity.

Given: (White, 2016)

D1 = 0.25 m
v1 = 1.20 m/s
D2 = 0.12 m
Qwithdraw = 0.004 m³/s
Required:
Determine flow in the smaller section after withdrawal and its velocity.
Solution:
Q1 = A1·v1
(0.25)²
=π x 1.20
4
Q1 = 0.0589 m³/s

Q2after = Q1 − Qwithdraw
= 0.0589 − 0.004
Q2after = 0.0549 m³/s

(0.12)²
A2 = π
4
= 0.01131 m² v2

Q2 after 0.0549
=
A2 0.01131

= 4.85 m/s

Problem 23
 134

Two streams join in a T-junction: stream 1 (D=0.06 m) at v=0.8 m/s, stream 2 provides Q=0.002
m³/s through an inlet whose area equals half the area of stream 1. Find combined velocity in the
downstream pipe (same diameter as stream 1).

Given:

Stream1:
D = 0.06 m
v1 = 0.80 m/s
Stream2:
Q2 = 0.002 m³/s
areainlet = 0.5·A1
Required:
Find combined velocity in the downstream pipe
Solution:
(0.06)²
A1 = π
4
A1 = 0.002 m² → Q1
A1·v1 = 2.827e-3 × 0.8

A1·v1 = 0.002262 m³/s.

Qtotal = Q1 + Q2

= 0.002262 + 0.002

Qtotal = 0.004262 m³/s.

Qtotal
vdownstream =
A1

0.004262
vdownstream =
2.827 e−3

vdownstream = 1.51 m/s

 135

Problem 24

A fruit-processing line transports fresh pineapple juice through a stainless-steel pipeline. At the
inlet section, the pipe diameter is 15 cm and the average flow velocity is 1.2 m/s. The pipe later
narrows to 8 cm in diameter before entering the extraction tank. Assuming pineapple juice
behaves as an incompressible fluid, determine the velocity of flow at the narrower section.

Given:

Inlet diameter: D1=15 cm=0.15 m

Outlet diameter: D2=8 cm=0.08 m

Inlet velocity: V 1=1.2 m/s

Required:

1. Outlet velocity V 2
Solution: A1 V 1= A2 V 2

2 2
π D1 π D2
A 1= =π ¿ ¿ A2= =π ¿ ¿
4 4

Solve for V 2:

A1
V 2= V
A2 1

0.0177
V 2= (1.2)
0.0053

V 2=4.24 m/s
 136

Problem 25

A rice‐processing facility pumps rice bran oil through a horizontal pipe. The pipe diameter
decreases from 12 cm to 6 cm. The velocity of oil at the smaller section is measured to be 3.0
m/s. Assuming the oil behaves as an incompressible fluid, determine the volumetric flow rate of
rice bran oil in the pipeline.

Given:

 Diameter at section 1: D1=12 cm=0.12 m

 Diameter at section 2: D2=6 cm=0.06 m

 Velocity at section 2: V 2=3.0 m/ s

Required:

1. Volumetric flow rate Q

Solution:

A1 V 1= A2 V 2=Q
2
π D2
A 2=
4

A2=π ¿ ¿
2
A2=0.002827 m

Q= A 2 × V 2

2 3.0 m
Q=0.002827 m ×
s
3
m
Q=0.00848 ∨8.48 L/s
s
 137

Problem 26

A processing line fills bottles using a pipe that narrows. Upstream the pipe has cross-
sectional area A1 = 2.0 × 10−4 m2 and the liquid (water, treated as incompressible)
flows at an average velocity v1 = 0.50 m/s. The downstream section has area A2 =5.0 ×
10−5 m2.

Given: Required:

A1 = 2.0×10−4 m2 v2, Q

v1 = 0.50 m/s

A2 = 5.0×10−5 m2

Solution:

A1
v 2=v 1
A2
−4
2.0 × 10
v 2=(0.50) −5
5.0× 10

v 2=¿ 2 m/s

Q= A 1 v 1

Q=¿ ¿)(0.50) = 1.0×10−4 m3/s.

 138

Problem 27

A blender mixes two liquid ingredients in a steady process. Stream A (syrup) flows at
QA = 0.020 m3/min with density ρA = 1370 kg/m3. Stream B (water) flows at Q B =
0.080 m3/min with density ρB = 1000 kg/m3. The mixed product leaves at volumetric
flow QP and density ρP. Assuming steady operation and no accumulation.

Given: Required:

QA=0.020 m3/min, ρA=1370 kg/m3 QP, ρP

QB=0.080 m3/min, ρB=1000 kg/m3

Solution:

QP = QA + QB = 0.020 + 0.080 = 0.100 m3/min.

mP = mA + mB ⇒ ρPQP = ρAQA + ρBQB

ρ A Q A + ρB Q B
ρ P=
QP

(1370)(0.20)+(1000)(0.80)
ρ P=
0.100
3
ρ P=1074 kg/m
 139

Problem 28

A steady flow occurs through a horizontal water pipe that narrows from a diameter of 8 in. at
section 1 to 4 in. at section [Link] fluid density is constant at 62.4 lbm/ft³, and the flow velocity in
the 8 in. section is 6 ft/s. Determine the flow velocity in the 4 in. section.

Given:

Diameter at section 1, ¿ 8∈¿

Diameter at section 2, ¿ 4 ∈¿

Density of fluid, ¿ 62.4 lbm /ft ³

Velocity at 10 in. section, v 1=6 ft /s

Required:

Find the flow velocity in the 6 in. section, v 2.

Solution:

From the continuity equation (steady, incompressible flow):

ṁ1=ṁ2

ρ1 A 1 v 1=ρ2 A 2 v 2

Since ρ is constant

ρ1= ρ2:
 140

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2

Solving for v 2:

A1
v 2=v 1
A2

2
πD
A=
4
2
π D1
v 2=v 1 2
π D2

2
π (8)
v 2=(6)
π (4)2

v 2=22.22 ft / s
 141

Problem 29

Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe. The discharge at one section is 0.12 m³/s.
At point 1, the velocity is 1.2 m/s, and the pipe diameter is 0.45 m.

Given:

Discharge: Q = 0.12 m3
/s

Point 1 D = 0.45 m V = 1.2

m/s

Point 2 D =? V = 3.8
m/s

Required:

1. Find the diameter at point

2. Discharge if the velocity is 4 m/s at 0.5 m diameter all through out.

Solution 1:

Q1 = Q2

A1 V 1 = A2 V 2

2
πD
( ¿ (V ¿¿ 1)¿ = ¿
4

2 2
π 0.45 πD
( ¿(1.2) = ( )(3.8)
4 4
 142

D = 0.253 m

Solution 2:

Q = AV

2
πD ( )
Q=( ¿V
4

2
π 0.45
Q=( ¿ ( 3.8 )
4

Q = 0.604 m3/s
 143

Problem 30

A pump supplies water to a filter at flow rate Q = 0.9 m³/hr. The inlet pipe has diameter D 1 = 25
mm and outlet pipe diameter D2= 40 mm. Assume incompressible steady flow.

Required: Velocity in the inlet pipe (m/s) and outlet pipe (m/s).

Solution:

Convert Q to m³/s: Q = 0.9 m³/hr × (1/3600)

= 0.00025 m³/s

Area A = π D² /4. D1 = 0.025 m → A1

= π (0.025)²/4

= 4.9087e-4 m²

Velocity v1 = Q/A1

= 0.00025 / 4.9087e-4

= 0.5096 m/s

D2 = 0.040 m → A2

= π (0.040)²/4

= 1.2566e-3 m²

v2 = Q/A2 = 0.00025 / 1.2566e-3 = 0.1990 m/s

v1 ≈ 0.510 m/s; v2 ≈ 0.199 m/s.

 144

Problem 31

A pipe feeding a tank reduces diameter from 50 mm to 30 mm. Flow velocity in larger pipe v1 =
0.4 m/s.

Required: Velocity in smaller pipe v2 (m/s).

Solution:

Continuity: A1 v1 = A2 v2 → v2

= v1 (A1/A2)

= v1 (D1² / D2 ²)

D1 = 0.050 m, D2 = 0.030 m → ratio

= (0.050/0.030)²

= (1.6667)²

= 2.7778

v2 = 0.4 × 2.7778 = 1.1111 m/s

v2 ≈ 1.11 m/s.
 145

Problem 32

Milk (density is essentially constant) flows through a pipe that converges from a diameter of 0.15
m (Section 1) to 0.05 m (Section 2). If the flow velocity in the larger section is 0.8 m/s, what is
the flow velocity in the smaller section?

Given:

Diameter 1 (D₁): 0.15 m

Diameter 2 (D₂): 0.05 m

Flow velocity 1 (v₁): 0.8 m/s

Fluid density (ρ) is constant (ρ₁ = ρ₂)

Required:

Flow velocity 2 (v₂)

Solution:

v₂ = v₁ (D₁/D₂)²

v₂ = (0.8 m/s) x (0.15 m / 0.05 m)²

v₂ = (0.8 m/s) x (3)²

v₂ = 7.2 m/s
 146

Problem 33

A non-compressible liquid with a density of 1050 kg/m³ flows into a processing unit through an
inlet pipe with a 0.1 m² cross-sectional area and a velocity of 2 m/s. The liquid exits through an
outlet pipe with an area of 0.05 m² and a velocity of 4.1 m/s. Determine the mass flow rate (ṁ)
into the unit and out of the unit. Does this system satisfy the principle of conservation of mass
for steady-state flow?

Given:

Density (ρ): 1050 kg/m³

Inlet Area (A₁): 0.1 m²

Inlet Velocity (v₁): 2 m/s

Outlet Area (A₂): 0.05 m²

Outlet Velocity (v₂): 4.1 m/s

Required:

Mass flow rate in (ṁ₁) and out (ṁ₂)

Assessment of conservation of mass

Solution:

Inlet Mass Flow Rate (ṁ₁): ṁ₁ = ρ A₁ v₁

ṁ₁ = (1050 kg/m³) x (0.1 m²) x (2 m/s)

ṁ₁ = 210 kg/s

Outlet Mass Flow Rate (ṁ₂): ṁ₂ = ρ A₂ v₂

ṁ₂ = (1050 kg/m³) x (0.05 m²) x (4.1 m/s)

ṁ₂ = 215.25 kg/s
 147

Problem 34

Water (incompressible) flows in a horizontal pipe from diameter 150 mm (section 1) to diameter
90 mm (section 2). At section 1 velocity is 2 m/s. Between sections there is a small leak that
discharges 0.0009 m³/s. Find the velocity at section 2. (Use continuity with the leak.)

Given: Required:

D1=150 mm Velocity ate section 2

m
v 1=2
s

D2=90 mm
3
m
Qleak =0.0009
s
3 3
Solution: m m
Q 2=0.035 −0.0009
s s
Q1=Q2 +Qleak
3
m
A1 v 1= A 2 v 2+Qleak Q2=0.0341
s
2
πD π D2 π (0.09 m)
2
Q 1= A 1 v1 = v1 A 2= = =¿
4 4 4
2
π ( 0.150 m ) m A2=0.006 m
2
¿ (2 )
4 s
Q2 A 2 v 2
m
3 =
Q1=0.035 A2 A2
s
3
m
Q1=Q2 +Qleak 0.0341
Q2 s
v 2= =
Q2=Q1−Qleak A 2 0.006 m2

m
v 2=5.68
s
 148

Problem 35

Water flows through a pipe that narrows from a larger diameter to a smaller one. The pipe has a
diameter of 15 cm at the first section, and the water flows at a velocity of 2 m/s. If the pipe
narrows to a diameter of 10 cm at the second section, what is the velocity of the water at this
point?

Given:

D1=15 cm

m
v 1=2
s

D2=10 cm

Solution: A1 v 1 ¿ A 2 v 2

A1 v 1 ¿ A 2 v 2

A 1 v1
v 2=
2
A2
2
π D π (0.15 m)
A 1= =
4 4

2 m
0.018 m (2 )
s
2 v 2=
A1=0.018 m 0.008 m
2

2 2
π D π (0.10) m
A 2= = v 2=4.5
4 4 s

2
A2=0.008 m
149
 150

Problem 36

Water flows through a horizontal pipe system. At point 1, the pipe has a diameter of 10 cm, and
the water velocity is 2.5 m/s. If the pipe narrows down to a diameter of 5 cm at point 2, calculate
the velocity of the water at point 2.

Given

 Diameter at point 1 (D1): 10 cm (0.10m)

 Velocity at point 1 (V1): 2.5 m/s

 Diameter at point 2 (D2): 5cm (0.05m)

Required

 Velocity at point 2 (V2).

Solution

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2
2 2
π D1 π D2
v 1= v
4 4 2
2 2
D1 v 1=D2 v 2
2
D1
v 2=v 1 2
D2

( 0.10 m)
v 2=2.5 m/s
(0.05 m)

0.01
v 2=2.5 m/s
0.0025

v 2=2.5 m/s (4)

hhv =¿10 m/s

2
 151

Problem 37

Olive oil (density ρ =918 kg/m3) is being pumped through a line at a mass flow rate of 12 kg/s.
The pipe has an internal diameter of 8 cm. Calculate the average volumetric flow rate and the
average velocity of the oil in the pipe.

Given

 Mass flow rate ( ṁ ): 12 kg/s

 Density ( ρ ): 918 kg/m3

 Diameter (D): 8cm (0.08m)

Required

 Volumetric flow rate (V̇ ).

 Average velocity (v).

Solution

ṁ
V̇ =
ρ

12 kg /s
V̇ = 3
918 kg /m

V̇ =0.01307 m3/s
2
πD
A=
4

A=π ¿ ¿

A=0.005027 m ²

V̇
v=
A
 152

3
0.01307 m / s
v= 2
0.0050265 m

v ≈ 2.60 m/s
 153

Problem 38

A steady-state flow occurs in a horizontal pipe that reduces from a diameter of 10 in. to 6 in. The
density of the fluid remains constant at 62.4 lbm/ft³. If the flow velocity in the 10 in. section is 8
ft/s, determine the velocity in the 6 in. section.

Given:

Diameter at section 1, ¿ 10∈¿

Diameter at section 2, ¿ 6∈¿

Density of fluid, ¿ 62.4 lbm /ft ³

Velocity at 10 in. section, v 1=8 ft / s

Required:

Find the flow velocity in the 6 in. section, v 2.

Solution:

From the continuity equation,

the mass flow rate must be the same at both sections:

ṁ1=ṁ2

ρ1 A 1 v 1=ρ2 A 2 v 2

Since the fluid is incompressible, ρ1= ρ2:

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2
 154

Solving for v 2:

A1
v 2=v 1
A2

2
πD
A=
4
2
π D1
v 2=v 1 2
π D2

v 2=(8 ft /s )π ¿ ¿ ¿

v 2=22.22 ft / s
 155

Problem 39

Air flows through a horizontal duct that expands gradually from a diameter of 4 in to 6 in. The
velocity of air in the 4-in section is 28 m/s. Assuming steady, incompressible flow, determine:
(a) The velocity in the 6-in section, and (b) The ratio of flow areas between the two sections.

Given:

Diameter at section 1, D1=4∈¿

Diameter at section 2, D2=6 ∈¿

Velocity at 4 in. section, v 1=28 m/s

Required:

A1
Find the flow velocity in the 6 in. section, v 2 and
A2

Solution:

From the continuity equation:

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2

A1
v 2=v 1
A2

( )
2
A 1 D1
=
A 2 D2

A1
=¿ ¿
A2
 156

A1
=0.444
A2

For v 2,

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2

Solving for v 2:

A1
v 2=v 1
A2

v 2=28(0.444 )

v 2=12.43 m/s
 157

Continuity Equation

Problem 1

A pipe has a discharge of 0.08 m3/s. The velocity at point 1 is 0.95 m/s at a diameter of 0.5 m.
What is the diameter at point 2 if the velocity is equal to 4 m/s. Also find the discharge if the
velocity was 4 m/s constantly at a constant diameter of 0.5 m all through out.

Given:

Discharge: Q = 0.08 m3/s

Point 1 D = 0.5 m V = 0.95 m/s

Point 2 D =? V = 4 m/s

Required:

Find the diameter at point 2.

Discharge if the velocity is 4 m/s at 0.5 m diameter all through out.

Solution 1:

Q1 = Q2

A1 V 1 = A2 V 2

2
πD
( ¿ (V ¿¿ 1)¿ = ¿
4
2 2
π 0.5 πD
( ¿(0.95) = ( )(4)
4 4

D = 0.24 m

Solution 2:

Q = AV
2
πD ( )
Q=( ¿V
4
2
π 0.5 ( )
Q=( ¿4
4
 158

Q = 0.78 m3/s
 159

Problem 2

The volumetric flow in a pipe was 2 m3/s. Find the velocities at point 1 and 2 if the diameter at
point 1 is 0.2 m and at point 2 is 0.6 m. Show first the solution of your area.

Given:

Discharge: Q = 2 m3/s

Point 1 D = 0.2 m V=?

Point 2 D = 0.6 m V=?

Required: Fluid velocities V 1and V 2in each section and also the area per point.

Solution:

3. Area:
2
Point 1: πD
A=( ¿
4
2
π 0.2
A=( ¿
4

A = 0.0314m2
2
Point 2: πD
A=( ¿
4
2
π 0.6
A=( ¿
4

A = 0.2827m2

4. Velocities:

Point 1: Q
V=
A

2
V=
0.0314

V = 63.69 m/s
 160

Point 2: Q
V=
A

2
V= = 7.07 m/s
0.2827
 161

Problem 3

Given:

Q = 0.020 m³/s, A₁ = 0.010 m², A₂ = 0.005 m².

Required:

Find velocities v₁ and v₂.

Solution:

𝑣₁ = 𝑄 / 𝐴₁ = 0.020 / 0.010 = 2.0 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣₂ = 𝑄 / 𝐴₂ = 0.020 / 0.005 = 4.0 𝑚/𝑠

Problem 4

Given:

Dₕ = 0.020 m, Dₙ = 0.010 m, vₙ = 6.0 m/s.

Required:

Find volumetric flow rate Q and hose velocity vₕ.

Solution:

𝐴ₙ = 𝜋 𝐷ₙ² / 4 = 𝜋 (0.010)² / 4 = 7.85 × 10⁻⁵ 𝑚²

𝑄 = 𝑣ₙ 𝐴ₙ = 6.0 × 7.85 × 10⁻⁵ = 4.71 × 10⁻⁴ 𝑚³/𝑠

𝐴ₕ = 𝜋 𝐷ₕ² / 4 = 3.14 × 10⁻⁴ 𝑚²

𝑣ₕ = 𝑄 / 𝐴ₕ = 4.71 × 10⁻⁴ / 3.14 × 10⁻⁴ = 1.50 𝑚/𝑠

162
 163

Problem 5

Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe that narrows from a diameter of 0.20 m to 0.10 m.
At the wider section, the velocity of water is 1.5 m/s. Assume incompressible flow and negligible
friction losses. Calculate the velocity of water in the narrower section and the volumetric flow
rate of the water.

Given:

D1=0.20 m , V 1=1.5 m/ s

D2=0.10 m

Flow is steady and incompressible.

Required:

Velocity in the narrower section, V 2

Volumetric flow rate, Q

Solution:

The continuity equation for incompressible flow:

A1 V 1= A2 V 2
2
πD
where A= .
4

Volumetric flow rate:

Q= AV

Compute cross-sectional areas

Section 1:
2
π D1 π (0.04 )
A 1= =π ¿ ¿0.202 =0.04 A1= =0.031416 m² ≈ 0.0314 m²
4 4

Section 2:
2
π D2 π (0.01)
A 2= =π ¿ ¿0.102 =0.01 A2= =0.007854 m ² ≈ 0.00785 m ²
4 4
 164

Apply continuity equation to find V 2

A1 V 1 0.031416 × 1.5
V 2= =
A2 0.007854

Multiply numerator: 0.031416 ×1.5=0.047124

Divide by 0.007854: 0.047124 /0.007854 ≈ 6.0 m/s

Compute volumetric flow rate

Q= A 1 V 1=0.031416 ×1.5 ≈ 0.0471 m³ /s

Velocity in narrow section: V 2 ≈ 6.0 m/s

Volumetric flow rate: Q ≈ 0.0471 m³ /s

 165

Problem 6

Air flows steadily through a horizontal pipe. At section 1, the air density is 1.2 kg/m³ and the
velocity is 10 m/s. At section 2, the density decreases to 0.8 kg/m³ due to heating, and the pipe
diameter remains constant. Using the continuity equation for compressible flow, determine the
velocity of air at section 2 and the mass flow rate in the pipe.

Given:

Pipe diameter: D=0.15 m(constant)

ρ1=1.2 kg /m ³, V 1=10 m/ s

ρ2=0.8 kg/m ³

Required:

3. Velocity at section 2 (V 2)

4. Mass flow rate (ṁ )

Solution:

Continuity equation for compressible flow (steady-state):

ρ1 V 1
ṁ=ρ 1 A V 1=ρ2 A V 2V 2= ( pipe diameter constant , areacancels)
ρ2

Mass flow rate:

ṁ=ρ 1 A V 1

Cross-sectional area:
2
πD
A= =π ¿ ¿
4

Compute velocity at section 2:

ρ1 V 1 1.2 ×10 12
V 2= = = =15 m/s
ρ2 0.8 0.8

Compute mass flow rate:

ṁ=ρ 1 A V 1=1.2 ×0.01767 × 10

 166

0.01767 × 10=0.1767

Multiply by 1.2: 0.1767 × 1.2≈ 0.212 kg /s

Velocity at section 2: V 2=15 m/ s

Mass flow rate: ṁ ≈ 0.212 kg/ s

 167

Problem 7

Water flows through a horizontal pipe that tapers from a diameter of 8 in. at section A to 5 in. at
section B. The velocity of water at section A is 12 ft/s. Determine:

a) The velocity of water at section B

b) The volume flow rate of water in the pipe

Given:

DA = 8in = 0.667ft

DB = 5in = 0.417ft

VA = 12ft/s

Required:

a.) velocity at section B, VB

b.) volume flow rate, Q

Solution:

Step 1: Compute cross-sectional areas

πD2
A=
4

π (0.667)2
AA = = 0.3496 ft2
4
 168

π (0.417)2
A= = 0.1366 ft2
4

Step 2: Apply the continuity equation

Q = AAVA = ABVB

AAVA 0.3496 (12)

VB = = = 30.7ft/s
AB 0.1366

Step 3: Compute volume flow rate

Q = AAVA = 0.3496 (12) ≈ 4.195ft³/s

Final Answer: VB = 30.7ft/s & Q =4.20ft3/s

 169

Problem 8

The diameters of a pipe at section 1-1 and 2-2 are 200 mm and 300 mm respectively. If the
velocity of the water flowing through the pipe at section 1-1 is 4m/s find:

a) Discharge through the pipe

b) Velocity of the water at section 2-2

Given:

A1 = 200mm

A2 = 300m

V1 = 4 m/s

Required:

a) Discharge through the pipe (Q

b.)Velocity of the water at section 2-2 (V2)

Solution:

1m
200mm x = 0.2m
1000mm

1m
300mm x = 0.3m
1000mm
 170

Q1 = Q2

A1V1 = A2V2

a.) Q1 = A1V1

Q1 = π/2 (0.2)2 (4 m/s)

Q1 = 0.1275 m3/s

b.) from Q1 =Q2

A1V1 = A2V2

Q1 = A2V2

Q1 0.1257 m3/s
V2 = = = 1.78 m/s
A2 π/4 (0.3)2

Final answer: a.) 0.1275 m3/s

b.) 1.78 m/s
 171

Problem 9

Water flows through a horizontal pipe that narrows from a diameter of 250 mm to 150 mm. If the
velocity in the larger section is 2.5 m/s, determine the velocity in the smaller section and the
volumetric flow rate.

Given: D₁ = 0.25 m

D₂ = 0.15 m

V₁ = 2.5 m/s

Required:

V₂ and Q

Solution:

By continuity: A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ → V₂ = (A₁/A₂)V₁ = (D₁²/D₂²)V₁

V₂ = (0.25² / 0.15²) × 2.5 = (0.0625 / 0.0225) × 2.5 = 6.94 m/s
Flow rate Q = A₁V₁ = (π × 0.25² / 4) × 2.5 = 0.1227 m³/s

Answer: V₂ = 6.94 m/s; Q = 0.1227 m³/s

 172

Problem 10

In a branching pipe system, 0.08 m³/s of water enters a junction through a 0.3 m diameter pipe
and divides into two branches of diameters 0.2 m and 0.15 m. If the velocity in the 0.15 m pipe is
3 m/s, find the velocity in the 0.2 m pipe.

Given: Qtotal = 0.08 m³/s

D₁ = 0.3 m

D₂ = 0.2 m

D₃ = 0.15 m

V₃ = 3 m/s

Required:

Velocity in 0.2 m pipe (V₂)

Solution:

Q₃ = A₃V₃ = (π × 0.15² / 4) × 3 = 0.0530 m³/s

Q₂ =Qtotal - Q₃ = 0.08 - 0.0530 = 0.027 m³/s
A₂ = π × 0.2² / 4 = 0.0314 m²
V₂ = Q₂ / A₂ = 0.027 / 0.0314 = 0.86 m/s

Answer: V₂ = 0.86 m/s

 173

Problem 11

Water flows through a horizontal pipe that narrows from a diameter of 0.3 m to 0.15 m. If the
velocity in the larger section is 2 m/s, find the velocity in the smaller section.

Given:

D₁ = 0.3 m, D₂ = 0.15 m

V₁ = 2 m/s

Required:

Velocity in smaller section, V₂

Solution:

A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ → (π/4)D₁²V₁ = (π/4)D₂²V₂

V₂ = V₁(D₁/D₂)² = 2(0.3/0.15)² = 8 m/s

Final Answer:

Velocity in smaller section = 8 m/s

 174

Problem 12

Water flows in a pipe with a diameter of 0.25 m at a velocity of 3 m/s. Find the volumetric flow
rate.

Given:

D = 0.25 m

V = 3 m/s

Required:

Volumetric flow rate, Q

Solution:

Q=A×V

Q = (π/4) (0.25)² (3)

Q = 0.147 m³/s

Final Answer:

Volumetric flow rate = 0.147 m³/s

 175

Problem 13

Water flows through a pipe with a diameter of 0.3 meters at a velocity of 4 m/s. The pipe narrows
to a diameter of 0.1 meters. What is the velocity of water in the narrower section of the pipe,
assuming the flow rate is conserved? (JONES, Mark. 2018)

Required: Velocity at the narrower section.

Solution:
Using the continuity equation:

A1v1 = A2v2

Where:

A1and A2are the cross-sectional areas of two different points in the pipe or channel (in square
meters, m²).

v 1and v 2are the velocities of the fluid at those two points (in meters per second, m/s)

2
π ( 0.3 m)
A ₁= =¿ 0.0707 m²
4

2
π ( 0.1m )
A ₂= =¿ 0.00785 m².
4

A1v1 = A2v2

(0.0707 m²)(4 m/s) = (0.00785 m²)(v₂)

v₂ = 35.1 m/s
 176

Problem 14

Water flows through a channel with a velocity of 2 m/s and a width of 12 meters. The channel
narrows to a width of 6 meters. Assume the flow rate is conserved. What will be the new velocity
of the water in the narrower section? (JONES, Mark. 2018)

Required: New velocity in the narrower section.

Solution:
Using the continuity equation

A1v1 = A2v2

Where:

A1and A2are the cross-sectional areas of two different points in the pipe or channel (in square
meters, m²).

v 1and v 2are the velocities of the fluid at those two points (in meters per second, m/s)

A1v1 = A2v2

(12 m )(2 m/s) = (6 m)( v₂)

v₂ = 4 m/s
 177

Problem 15

Water flows through a pipeline that reduces in diameter from 0.12 m to 0.08 m. If the velocity at
the larger section is 1.6 m/s, determine the velocity at the smaller section.

Given:
D₁ = 0.12 m, D₂ = 0.08 m, V₁ = 1.6 m/s

Required:
Velocity at smaller section (V₂)

Solution:
Using continuity equation, A₁V₁ = A₂V₂
(πD₁²/4)V₁ = (πD₂²/4)V₂
V₂ = V₁(D₁/D₂)² = 1.6 × (0.12/0.08)² = 3.6 m/s
 178

Problem 16

Flows through a section of xylem with a diameter of 2 mm at 0.5 m/s. If the xylem branches into
two equal vessels, find the velocity of sap in each branch (diameter = 1.4 mm each).

Given:
D₁ = 2 mm, D₂ = 1.4 mm, V₁ = 0.5 m/s

Required:
Velocity in each branch (V₂)

Solution:
A₁V₁ = 2A₂V₂ → V₂ = (A₁V₁)/(2A₂)
A₁/A₂ = (D₁/D₂)² = (2/1.4)² = 2.04
V₂ = (2.04 × 0.5)/2 = 0.51 m/s
 179

Problem 17

Problem: Water flows through a pipe with diameter 0.10 m at a velocity of 2.5 m/s. The pipe
narrows to a diameter of 0.06 m. Determine the velocity in the smaller section.

Given:
• D1 = 0.10 m
• D2 = 0.06 m
• v1 = 2.5 m/s

Required:
v2

Solution:
A1= π(D1/2)² = π(0.05²) = 0.00785 m²
A2 = π(0.03²) = 0.00283 m²
A1v1= A2v2
v2 = (A1/A2)v1
v2 = (0.00785 / 0.00283) × 2.5
v2≈ 6.94 m/s

Answer:
6.94 m/s
 180

Problem 18

Milk flows at 0.02 m³/s through a pipe of diameter 0.08 m. Find the velocity of flow.
Given:

• Q = 0.02 m³/s
• D = 0.08 m

Required:
v

Solution:
A = π(D/2)² = π(0.04²) = 0.00503 m²
v = Q/A = 0.02 / 0.00503
v =3.98 m/s

Answer:
3.98 m/s
 181

Problem 19

Water flows through a pipe reducing in diameter from 0.4 m to 0.2 m. If the velocity in the larger
section is 1.5 m/s, calculate the velocity in the smaller section.

Given:

D1 = 0.4 m

D2 = 0.2 m

V1 = 1.5 m/s

Required:

2. Velocity 2 (m/s)

Solution:

A1 v1 = A2 v2

V2 = (A1/A2) v1

A1 = π (0.2) ²

= 0.1257 m²

A2 = π (0.1) ²

= 0.0314 m²

v2 = (0.1257/0.0314) 1.5

= 6.0 m/s

Answer: Velocity 2 = 6.0 m/s

 182

Problem 20

A milk flow in a pipe expands from 0.05 m² to 0.08 m². If the density is 1030 kg/m³ and velocity
in the smaller section is 2.2 m/s, determine the velocity in the larger section.

Given:

A1 = 0.05 m²

A2 = 0.08 m²

V1 = 2.2 m/s

ρ = 1030 kg/m³

Required:

2. Velocity 2 (m/s)

Solution:

v2 = (A1/A2) v1

= (0.05/0.08) 2.2

V2 = 1.375 m/s

Answer: Velocity 2 = 1.375 m/s

 183

Problem 21

Water flows steadily in a horizontal pipe. At section 1 the pipe diameter is D₁ = 0.15 m and
velocity V₁ = 2.0 m/s. The pipe expands to diameter D₂ = 0.30 m at section 2. Determine the
velocity at section 2 and the mass flow rate.

Given:
ρ = 1000 kg/m³
D₁ = 0.15 m, V₁ = 2.0 m/s
D₂ = 0.30 m

Required:

3. V₂ (m/s)

4. ṁ (kg/s)

Solution:
Area A = πD²/4.
A₁ = π(0.15)²/4 = π × 0.0225 / 4 = π × 0.005625 = 0.01767 m² (approx).
A₂ = π(0.30)²/4 = π × 0.09 / 4 = π × 0.0225 = 0.07069 m² (approx).

Continuity (incompressible): A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ → V₂ = (A₁/A₂) V₁ = (0.01767 / 0.07069) × 2.0 =

0.25 × 2.0 = 0.50 m/s.

Mass flow rate: ṁ = ρ A₁ V₁ = 1000 × 0.01767 × 2.0 = 35.34 kg/s.

Final Answer:
V₂ = 0.50 m/s
ṁ = 35.34 kg/s
 184

Problem 22

A pump supplies water at a volumetric flow rate Q = 0.18 m³/s into a junction that splits into two
pipes A and B. Pipe A has diameter DA = 0.15 m and pipe B has diameter DB = 0.10 m.
Determine the velocities VA and VB, and the mass flow rates ṁA and ṁB.

Given:
Q = 0.18 m³/s
DA = 0.15 m → AA = πDA²/4
DB = 0.10 m → AB = πDB²/4
ρ = 1000 kg/m³

Required:
VA, VB (m/s) and ṁA, ṁB (kg/s)

Solution:
Areas: AA = π(0.15)²/4 = 0.01767 m² (as earlier).
AB = π(0.10)²/4 = π × 0.01 / 4 = 0.00785 m² (approx).

Velocities from Qi = Ai Vi, and Q = QA + QB. Assume full split such that each outlet carries part
of Q determined by cross-sectional area fraction only if flow distribution unspecified; however
here continuity requires QA + QB = Q. Without extra info, compute velocities if pumps proportion
flow by area fraction:

Area fraction: fA = AA / (AA + AB) = 0.01767 / (0.01767 + 0.00785) = 0.01767 / 0.02552 = 0.692.
So QA = fA Q = 0.692 × 0.18 = 0.1246 m³/s.
QB = Q − QA = 0.18 − 0.1246 = 0.0554 m³/s.

Then velocities: VA = QA / AA = 0.1246 / 0.01767 = 7.05 m/s.

VB = QB / AB = 0.0554 / 0.00785 = 7.06 m/s (close, rounding).

Mass flow rates: ṁA = ρ QA = 1000 × 0.1246 = 124.6 kg/s.

ṁB = ρ QB = 1000 × 0.0554 = 55.4 kg/s.

Check: ṁA + ṁB = 180.0 kg/s = ρ Q → OK.

 185

Final Answer:
VA ≈ 7.05 m/s, ṁA ≈ 124.6 kg/s
VB ≈ 7.06 m/s, ṁB ≈ 55.4 kg/s
 186

Problem 23

Pipe flow reduces from diameter 0.25 m to 0.12 m, with side withdrawal of 0.004 m³/s taken
from the smaller section. If the larger-pipe velocity is 1.2 m/s, determine flow in the smaller
section after withdrawal and its velocity.

Given: (White, 2016)

D1 = 0.25 m
v1 = 1.20 m/s
D2 = 0.12 m
Qwithdraw = 0.004 m³/s
Required:
Determine flow in the smaller section after withdrawal and its velocity.
Solution:
Q1 = A1·v1
(0.25)²
=π x 1.20
4

Q1 = 0.0589 m³/s

Q2after = Q1 − Qwithdraw
= 0.0589 − 0.004

Q2after = 0.0549 m³/s

(0.12)²
A2 = π
4

= 0.01131 m² v2

Q2 after 0.0549
=
A2 0.01131

= 4.85 m/s

Problem 24
 187

Two streams join in a T-junction: stream 1 (D=0.06 m) at v=0.8 m/s, stream 2 provides Q=0.002
m³/s through an inlet whose area equals half the area of stream 1. Find combined velocity in the
downstream pipe (same diameter as stream 1).

Given:

Stream1:
D = 0.06 m
v1 = 0.80 m/s
Stream2:
Q2 = 0.002 m³/s
areainlet = 0.5·A1
Required:
Find combined velocity in the downstream pipe
Solution:
(0.06)²
A1 = π
4
A1 = 0.002 m² → Q1

A1·v1 = 2.827e-3 × 0.8

A1·v1 = 0.002262 m³/s.

Qtotal = Q1 + Q2

= 0.002262 + 0.002

Qtotal = 0.004262 m³/s.

Qtotal
vdownstream =
A1

0.004262
vdownstream =
2.827 e−3

vdownstream = 1.51 m/s

 188

Problem 25

A fruit-processing line transports fresh pineapple juice through a stainless-steel pipeline. At the
inlet section, the pipe diameter is 15 cm and the average flow velocity is 1.2 m/s. The pipe later
narrows to 8 cm in diameter before entering the extraction tank. Assuming pineapple juice
behaves as an incompressible fluid, determine the velocity of flow at the narrower section.

Given:

Inlet diameter: D1=15 cm=0.15 m

Outlet diameter: D2=8 cm=0.08 m

Inlet velocity: V 1=1.2 m/s

Required:

2. Outlet velocity V 2

Solution: A1 V 1= A2 V 2

2 2
π D1 π D2
A 1= =π ¿ ¿ A2= =π ¿ ¿
4 4

Solve for V 2:

A1
V 2= V
A2 1

0.0177
V 2= (1.2)
0.0053

V 2=4.24 m/s
 189

Problem 26

A rice‐processing facility pumps rice bran oil through a horizontal pipe. The pipe diameter
decreases from 12 cm to 6 cm. The velocity of oil at the smaller section is measured to be 3.0
m/s. Assuming the oil behaves as an incompressible fluid, determine the volumetric flow rate of
rice bran oil in the pipeline.

Given:

 Diameter at section 1: D1=12 cm=0.12 m

 Diameter at section 2: D2=6 cm=0.06 m

 Velocity at section 2: V 2=3.0 m/ s

Required:

2. Volumetric flow rate Q

Solution:

A1 V 1= A2 V 2=Q
2
π D2
A 2=
4

A2=π ¿ ¿
2
A2=0.002827 m

Q= A 2 × V 2

2 3.0 m
Q=0.002827 m ×
s
3
m
Q=0.00848 ∨8.48 L/s
s
 190

Problem 27

A processing line fills bottles using a pipe that narrows. Upstream the pipe has cross-
sectional area A1 = 2.0 × 10−4 m2 and the liquid (water, treated as incompressible)
flows at an average velocity v1 = 0.50 m/s. The downstream section has area A2 =5.0 ×
10−5 m2.

Given: Required:

A1 = 2.0×10−4 m2 v2, Q

v1 = 0.50 m/s

A2 = 5.0×10−5 m2

Solution:

A1
v 2=v 1
A2
−4
2.0 × 10
v 2=(0.50) −5
5.0× 10

v 2=¿ 2 m/s

Q= A 1 v 1

Q=¿ ¿)(0.50) = 1.0×10−4 m3/s.

 191

Problem 28

A blender mixes two liquid ingredients in a steady process. Stream A (syrup) flows at
QA = 0.020 m3/min with density ρA = 1370 kg/m3. Stream B (water) flows at Q B =
0.080 m3/min with density ρB = 1000 kg/m3. The mixed product leaves at volumetric
flow QP and density ρP. Assuming steady operation and no accumulation.

Given: Required:

QA=0.020 m3/min, ρA=1370 kg/m3 QP, ρP

QB=0.080 m3/min, ρB=1000 kg/m3

Solution:

QP = QA + QB = 0.020 + 0.080 = 0.100 m3/min.

mP = mA + mB ⇒ ρPQP = ρAQA + ρBQB

ρ A Q A + ρB Q B
ρ P=
QP

(1370)(0.20)+(1000)(0.80)
ρ P=
0.100
3
ρ P=1074 kg/m
 192

Problem 29

A steady flow occurs through a horizontal water pipe that narrows from a diameter of 8 in. at
section 1 to 4 in. at section [Link] fluid density is constant at 62.4 lbm/ft³, and the flow velocity in
the 8 in. section is 6 ft/s. Determine the flow velocity in the 4 in. section.

Given:

Diameter at section 1, ¿ 8∈¿

Diameter at section 2, ¿ 4 ∈¿

Density of fluid, ¿ 62.4 lbm /ft ³

Velocity at 10 in. section, v 1=6 ft /s

Required:

Find the flow velocity in the 6 in. section, v 2.

Solution:

From the continuity equation (steady, incompressible flow):

ṁ1=ṁ2

ρ1 A 1 v 1=ρ2 A 2 v 2

Since ρ is constant

ρ1= ρ2:
 193

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2

Solving for v 2:

A1
v 2=v 1
A2

2
πD
A=
4
2
π D1
v 2=v 1 2
π D2

2
π (8)
v 2=(6)
π (4)2

v 2=22.22 ft / s
 194

Problem 30

Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe. The discharge at one section is 0.12 m³/s.
At point 1, the velocity is 1.2 m/s, and the pipe diameter is 0.45 m.

Given:

Discharge: Q = 0.12 m3
/s

Point 1 D = 0.45 m V = 1.2

m/s

Point 2 D =? V = 3.8
m/s

Required:

3. Find the diameter at point

4. Discharge if the velocity is 4 m/s at 0.5 m diameter all through out.

Solution 1:

Q1 = Q2

A1 V 1 = A2 V 2

2
πD
( ¿ (V ¿¿ 1)¿ = ¿
4

2 2
π 0.45 πD
( ¿(1.2) = ( )(3.8)
4 4
 195

D = 0.253 m

Solution 2:

Q = AV

2
πD ( )
Q=( ¿V
4

2
π 0.45
Q=( ¿ ( 3.8 )
4

Q = 0.604 m3/s
 196

Problem 31

A pump supplies water to a filter at flow rate Q = 0.9 m³/hr. The inlet pipe has diameter D 1 = 25
mm and outlet pipe diameter D2= 40 mm. Assume incompressible steady flow.

Required: Velocity in the inlet pipe (m/s) and outlet pipe (m/s).

Solution:

Convert Q to m³/s: Q = 0.9 m³/hr × (1/3600)

= 0.00025 m³/s

Area A = π D² /4. D1 = 0.025 m → A1

= π (0.025)²/4

= 4.9087e-4 m²

Velocity v1 = Q/A1

= 0.00025 / 4.9087e-4

= 0.5096 m/s

D2 = 0.040 m → A2

= π (0.040)²/4

= 1.2566e-3 m²

v2 = Q/A2 = 0.00025 / 1.2566e-3 = 0.1990 m/s

v1 ≈ 0.510 m/s; v2 ≈ 0.199 m/s.

 197

Problem 32

A pipe feeding a tank reduces diameter from 50 mm to 30 mm. Flow velocity in larger pipe v1 =
0.4 m/s.

Required: Velocity in smaller pipe v2 (m/s).

Solution:

Continuity: A1 v1 = A2 v2 → v2

= v1 (A1/A2)

= v1 (D1² / D2 ²)

D1 = 0.050 m, D2 = 0.030 m → ratio

= (0.050/0.030)²

= (1.6667)²

= 2.7778

v2 = 0.4 × 2.7778 = 1.1111 m/s

v2 ≈ 1.11 m/s.
 198

Problem 33

Milk (density is essentially constant) flows through a pipe that converges from a diameter of 0.15
m (Section 1) to 0.05 m (Section 2). If the flow velocity in the larger section is 0.8 m/s, what is
the flow velocity in the smaller section?

Given:

Diameter 1 (D₁): 0.15 m

Diameter 2 (D₂): 0.05 m

Flow velocity 1 (v₁): 0.8 m/s

Fluid density (ρ) is constant (ρ₁ = ρ₂)

Required:

Flow velocity 2 (v₂)

Solution:

v₂ = v₁ (D₁/D₂)²

v₂ = (0.8 m/s) x (0.15 m / 0.05 m)²

v₂ = (0.8 m/s) x (3)²

v₂ = 7.2 m/s
 199

Problem 34

A non-compressible liquid with a density of 1050 kg/m³ flows into a processing unit through an
inlet pipe with a 0.1 m² cross-sectional area and a velocity of 2 m/s. The liquid exits through an
outlet pipe with an area of 0.05 m² and a velocity of 4.1 m/s. Determine the mass flow rate (ṁ)
into the unit and out of the unit. Does this system satisfy the principle of conservation of mass
for steady-state flow?

Given:

Density (ρ): 1050 kg/m³

Inlet Area (A₁): 0.1 m²

Inlet Velocity (v₁): 2 m/s

Outlet Area (A₂): 0.05 m²

Outlet Velocity (v₂): 4.1 m/s

Required:

Mass flow rate in (ṁ₁) and out (ṁ₂)

Assessment of conservation of mass

Solution:

Inlet Mass Flow Rate (ṁ₁): ṁ₁ = ρ A₁ v₁

ṁ₁ = (1050 kg/m³) x (0.1 m²) x (2 m/s)

ṁ₁ = 210 kg/s

Outlet Mass Flow Rate (ṁ₂): ṁ₂ = ρ A₂ v₂

ṁ₂ = (1050 kg/m³) x (0.05 m²) x (4.1 m/s)

ṁ₂ = 215.25 kg/s
 200

Problem 35

Water (incompressible) flows in a horizontal pipe from diameter 150 mm (section 1) to diameter
90 mm (section 2). At section 1 velocity is 2 m/s. Between sections there is a small leak that
discharges 0.0009 m³/s. Find the velocity at section 2. (Use continuity with the leak.)

Given: Required:

D1=150 mm Velocity ate section 2

m
v 1=2
s

D2=90 mm
3
m
Qleak =0.0009
s
3 3
Solution: m m
Q 2=0.035 −0.0009
s s
Q1=Q2 +Qleak
3
m
A1 v 1= A 2 v 2+Qleak Q2=0.0341
s
2
πD π D2 π (0.09 m)
2
Q 1= A 1 v1 = v1 A 2= = =¿
4 4 4
2
π ( 0.150 m ) m A2=0.006 m
2
¿ (2 )
4 s
Q2 A 2 v 2
m
3 =
Q1=0.035 A2 A2
s
3
m
Q1=Q2 +Qleak 0.0341
Q2 s
v 2= =
Q2=Q1−Qleak A 2 0.006 m2

m
v 2=5.68
s
 1

Problem 36

Water flows through a pipe that narrows from a larger diameter to a smaller one. The pipe has a
diameter of 15 cm at the first section, and the water flows at a velocity of 2 m/s. If the pipe
narrows to a diameter of 10 cm at the second section, what is the velocity of the water at this
point?

Given:

D1=15 cm

m
v 1=2
s

D2=10 cm

Solution: A1 v 1 ¿ A 2 v 2

A1 v 1 ¿ A 2 v 2

A 1 v1
v 2=
2
A2
2
π D π (0.15 m)
A 1= =
4 4

2 m
0.018 m (2 )
s
2 v 2=
A1=0.018 m 0.008 m
2

2 2
π D π (0.10) m
A 2= = v 2=4.5
4 4 s

2
A2=0.008 m
2
 3

Problem 37

Water flows through a horizontal pipe system. At point 1, the pipe has a diameter of 10 cm, and
the water velocity is 2.5 m/s. If the pipe narrows down to a diameter of 5 cm at point 2, calculate
the velocity of the water at point 2.

Given

 Diameter at point 1 (D1): 10 cm (0.10m)

 Velocity at point 1 (V1): 2.5 m/s

 Diameter at point 2 (D2): 5cm (0.05m)

Required

 Velocity at point 2 (V2).

Solution

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2
2 2
π D1 π D2
v 1= v
4 4 2
2 2
D1 v 1=D2 v 2
2
D1
v 2=v 1 2
D2

( 0.10 m)
v 2=2.5 m/s
(0.05 m)

0.01
v 2=2.5 m/s
0.0025

v 2=2.5 m/s (4)

hhv =¿10 m/s

2
 4

Problem 38

Olive oil (density ρ =918 kg/m3) is being pumped through a line at a mass flow rate of 12 kg/s.
The pipe has an internal diameter of 8 cm. Calculate the average volumetric flow rate and the
average velocity of the oil in the pipe.

Given

 Mass flow rate ( ṁ ): 12 kg/s

 Density ( ρ ): 918 kg/m3

 Diameter (D): 8cm (0.08m)

Required

 Volumetric flow rate (V̇ ).

 Average velocity (v).

Solution

ṁ
V̇ =
ρ

12 kg /s
V̇ = 3
918 kg /m

V̇ =0.01307 m3/s
2
πD
A=
4

A=π ¿ ¿

A=0.005027 m ²

V̇
v=
A

v ≈ 2.60 m/s
 5

3
0.01307 m / s
v= 2
0.0050265 m
 6

Problem 39

A steady-state flow occurs in a horizontal pipe that reduces from a diameter of 10 in. to 6 in. The
density of the fluid remains constant at 62.4 lbm/ft³. If the flow velocity in the 10 in. section is 8
ft/s, determine the velocity in the 6 in. section.

Given:

Diameter at section 1, ¿ 10∈¿

Diameter at section 2, ¿ 6∈¿

Density of fluid, ¿ 62.4 lbm /ft ³

Velocity at 10 in. section, v 1=8 ft / s

Required:

Find the flow velocity in the 6 in. section, v 2.

Solution:

From the continuity equation,

the mass flow rate must be the same at both sections:

ṁ1=ṁ2

ρ1 A 1 v 1=ρ2 A 2 v 2

Since the fluid is incompressible, ρ1= ρ2:

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2
 7

Solving for v 2:

A1
v 2=v 1
A2

2
πD
A=
4
2
π D1
v 2=v 1 2
π D2

v 2=(8 ft /s )π ¿ ¿ ¿

v 2=22.22 ft / s
 8

Problem 40

Air flows through a horizontal duct that expands gradually from a diameter of 4 in to 6 in. The
velocity of air in the 4-in section is 28 m/s. Assuming steady, incompressible flow, determine: (a)
The velocity in the 6-in section, and (b) The ratio of flow areas between the two sections.

Given:

Diameter at section 1, D1=4∈¿

Diameter at section 2, D2=6 ∈¿

Velocity at 4 in. section, v 1=28 m/s

Required:

A1
Find the flow velocity in the 6 in. section, v 2 and
A2

Solution:

From the continuity equation:

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2

A1
v 2=v 1
A2

( )
2
A 1 D1
=
A 2 D2
 9

A1
=¿ ¿
A2

A1
=0.444
A2

For v 2,

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2

Solving for v 2:

A1
v 2=v 1
A2

v 2=28(0.444 )

v 2=12.43 m/s
 10

Bernoulli’s Equation

Problem 1

If the velocity of water is 8 m/s and the pressure is 140 kPa on the discharge side of a pump.

Given:

Velocity: V = 8 m/s

Pressure: P = 140 kPa

Required:

1. What is the head of the pump if the velocity is 4 m/s and the pressure is 90 kPa on the
suction side of the pump?
2. How much power is required to drive it if the diameter of the suction side is 600 mm.? If
the pump is rated at 120 hp, what is the efficiency of the pump neglecting energy losses
in the system.
Solution:

1. Head of pump:

¿ + HA = ¿
¿ + HA = ¿
HA = 7.54 m

2. Power required and Efficiency:

Q = AV Output
Efficiency =
πD
2 Input
Q=( ¿ (V)
4 112(100)
Efficiency =
2 120
π 0.6
Q=( ¿(4)
Efficiency
4 = 93.3%
 11

Q = 1.13 m3/s

Q γw E
Power =
746
( 1.13 ) ( 9810 ) (7.54)
Power =
746
Power = 112 hp
 12

Problem 2

A pump discharges water at 30 liter/sec. Neglecting losses and elevation changes. Assume unit
weight of water is 9.79 kN/m3.

Given:

Discharge: Q = 30 liter/sec

Required:

1. Determine the energy added to the water by the pump.

2. Determine the power delivered to the water by the pump.
3. Determine the mechanical efficiency of the pump if the power input recorded is 27.34 hp.
Solution:

1. Energy added to the water by the pump:

Q = A1 V 1
π 0.10
2 ¿ + HA = ¿ + HL
0.030 = ( ¿( V 1) ¿ + HA = ¿ + 0
4
HA = 57.31 m
V 1 = 3.82 m/s

Q = A2 V 2
2
π 0.04
0.030 = ( ¿ ( V 2)
4
V 1 = 23.87 m/s

2. Power delivered to the water by the pump:

Power = Q γ w E
Power = (0.030) (9790) (57.31)
Power = 16,831.95 W ≈ 16.83 kW
 13

3. Mechanical efficiency of the pump:

16,831.95
Output =
746

Output = 22.56 hp

Output
Efficiency =
Input

22.56
Efficiency =
27.34

Efficiency = 82.52%
 14

Problem 3

Given:

Q = 0.0030 m³/s, D₁ = 0.050 m, D₂ = 0.025 m, ρ = 1000 kg/m³.

Required:

Find pressure drop Δp.

Solution:

𝐴₁ = 𝜋 𝐷₁² / 4 = 1.963 × 10⁻³ 𝑚² → 𝑣₁ = 𝑄 / 𝐴₁ = 1.529 𝑚/𝑠

𝐴₂ = 𝜋 𝐷₂² / 4 = 4.909 × 10⁻⁴ 𝑚² → 𝑣₂ = 𝑄 / 𝐴₂ = 6.112 𝑚/𝑠

𝛥𝑝 = ½ 𝜌 (𝑣₂² − 𝑣₁²) = 0.5 × 1000 × (6.112² − 1.529²) = 17,510 𝑃𝑎 ≈ 17.5 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Problem 4

Given: h = 1.5 m, g = 9.81m/s².

Required:

Find exit velocity v.

Solution:

𝑣 = √(2 𝑔 ℎ) = √(2 × 9.81 × 1.5) = 5.43 𝑚/𝑠

 15

Problem 5

Water flows from a large open tank through a horizontal pipe. The water level in the tank is 5 m
above the pipe exit. The diameter of the pipe is small compared to the tank cross-section, so the
velocity of water at the free surface is negligible. Assume steady, incompressible, frictionless
flow. Calculate the exit velocity of water at the pipe.

Given:

o Water density: ρ=1000 kg/m³

o Gravity: g=9.81 m/s²
o Height difference: h=5 m
o Neglect velocity at the free surface and friction.
Required:

Exit velocity of water, V 2(m/s)

Solution:

For points 1 (free surface) and 2 (pipe exit):

1 2 1 2
P1 + ρ V 1+ ρg z 1=P2 + ρ V 2 + ρg z2
2 2

P1=P2=P atm(open to atmosphere)

V 1 ≈ 0, z 1−z 2=h

1
ρgh= ρ V 2 ⇒ V 2=√ 2 gh
2
2

V 2= √ 2 ⋅9.81 ⋅5= √ 98.1 ≈ 9.90 m/s

The exit velocity of water is V 2 ≈ 9.90 m/s .

 16

Problem 6

Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe that narrows from a diameter of 0.15 m to 0.10 m.
At the wider section, the velocity is 2.0 m/s, and the pressure is 150 kPa. Assume steady,
incompressible, frictionless flow. Determine the velocity at the narrow section and the pressure
at the narrow section.

Given:

 Water density: ρ=1000 kg/m³

 Pipe diameters: D1=0.15 m , D 2=0.10 m
 Velocity at section 1: V 1=2.0 m/s
 Pressure at section 1: P1=150 kPa
 Horizontal pipe → z 1=z 2
Required:

1. Velocity at narrow section V 2

2. Pressure at narrow section P2

Solution:

Continuity equation:

A1 2
A1 V 1= A2 V 2 ⇒ V 2= V 1 A= π D
A2 4

Bernoulli equation (horizontal pipe):

1 2 1 2 1 2 2
P1 + ρ V 1=P2 + ρV 2 P2=P1 + ρ(V 1 −V 2)Compute velocity at narrow section
2 2 2

A1 0.017671
A1=π ¿ ¿V 2= V 1= ×2.0 ≈ 4.5 m/s
A2 0.007854

Compute pressure at narrow section

1 2 2
P2=P1 + ρ(V 1 −V 2)
2
 17

Compute velocity squared difference: V 21−V 22 =2.02−4.52=4−20.25=−16.25 m²/s²

1
Multiply by ρ=0.5× 1000=500
2

Δ P=500 ×(−16.25)=−8125 Pa=−8.13 kPa P2=150−8.13 ≈ 141.87 kPa

Velocity at narrow section: V 2 ≈ 4.5 m/s

Pressure at narrow section: P2 ≈141.9 kPa

Friction factor: f ≈ 0.0323

Head loss: h f ≈ 1.64 m

 18

Problem 7

Water enters a horizontal pipe of non-uniform cross-section with a velocity of 0.6m/s and leaves
the other end with a velocity of 0.4m/s. At the first end, pressure of water is 1600N/m 2. Calculate
the pressure of water at the other end. Density of water = 1000 kg/m3?

Given:

 ρ is the density of water = 1000kg/m3

 v1 is the velocity at first point = 0.6m/s

 P1 is the pressure at first point = 1600N/m2

 v2 is the velocity at second point = 0.4m/s

Required:

Pressure at second point (P2) ?

Solution:

½ pv12 + p1 = ½ pv22 +p2

½ (1000) (0.6)2 + 1600 = ½ (1000) (0.4)2 + p2

p2 = 500 [(0.6)2 – (0.4)2] + 1600

p2 = 1,700 N/m2

Final Answer: 1,700 N/m2

 19

Problem 8

Water is circulating through a closed system of pipes in a two floor apartment. On the first floor,
the water has a gauge pressure of 3.4 × 10 5 pa and a speed of 2.1m/s. However, on the second
floor, which is 4m higher, the speed of the water is 3.7m/s. The speeds are different because the
pipe diameters are different. What is the gauge pressure of the water on the second floor?

Given:

Gauge pressure in the first floor P1 = 3.4 × 105 pa.

Velocity of water in the first floor v1 = 2.1 m/s

Velocity in the second floor v2 = 3.7 m/s

Height difference between two floors (h2 - h1) = 4m

Required:

Gauge pressure in the second floor P2 = ?

Solution:

p1 + ½ pv12 + pgh1 = p2 + ½ pv22 + pgh2

p2 = p1 + ½ p(v12 – v22) + pg (h1-h2)

density of water = 1000 kg/m3

p2 = 3.4 x 105 + ½ (1000) [(2.1)2 – (3.7)2] – (1000)(9.8)(4)

p2 = 3.4 x 105 – 4640 -39200

p2 = 3x105 Pa

Final answer: 3x105 Pa

 20

Problem 9
Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe. At point 1, the pressure is 250 kPa and velocity
is 2 m/s. At point 2, the pipe diameter decreases, causing the velocity to rise to 4 m/s. Determine
the pressure at point 2.

Given:

 P1 = 250kPA

 ρ = 1000kg/m3

 v 1 = 2m/s

 v 2 = 4m/s

Required:

Pressure at point 2

Solution:

1 2 1 2
P1 + ρ v 1=P2 + ρ v 2
2 2

1
P2=P1 + ρ ¿ v 22)
2
2 2
P2=250000+ 0.5(1000)(2 −4 )

P2 = 250000 + 500(4 − 16) = 250000 − 6000 = 244000Pa or 244kPa

Answer: P2 = 244000Pa or 244kPa

 21

Problem 10
Water flows upward through a vertical pipe. At the lower point (1), the pressure is 180 kPa, the
velocity is 1.5 m/s, and the height is 0 m. At the upper point (2), the height is 4 m and the
velocity is 3 m/s. Find the pressure at the upper point.

 P1 = 180kPa

 v 1 = 1.5m/s

 v 2 = 3m/s

 z 1= 0

 z 2 4m

 ρ = 1000kg/m3

 g= 9.81m/ s2

Required:

Pressure at the upper point

Solution:

1 2 1 2
P1 + ρ v 1 + ρg z1 =P 2+ ρ v 2+ ρg z 2
2 2

1
P2=P1 + ρ ¿ v 22) + ρg( z ¿ ¿ 1−z2 )¿
2

P2=¿ 180000 + 0.5(1000) (1.52 − 32) + 1000 (9.81) (0 − 4)

P2=¿ 180000 + 500(2.25 − 9) − 39240

P2=¿ 180000 − 3375 − 39240 = 137385 Pa or 137.4kPa

Answer: P2=¿ 137385 Pa or 137.4kPa

 22

Problem 11

Water flows through a horizontal pipe. The velocity at point 1 is 2 m/s and the pressure is 150
kPa. At point 2, the velocity increases to 4 m/s. Find the pressure at point 2, neglecting losses.

(Adapted from Çengel & Cimbala, 2020).

Given:

 V₁ = 2 m/s, V₂ = 4 m/s
 P₁ = 150 kPa, z₁ = z₂
 ρ = 1000 kg/m³

Required:

Pressure at point 2, P₂

Solution:

P₁ + ½ρV₁² = P₂ + ½ρV₂² → P₂ = P₁ + ½ρ(V₁² - V₂²)

P₂ = 150,000 + 0.5(1000)(2² - 4²) = 142,000 Pa = 142 kPa

Final Answer:

Pressure at point 2 = 142 kPa

 23

Problem 12

A tank is open to the atmosphere and contains water to a height of 4 m. Find the velocity of
water exiting through a small hole at the bottom.

(Based on White, 2016).

Given:

h = 4 m, g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Exit velocity, V

Solution:

Using Bernoulli’s equation: V = √(2gh) = √(2 × 9.81 × 4) = 8.86 m/s

Final Answer:

Velocity of water jet = 8.86 m/s

 24

Problem 13
Water flows in a horizontal pipe. At point 1, the pressure is 180 kPa and velocity is 1.8 m/s. At
point 2, the velocity increases to 3.0 m/s. Determine the pressure at point 2 assuming ideal flow.
Given:
• P1 = 180 kPa
• v1 = 1.8 m/s
• v2 = 3.0 m/s
• Horizontal pipe → z1 = z2
Required:
P2
Solution:
P1 + (1/2)ρv1² = P2 + (1/2)ρv2²
ρwater = 1000 kg/m³
P2 = P1 + ½ρ(v1² – v2²)
P2 = 180,000 + 0.5(1000)(3.24 – 9)
P2 = 180,000 – 2,880
P2 = 177,120 Pa
Answer:
177.12 kPa
 25

Problem 14
A pipe increases in elevation by 4 m. At point 1, pressure is 220 kPa and velocity 2 m/s. At point
2, velocity is 1 m/s. Find the pressure at point 2.
Given:
• P1 = 220 kPa
• v1 = 2 m/s
• v2 = 1 m/s
• Δz = +4 m
Required:
P2
Solution:
P2 = P1 + ½ρ(v1² – v2²) – ρg(z2 – z1)
= 220000 + 0.5(1000)(4 – 1) – 1000(9.81)(4)
= 220000 + 1500 – 39,240
= 182,260 Pa
Answer:
182.26 kPa
 26

Problem 15

A sprayer nozzle is placed 1.2 m above a tank where water surface velocity is negligible. Find
the exit velocity of water from the nozzle if the pressure at the tank surface is atmospheric.

Given:
h = 1.2 m, P₁ = P₂ (atmospheric), V₁ ≈ 0, g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Velocity at the nozzle (V₂)

Solution:
By Bernoulli’s equation: V₂ = √(2gh) = √(2 × 9.81 × 1.2) = 4.85 m/s
 27

Problem 16

Water flows from Point 1 to Point 2 in a closed pipe. At Point 1: elevation z1 = 5.0 m, pressure
p1 = 220 kPa, velocity v1 = 1.20 m/s. At Point 2: elevation z2 = 15.0 m, velocity v2 = 0.80 m/s.
Neglecting minor losses, but include a head loss of h L = 1.5 m between the points. Determine the
pressure p2 at Point 2 (in kPa).

Given:

z1 = 5.0 m, p1 = 220 kPa, v1 = 1.20 m/s

z2 = 15.0 m, v2 = 0.80 m/s
Head loss hL = 1.5 m
Water density ρ = 1000 kg/m³, g = 9.81 m/s².

Required:

Find p2 (absolute pressure) in kPa using Bernoulli with losses.

Solution:

Using Bernoulli with head loss: p1/(ρg)+v1²/(2g)+z1 = p2/(ρg)+v2²/(2g)+z2 + hL.

Solve for p2: p2 = ρg[ (p1/(ρg)+v1²/(2g)+z1) - (v2²/(2g)+z2+hL) ] = 1.0758e+05 Pa = 107.6 kPa.
 28

Problem 17

Water flows through a horizontal pipe. The pressure at point 1 is 150 kPa, and the velocity is 2
m/s. At point 2, the pressure is 100 kPa. Calculate the velocity at point 2, assuming both points
are at the same elevation. (BASA, Casielyn. 2016)

Required: Velocity at point 2.

Solution:
Using Bernoulli’s equation:

1 2 1
P+ ρv 1²=P + ρv 2² Where:
2 2

P is the pressure at a point in the fluid (in pascals, Pa).

ρ (rho) is the density of the fluid (in kg/m³).

v is the velocity of the fluid at that point (in meters per second, m/s).

g is the acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s²).

h is the height or elevation at that point above a reference level (in meters, m).

1 1000 kg 2 m 1
150 kPa+ ( )( )²=100 kPa+ 1000 kg /m³ ¿ (v ₂)²
2 m
3
s 2
2
v =¿3.16 m/s
 29

Problem 18

A fluid flows through a pipe at a pressure of 250 kPa and a velocity of 4 m/s. The pressure at
another point downstream is 180 kPa. Calculate the velocity at the downstream point, assuming
no height difference. (BASA, Casielyn. 2016)

Required: Velocity at the downstream point.

Solution:
Using Bernoulli’s equation:

1 2 1
P+ ρv 1²=P + ρv 2² Where:
2 2

P is the pressure at a point in the fluid (in pascals, Pa).

ρ (rho) is the density of the fluid (in kg/m³).

v is the velocity of the fluid at that point (in meters per second, m/s).

g is the acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s²).

h is the height or elevation at that point above a reference level (in meters, m).
1 1000 kg 4 m 1
250 kPa+ ( )( )²=180 kPa+ 1000 kg /m³ ¿(v ₂)² v 2=¿5.77 m/
2 m
3
s 2
 30

Problem 19

A horizontal Venturi meter has an upstream diameter of 0.200 m and a throat diameter of
0.0800 m. Upstream measured pressure is 205 kPa; throat pressure is 200.5 kPa. Assume
incompressible, inviscid flow and negligible elevation change. Determine the volumetric flow
rate Q through the Venturi.

Given:

D1 = 0.200 m, Dth = 0.0800 m

p1 = 205.0 kPa, pth = 200.5 kPa
ρ = 1000 kg/m³, g ignored for horizontal tube.

Required:

Find Q (m³/s) using Bernoulli and continuity between upstream and throat.

Solution:

Area ratio k = Athroat/Aupstream = 0.16.

From Bernoulli: p1 - p2 = 0.5 ρ Vt² (1 - k²) => Vt = sqrt[2(p1-p2)/(ρ(1-k²))] = 3.039 m/s.
Q = A_throat × Vt = 5.0265e-03×3.039 = 0.01528 m³/s.
 31

Problem 20

Water flows in an irrigation pipe with a velocity of 1.8 m/s at a pressure of 160 kPa. The pipe
rises by 2.5 m, and the pressure drops to 130 kPa. Determine the velocity at the higher point.

Given:
P₁ = 160 kPa, V₁ = 1.8 m/s, z₁ = 0, P₂ = 130 kPa, z₂ = 2.5 m, ρ = 1000 kg/m³

Required:
Velocity at point 2 (V₂)

Solution:
Bernoulli: P₁/ρg + V₁²/2g + z₁ = P₂/ρg + V₂²/2g + z₂
(160000/9810) + (1.8²/19.62) = (130000/9810) + (V₂²/19.62) + 2.5
16.32 + 0.165 = 13.25 + (V₂²/19.62) + 2.5
(V₂²/19.62) = 0.735 → V₂ = 3.79 m/s
 32

Problem 21

Water flows through a horizontal pipe narrowing from 0.3 m diameter to 0.2 m diameter. The
pressure at the larger section is 120 kPa and velocity is 2 m/s. Find the pressure at the smaller
section.

Given:

D1 = 0.3 m

D2 = 0.2 m

V1 = 2 m/s

P1 = 120 kPa

Required:

1. Pressure 2 (Pa)
Solution:

A1 v1 = A2 v2

v2 = (A1/A2) v1

A1 = π (0.15) ² = 0.0707 m²

A2 = π (0.1) ² = 0.0314 m²

v2 = (0.0707/0.0314) 2 = 4.5 m/s

Bernoulli: P1 + 0.5 ρ v1² = P2 + 0.5 ρ v2²

P2 = 120,000 + 0.5 × 1000 (2² - 4.5²)

= 112,375 Pa  112.38 kPa

Answer: Pressure 2 = 112.38 kPa

 33

Problem 22: Water flows through a horizontal pipe at 1.2 m/s and pressure 100 kPa. If the pipe
enlarges such that the velocity reduces to 0.8 m/s, determine the pressure in the enlarged section.

Given:

V1 = 1.2 m/s

V2 = 0.8 m/s

P1 = 100 kPa

ρ = 1000 kg/m³

Required:

1. Pressure 2 (Pa)

Solution:

P2 = P1 + 0.5 ρ (v1² - v2²)

P2 = 100,000 + 0.5 × 1000 (1.2² - 0.8²)

= 100,400 Pa  100.40 kP

Answer: Pressure 2 = 100.40 kPa

 34

Problem 23

Problem Statement:
Water flows steadily from a large reservoir through a horizontal pipe that narrows. The free
surface of the reservoir is open to atmosphere. At section 1 (near the reservoir exit) the pipe
diameter is D₁ = 0.20 m and velocity V₁ is negligible. At section 2 the diameter is D₂ = 0.10 m.
Determine the velocity at section 2 and the pressure at section 2. Take the reservoir free surface
as datum (z = 0). Assume frictionless steady flow and atmospheric pressure at the free surface.

Given:
ρ = 1000 kg/m³, g = 9.81 m/s²
Free surface pressure p₀ = 101.3 kPa (atmospheric)
D₁ = 0.20 m, V₁ ≈ 0 m/s, z₁ = 0 m, p₁ = p₀
D₂ = 0.10 m, z₂ = 0 m

Required:

1. V₂ (m/s)

2. p₂ (kPa)

Solution:
Continuity (incompressible): A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ → V₂ = (A₁/A₂) V₁. With V₁ ≈ 0, determine V₂
from energy between free surface and section 2.

Bernoulli between free surface (point 0) and section 2:

1 2 1 2
p0 + ρg z 0 + ρV 0= p2 + ρg z2 + ρ V 2 .
2 2

With p₀ = 101.3 kPa, z₀ = z₂ = 0, V₀ ≈ 0:

1 2
p2= p0 − ρV 2 .
2

Find V₂ from converting potential head to kinetic head: from large reservoir (V₀ ≈ 0), the
available head drives V₂. For a simple orifice-like approach, V₂ ≈ √(2(p₀ - patm)/ρ) would be
zero — instead use continuity with a known supply? More consistent: treat reservoir free surface
as large so stagnation → kinetic at section 2 relates to elevation difference only; here z same, so
 35

use Torricelli if flow from surface to lower opening — to avoid ambiguity assume flow driven
by small head H = 1.5 m (example).
(If instructor supplies head, replace H below.)

(To keep problem self-contained we set reservoir free-surface 1.5 m above the outlet at
section 2.)

Take z₀ = +1.5 m, z₂ = 0 m. Then Bernoulli:

1 2
p0 + ρg z 0= p2 + ρ V 2 (neglect V 0 ).
2

Assume p₂ is atmospheric (if outlet discharges to atm) — but if pipe is closed, solve for p₂. Here
we solve for V₂ assuming p₂ = p₀ (discharge to atm):

1
p0 + ρg z 0= p0 + ρ V 2 ⇒ V 2=√ 2 g z 0 .
2
2

Compute:
V₂ = √(2 × 9.81 × 1.5) = √(29.43) = 5.426 m/s.

If instead p₂ is unknown and both ends inside pipe at same elevation and sealed, then

1 2
p2= p0 + ρg z 0− ρ V 2
2

Using V₂ above and p₀ = 101.3 kPa:

1 2
p2=101.3 kPa+1000 × 9.81× 1.5 Pa− (1000)(5.426 ) Pa .
2

Compute hydrostatic term: 1000×9.81×1.5 = 14,715 Pa = 14.715 kPa.

Kinetic term: 0.5×1000×(5.426)² = 0.5×1000×29.45 = 14,725 Pa ≈ 14.725 kPa.
Thus p₂ ≈ 101.3 kPa + 14.715 kPa − 14.725 kPa ≈ 101.29 kPa (≈ atmospheric; small rounding).

Final Answer:
V₂ = 5.426 m/s
p₂ ≈ 101.29 kPa (≈ atmospheric for this configuration)
 36

Problem 24
Air flows steadily in a horizontal pipe. At section 1 the pressure is p₁ = 120 kPa and velocity V₁
= 3.0 m/s. At section 2 (downstream) the pipe area doubles, and the elevation is the same.
Neglect head losses. Determine velocity V₂ and pressure p₂. Assume air is incompressible for
this low-speed flow and ρ = 1.20 kg/m³.

Given:
ρ = 1.20 kg/m³
p₁ = 120 kPa, V₁ = 3.0 m/s
A₂ = 2 A₁, z₁ = z₂

Required:
V₂ (m/s) and p₂ (kPa)

Solution:
Continuity: A₁V₁ = A₂V₂ → V₂ = (A₁/A₂) V₁ = (1/2) V₁ = 1.5 m/s.

Bernoulli between 1 and 2 (no elevation change, no losses):

1 2 1 2
p1 + ρ V 1= p2 + ρV 2
2 2

So

1 2 2
p2= p1 + ρ(V 1−V 2).
2

Compute kinetic head term:

½ρ(V₁² − V₂²) = 0.5×1.20×(3.0² − 1.5²) = 0.6×(9 − 2.25) = 0.6×6.75 = 4.05 Pa.

Thus p₂ = 120,000 Pa + 4.05 Pa = 120,004.05 Pa ≈ 120.00 kPa (difference negligible).

Final Answer:
V₂ = 1.50 m/s
p₂ ≈ 120.00 kPa

Problem 25
 37

Water flows through a pipe that rises 3 m above its entry point. At the inlet (z₁ = 0) the pressure
is 250 kPa and the velocity is 2.5 m/s; at the outlet (z₂ = 3 m) the pressure is 180 kPa. Determine
the velocity at the outlet.

Given: (Bedford et al., 1998)

ρ = 1000 kg/m³

g = 9.81 m/s²

z₁ = 0

z₂ = 3

P₁ = 250 kPa

P₂ = 180 kPa

v₁ = 2.5 m/s

Required:

Determine the velocity at the outlet.

Solution:
2 2
v1 p v p
z₁ + + 1 = z2 + 2 + 2
2 g ρg 2 g ρg
2 2
v 2 =v 1 +2 g ¿ z2) +
2 (P1 – P2)
ρ
2
v 2 = (2.5)2 + 2 (9.81) (0-3) +
2 (250000 – 180000)
1000
v 2 = 6.25 – 58.86 + 140 = 87.39
2

v 2 = √ 87.39
v 2=9.35 m/s
 38

Problem 26

A horizontal pipe carrying milk (ρ = 1030 kg/m³) narrows from 0.08 m to 0.04 m diameter. If the
velocity in the larger section is 1.2 m/s and the pressure is 150 kPa, determine the velocity and
pressure in the smaller section.

Given: (Bedford et al., 1998)

ρ = 1030 kg/m³
D₁ = 0.08 m
D₂ = 0.04 m
v₁ = 1.2 m/s
P₁ = 150 kPa
Required:

Determine the velocity and pressure in the smaller section.

Solution:
2
D1 0.08
2
v₂ = v₁ ( 2 ) = 1.2 ( 2 ) = 4.8 m/s
D2 0.04

P₂ = P₁ + 0.5ρ (v₁² - v₂²)

P₂ = 150000 + 0.5 (1030) (1.2² - 4.8²)

P₂ = 150000 - 11124

138, 876 Pa

P₂ = 138.9 kPa
 39

Problem 27

A pump takes water from a 200 mm suction pipe and delivers it to a 150 mm discharge pipe
where the velocity is 2.5 m/s. At point A in the suction pipe the pressure is –40 kPa. At point B
in the discharge pipe (which is 2.5 m above A) the pressure is 410 kPa. What horsepower would
have to be applied by the pump if there were no frictional losses?

Given: Vert, J. (n.d.)

 Suction pipe diameter at A: D A =200 mm=0.200 m

 Discharge pipe diameter at B: DB =150 mm=0.150 m

 Velocity in discharge pipe at B: v B=2.5 m/s

 Pressure at A: p A =−40 kPa=−40 000 Pa(gage)

 Pressure at B: pB =410 kPa=410 000 Pa(gage)

 Elevation difference: z B −z A =2.5 m(i.e., B is 2.5 m above A)

 Water specific weight: γ ≈ 9 810 N/m 3 (standard)

Required:

1. Find the horsepower (hp) that the pump must supply.

Solution:
2 2
π DB
Q= A B v B= A B=π ¿ ¿Q=0.04418 m 3 /s v
4 2g
2
vA
=¿ ¿
2g
2
vB
=¿ ¿
2g
2
vA
≈ 0.1009 m
2g
 40

2 2 2 2
vA pA v B pB v B v A p B− p A
+ + z A + H A= + + zB H A = − + +(z B −z A )
2g γ 2g γ 2g 2g γ

p B− p A 410000−(−40000 ) 450000
= = ≈ 45.8906 m
γ 9810 9810
H A ≈ 0.3189−0.1009+ 45.8906+2.5

H A =48.5896 m(≈ 48.59 m)

3 3
P=Q γ H A =0.0442 m /s × 9810 N/m × 48.5896 m
21058.37
P ≈ 21 058.37 W hp= ≈ 28.23 hp
746
 41

Problem 28

Water is being pumped from an open reservoir (point A) through a pipeline to a discharge point
(C) that is 5 m above the water surface of the reservoir. The pipe has a diameter of 75 mm, and
the discharge velocity at point C is measured at 7 m/s. The total head loss between points A and
C (due to friction and fittings) is 2 m. Assuming steady, incompressible flow and neglecting the
velocity at the reservoir surface, determine the head added by the pump and the power required if
the discharge rate is maintained at 7 m/s. The water temperature is 20∘ C, with density
3
ρ=1000 kg/m .

Given: (Yu, C. Y., 2022; Savva & Frenken, 2002)

 Elevation difference, z C −z A =+5 m

 Velocity at reservoir surface, v A =0

 Velocity at discharge, v C =7 m/s

 Head loss, h L =2 m

 Pressure at reservoir surface, p A =0(atmospheric)

 Pressure at discharge, pC =0(atmospheric)

 Water density, ρ=1000 kg/m 3

2
 g=9.81 m/s

Required:

1. Head added by the pump, h p

2. Power required to deliver the flow, P

Solution:
2 2
pA vA pC vC
+ z A + +h p= + z C + + hL Since p A = pC =0 and v A =0 :
ρg 2g ρg 2g
2
vC
h p =( z C −z A )+ +h
2g L
 42

2
7
h p =(5)+ +2h p =5+2.50+2=9.50 mh p =9.50 m
2(9.81)
2
πD
A= =π ¿ ¿
4
−3 −2 3
Q= A v C =4.4179× 10 ×7=3.0925 ×10 m /s

P= ρgQ h p P=(1000)(9.81)(0.030925)(9.50)P=2888.3 W=2.89 kWP=2.89 kW

 43

Problem 29

A large open tank contains water. A small sharp-edged hole is located 2.00 m below
the free surface. The hole area is 1.00 cm².

Given: Required:

Depth of hole below free surface, h = Exit velocity vvv (m/s)

2.00 m Volumetric flow rate Q (m³/s and L/s)
Hole area, A = 1.00 cm2 = 1.00 × 10−4 m2

Gravity, g=9.81 m/s2

Assume steady, inviscid, incompressible

flow and negligible velocity at free
surface (large tank).

Solution:

v = √2 g h

v = √2 (9.81)(2) = 6.26 m / s

Q = vA = 6.26 × 1.00 × 10−4 = 6.26 × 10−4 m3/s

Q = 6.26 × 10−4 m3/s × 1000 = 0.626 L/s.

 44

Problem 30

Water flows in a horizontal pipe. Upstream section has diameter D₁ = 50.0 mm, downstream
section has diameter D₂ = 25.0 mm. The measured velocity in the upstream section is v₁ =
0.800 m/s. Assume steady, incompressible, inviscid flow and negligible elevation change.

Given: Required:

D1 = 0.0500 m v2 (m/s)

D2 = 0.0250 m p1−p2 (Pa, kPa)

v1=0.800 m/s

Density of water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3

Horizontal pipe ⇒ elevation terms cancel.

Soultion:
2
A1 D1
A1 V 1 = A2 V2 = V 2 = V1 = V1 2
A2 D2
2
(0.0500)
V 2 = (0.800) 2
= 3.20 m / s
(0.0250)
2 2
p1 v1 p2 v2
+ = +
ρ 2 ρ 2

1 2 2
p1 - p 2 = ρ ( v2 - v1 )
2

1
p1 - p 2 = (1000) (3.202 - 0.8002) = 4800 Pa or 4.80 kPa
2
 45

Problem 31

Water flows steadily from a large open reservoir through a smooth horizontal pipe that
discharges to the atmosphere at a lower elevation. The water surface in the reservoir is 10 m
above the pipe outlet, which is open to the air. Neglecting friction losses and assuming the
velocity of the free surface is negligible, determine:
(a) the pressure at the free surface (in Pa), and
(b) the velocity of discharge at the outlet using Bernoulli’s equation

Given:

 Density of water, ρ=1000 kg/m3

 Height difference, h=10 m
 Pressure at outlet, P2=P atm=101,325 Pa
 Velocity at free surface, v 1 ≈ 0 m/s
Acceleration due to gravity, g=9.81m/s2
Required:

Find the pressure at the free surface and the velocity of discharge, P1and v 2.

Solution:

Bernoulli’s Equation between the free surface (1) and the outlet (2):

1 2 1 2
P1 + ρ v 1 + ρg z1 =P 2+ ρ v 2+ ρg z 2
2 2

Since P1=P2=P atmand v 1 ≈ 0:

P1=101,325 Pa

1 2
ρg ( z 1−z 2 )= ρ v 2
2

Simplify and solve for v 2:

 46

v 2=√ 2 g h

v 2=√ 2(9.81)(10)

v 2=14.01 m/ s
 47

Problem 32

If the velocity of water is 10 m/s and the pressure is 180 kPa on the discharge side of a pump:

Given:
V2 = 10m/s
P2 = 180 kPa

Required:

1. What is the head developed by the pump if the velocity is 6 m/s and the pressure is 95
kPa on the suction side of the pump?

2. If the suction pipe diameter is 500 mm, determine the power required to drive the pump.
If the pump is rated at 100 hp, determine its efficiency, neglecting system energy losses.

Solution:

Head of pump:

¿ + HA = ¿

¿ + HA = ¿

HA = 11.93m

Power required and Efficiency:

Q = AV
2
πD
Q=( ¿ (V)
4
2
π 0.5
Q=( ¿(6)
4

Q = 1.178 m3/s

Q γw E
Power =
746
 48

( 1.178 ) ( 9810 ) (11.93)

Power =
746

Efficiency =
Power = 184.34 hp Output
Input

Efficiency =
184.34
100
Efficiency = 1.864
 49

Problem 33

Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe that narrows from a diameter of 0.15 m to 0.05 m.
A pressure gauge located at the wider section reads 150 kPa.
The flow rate through the pipe is 0.010 m³/s.
Neglect losses due to friction.

Required:

a) Velocity at each section (v₁ and v₂)

b) Pressure at the smaller section (P₂)

Solution:

Apply the continuity equation: Bernoulli’s Equation (horizontal flow):

A1v1=A2v2

A=πD2/4

Rearrange to find P₂:

P2=P1+½ρ(v12−v22)

Substitute:
ρ = 1000 kg/m³, g = 9.81 m/s²

P2=150000+0.5(1000)(0.5662−5.102)

P2=150000−12845

P2= 137,155Pa x 1000=137kPa

 50

Problem 34

Water flows through a horizontal Venturi tube with a constriction. At the wide section (point 1),
the cross-sectional area is 0.04 m², the pressure is 200 kPa, and the velocity is 1 m/s. At the
narrow section (point 2), the area is 0.01 m², and the pressure is 150 kPa. The density of water is
1000 kg/m³, and acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s². Assume the tube is horizontal, so height
difference is zero. Required: Calculate the velocity at the narrow section (point 2).

Use g=9.81 m/s

Required:

a) Gauge pressure at the oil–water interface.

b) Gauge and absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank.
c) Hydrostatic force on the circular hatch (use gauge pressure for force due to fluid).

Solution:

Pressure at the oil–water interface (gauge) Pressure at the hatch (1.00 m below the
interface)
Pinterface (gauge) =ρoil x ghoil
Phatch (gauge)=ρoilghoil + ρwaterg(1.00)
= 850×9.81×1.50=12,507.8 Pa≈12.51 kPa
=12,507.8 Pa+1000×9.81×1.00
Pressure at the bottom of the tank
=12,507.8+9,810=22,317.8 Pa ≈22.32 kPa
Pbottom(gauge) =ρoilghoil+ρH2OghH2O
A=π(0.40)^2/4 = 0.12566 m2
=12,507.8 Pa+(1000×9.81×2.00)
Hydrostatic force (use gauge pressure):
=2,507.8+19,620=32,127.8 Pa≈32.13 kPa
Phatch (gauge)A=22,317.8×0.12566=2,803.6 N
Pbottom (abs)=Patm+Pbottom (gauge)

=101,325+32,127.8=133,452.8 Pa≈133.45 kP
a
 51

Problem 35

A venturi meter is made from a carbon-fiber composite. The meter is used to measure the flow
of water. The inlet diameter is 100 mm, and the throat diameter is 50 mm. The pressure
difference between the inlet and the throat is measured to be 50 kPa. The density of water is
1000 kg/m³. Calculate the volumetric flow rate of water through the meter.

Given:

 Inlet diameter = 150 mm

 Throat diameter = 75 mm

 Pressure difference between inlet and throat = 80 kPa

 Water density = 1000 kg/m³

 Gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s²

Required: The volumetric flow rate of water through the meter.

Solution:

Apply Bernoulli's Equation and Continuity Equation

Since the venturi is horizontal, elevation terms cancel

A1V1 = A2V2

Calculate the Areas:

 52

Relate Velocities

Substitute into Bernoulli's Equation

Calculate Flow Rate

Q = A1V1 = 0.01767 × 3.266 = 0.0577 m3/s

Final Answer:

Q = 57.7 L/s
 53

Problem 36

A water tower is made of a polymer composite (AB Material). The water level in the tower
is 25 m above the ground. A small hole of diameter 10 mm is found in the pipe at ground
level. Assume no friction losses. Calculate the velocity of the water jet leaving the hole and
the volumetric flow rate.

Given:

 Pipe internal pressure = 400 kPa (gauge)

 Leak is located 2 m below the pipe centerline

 Water density = 1000 kg/m³

 Atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kPa

 Gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s²

Required: Velocity of water jet exiting the leak.

Solution:

Apply Bernoulli's Equation

1 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
2 =𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉2+ +𝜌𝑔𝑧2
1 1
2

 Inside the pipe, velocity is small: V1 ≈ 0

 Leak is small, so pipe conditions remain constant

 At leak exit: P2 = Patm =101.3 kPa

 Elevation difference: z1 − z2 = 2 m

Substitute:

400 + 101.3) × 103 + 0 + (1000)(9.81)(2) = 101.3 × 103 +0.5 (1000)𝑉2 + 0

501,300 + 19,620 = 101,300 + 500𝑉2 2

 54

520,920 = 101,300 + 500 𝑉2 2

419,620 = 500𝑉2 2

Final answer: V2 = 28.97 m/s

 55

Problem 37
Water flows from a large open reservoir through a pipe system. The water level in the
reservoir is 15m above the pipe discharge point. The discharge point is open to the
atmosphere. Ignoring friction losses and assuming the velocity at the reservoir surface is
negligible, calculate the velocity of the water as it exits the pipe.

Given
 Pressure at point 1 (Reservoir surface, P1): Patm

 Pressure at point 2 (Discharge, P2): Patm

 Velocity at point 1 (v1): 0 (Large reservoir)

 Elevation difference ( Δz=z 1−z 2): 15 m

 Gravitational acceleration (g): 9.81 m/s2

Required
 Velocity at the discharge (v2).

Solution
2 2
P1 v 1 P 2 v2
+ + z 1= + + z2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
2
v2
z 1= +z
2g 2
2
v 2=2 g (z1 −z2 )

v 2=√ 2 g( z 1−z 2 )

v 2=√ 2⋅(9.81 m/s2 )⋅(15 m)

v 2=√ 294.3 m2/s2

v 2=17.155 m/s
Problem 38
 56

A horizontal pipe reduces in diameter from 15 – 7.5cm. The water velocity in the larger section
is 2m/s, and the pressure is 180 kPa. Calculate the pressure in the smaller section of the pipe,
ignoring friction losses. Assume the density of water is 1000 kg/ m3.

Given

 D1: 0.15 m

 D2: 0.075m

 v1: 2m/s

 P1: 180 kPa (180,000 Pa)

 ρ : 1,000 kg/ m3

 Assumption: Horizontal pipe ( z 1=z 2), no losses.

Required

 Pressure in the smaller section (P2) in kPa.

Solution
2
D1
v 2=v 1 ( )
D2
2
0.15 m
v 2=2 m/s( )
0.075 m

v 2=2 m/s ⋅4

v 2=8 m/s
2 2
P 1 v1 P 2 v2
+ = +
ρ 2 ρ 2
2 2
P 2 P1 v 1−v 2
= +
ρ ρ 2

ρ 2 2
P2=P1 + (v 1−v 2)
2
 57

3
1,000 kg/m
P2=180,000 Pa + ¿
2

P2=180,000+500 (4−64 )

P2=180,000+500 (−60)

P2=150,000 Pa

P2=150 kPa
 58

Problem 39

Water flows from reservoir surface (point 1) to an outlet nozzle (point 2) 5 m below. The nozzle
has area such that exit velocity is 5 m/s. There is a head loss between 1 and 2 equal to 0.20 m
(due to fittings). Find the gauge pressure at the nozzle inlet (just upstream of nozzle exit) relative
to atmosphere (i.e., p₂ gauge). Treat reservoir surface as open to atmosphere and V₁ ≈ 0. Use ρ
=1000 kg/m³, g =9.81 m/s². (This checks Bernoulli with losses.)

Given:

kg
ρ=1000 3
m
m
v 2=5
s

m
g=9.81 2
s
H L=0.20 m

z 1=5 m

Required:

Pressure gauge

Solution:
2 2
P1 v 1 P 2 v2 m2
+ + z 1= + + z2 + H L 25
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g P2 s2
=5 m− −0.20 m
kg m
2 9810 2 2 19.61 2
P2 v 2 m .s s
z 1= + + H L
ρg 2 g
P2
P2 v2
2 =5 m−1.27 m−0.20 m
=z 1− −H L kg
9810 2 2
ρg 2g m .s
 59

m
2
P2
(5 ) =3.53 m
P2 s kg
=5 m− −0.20 m 9810 2 2
kg m m m .s
(1000 3 )(9.81 2 ) 2(9.81 2 )
m s s
kg
P2=3.53 m(9810 2 2
)
m .s

Pa∗1 kPa
P2=34,629.3 =34.63 kPa
1000 Pa
 60

Problem 40

A horizontal venturi meter contracts from 0.40 m to 0.30 m diameter. At the larger section
pressure is 250 kPa and velocity is 3 m/s. Using Bernoulli (neglecting losses), find the pressure
at the throat. (ρ = 1000 kg/m³).

Given:

D1=0.40 m D2=0.30 m

P1=250 kPa kg
ρ=1000 3
m
m
v 1=3
s

Required:

Pressure at the throat

Solution:
 61

2 2 2 2
π D π (0.40 m) P 1 v 1 P2 v 2
A 1= = 0.13 m2 + = +
4 4 ρ 2 ρ 2
2 2 2 2
π D π (0.30) 2 P 2 P1 v 1 v 2
A 2= = =0.07 m = + −
4 4 ρ ρ 2 2

A1 v 1 ¿ A 2 v 2 ρ 2 2
P2=P1 + (v 1 −v 2 )
2
A 1 v1
v 2=
A2

m kg
(0.13 m )(3
2
) 1000 m
2
m - 5.57 2 ¿
3
s m ¿ 250,000 Pa+ ¿
v 2= =5.57 s
0.07 m
2
s 2
2
kg m
¿ 250,000 Pa+500 3 (-2.57 2 )
m s

¿ 250,000 Pa+(−1285 Pa)

1 kPa
P2=248,715 Pa x =248.72 kPa
1000 Pa
 62

Problem 41

Water flows from a storage tank through a smooth pipe to the atmosphere at a lower
level. The water surface in the tank is 7 m above the pipe outlet, and the outlet is open to air
(atmospheric pressure). Neglecting friction losses, find:

a. The pressure at the free surface (in Pa), and

b. The velocity of discharge at the outlet using Bernoulli’s equation.

Given:

 Density of water, ρ=1000 kg/m3

 Height difference, z 1−z 2=7 m
 Pressure at outlet, P2=P atm=101,325 Pa
m
 Velocity at free surface, v 1 ≈ 0
s
Required:

Find the pressure at the free surface and the velocity of discharge, P1and v 2.

Solution:

Bernoulli’s Equation between points 1 and 2:

1 2 1 2
P1 + ρ v 1 + ρg z1 =P 2+ ρ v 2+ ρg z 2
2 2

Since P1=P2=P atmand v 1 ≈ 0:

P1=101,325 Pa

1 2
ρg ( z 1−z 2 )= ρ v 2
2

Simplify and solve for v 2:

v 2=√ 2 g ( z 1−z 2 ) ¿ √ 2(9.81)(7) v 2=11.72m/s

 63

Problem 42

Water flows through a horizontal-to-inclined pipe. At point 1, the pipe has a diameter of
8 cm, a pressure of 250 kPa, and a velocity of 3 m/s. At point 2, the diameter is 4 cm, and it is 2
m higher than point 1. Assuming steady, frictionless flow, find the pressure at point 2.

Given:

 Diameter at point 1, D1=8 cm

 Diameter at point 2, D2=4 cm
 Pressure at point 1, P1=250 kPa ≈ 250,000 Pa
 Velocity at point 1, v 1=3 m/s
 Height difference, z 2−z 1=+2 m
 Density of water, ρ=1000 kg/m3

Required:

Find the pressure at point 2, P2.

Solution:

Apply the Continuity Equation:

A1 v 1= A 2 v 2

A1
v 2=v 1
A2

( )
2
0.08
v 2= ( 3 ) 2
0.04

v 2=12m/ s

Apply Bernoulli’s Equation:

 64

1 2 1 2
P1 + ρ v 1 + ρg z1 =P 2+ ρ v 2+ ρg z 2
2 2

1
P2=P1 + ρ ( v 1−v 2 ) + ρg( z 1−z 2)
2 2
2

1
P2=( 250,000 )+ (1000 ) ( 3 −12 ) +(1000)(9.81)(−2)
2 2
2

P2=162,880 Pa
 65

Darcy–Weisbach-Equation
Problem 1

Water flows through a smooth 40 m long pipe of diameter 0.05 m at a velocity of 2 m/s. If the
friction factor is 0.02, determine the head loss due to friction.

Given:
L = 40 m, D = 0.05 m, f = 0.02, V = 2 m/s, g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Head loss (h_f)

Solution:
Darcy-Weisbach: h_f = f(L/D)(V²/2g) = 0.02(40/0.05)(4/19.62) = 3.26 m

Problem 2

Milk (ρ = 1030 kg/m³) flows in a stainless steel tube 25 m long and 0.03 m in diameter at 1.2
m/s. If f = 0.025, find the pressure drop due to friction.

Given:
L = 25 m, D = 0.03 m, f = 0.025, V = 1.2 m/s, ρ = 1030 kg/m³, g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Pressure drop (ΔP)
 66

Solution:
h_f = f(L/D)(V²/2g) = 0.025(25/0.03)(1.44/19.62) = 1.53 m
ΔP = ρgh_f = 1030 × 9.81 × 1.53 = 15,410 Pa = 15.41 kPa
 67

Problem 3

Given:

L = 20 m, D = 0.050 m, v = 1.5 m/s, f = 0.020, ρ = 1000 kg/m³, g = 9.81 m/s².

Required:

Find head loss h_f and pressure drop Δp.

Solution:

ℎ_𝑓 = 𝑓 (𝐿/𝐷) (𝑣² / 2𝑔) = 0.020 × (20/0.050) × (1.5² / 2 × 9.81) = 0.917 𝑚 𝛥𝑝 = 𝜌 𝑔 ℎ_𝑓 =
1000 × 9.81 × 0.917 = 8.99 × 10³ 𝑃𝑎 ≈ 9.0 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Problem 4

Given:

L = 100 m, D = 0.10 m, h_f = 5.0 m, f = 0.020, g = 9.81 m/s².

Required:

Find (a) velocity v and (b) flow rate Q.

Solution:

𝑣 = √((2 𝑔 ℎ_𝑓 𝐷) / (𝑓 𝐿)) = √((2 × 9.81 × 5 × 0.10)/(0.020 × 100)) = 2.21 𝑚/𝑠

𝐴 = 𝜋 𝐷² / 4 = 𝜋 (0.10)² / 4 = 7.85 × 10⁻³ 𝑚²

𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣 = 7.85 × 10⁻³ × 2.21 = 0.0174 𝑚³/𝑠 = 17.4 𝐿/𝑠

 68

Problem 4
Water flows at Q = 0.025 m³/s through a horizontal steel pipe of length L = 200 m and diameter
D = 0.05 m. The pipe absolute roughness is ε = 0.045 mm. Determine the head loss hf due to
friction using the Darcy–Weisbach equation. Take ρ = 1000 kg/m³ and μ = 1.0×10⁻³ Pa·s.

Given:
Q = 0.025 m³/s, L = 200 m, D = 0.05 m
ε = 0.045 mm = 4.5×10⁻⁵ m
ρ = 1000 kg/m³, μ = 1.0×10⁻³ Pa·s, g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Frictional head loss hf (m)

Solution:
First find velocity: V = Q / A = Q / (πD²/4)
A = π(0.05)²/4 = π×0.0025/4 = π×0.000625 = 0.0019635 m².
V = 0.025 / 0.0019635 = 12.74 m/s.

Reynolds number: Re = ρ V D / μ = 1000×12.74×0.05 / 1.0×10⁻³ = 637,000 → turbulent.

Compute relative roughness: ε/D = 4.5×10⁻⁵ / 0.05 = 9.0×10⁻⁴.

Find friction factor f using the explicit Colebrook–White approximation (Swamee–Jain formula):

0.25
f= 2
.
ε / D 5.74
[ log⁡10 ⁣( + 0.9 )]
3.7 Re

Compute inside:
ε/D / 3.7 = 9.0×10⁻⁴ / 3.7 = 2.432×10⁻⁴.
 69

5.74 / Re{0.9} = 5.74 / (637000{0.9}) ≈ 5.74 / (205,000) ≈ 2.80×10⁻⁵.

Sum ≈ 2.712×10⁻⁴.

log10(...) = log10(2.712×10⁻⁴) = −3.566. Square → 12.72. Then f ≈ 0.25 / 12.72 = 0.01966.

Now Darcy–Weisbach:
2
L V
hf = f .
D 2g

Compute V²/(2g) = 12.74² / (2×9.81) = 162.3 / 19.62 = 8.274 m.

L/D = 200 / 0.05 = 4000.
hf = 0.01966 × 4000 × 8.274 = 0.01966 × 33,096 = 650.6 m.

Final Answer:
hf ≈ 651 m (large head due to small diameter and high velocity)
 70

Problem 5
Oil (ρ = 900 kg/m³, μ = 0.05 Pa·s) flows in a horizontal pipe of length 50 m and diameter 0.10 m
with velocity V = 0.8 m/s. The pipe is smooth so ε ≈ 0. Determine the pressure drop ΔP between
the ends using Darcy–Weisbach.

Given:
ρ = 900 kg/m³, μ = 0.05 Pa·s, g = 9.81 m/s²
L = 50 m, D = 0.10 m, V = 0.8 m/s, ε ≈ 0

Required:
ΔP (Pa)

Solution:
Compute Re = ρ V D / μ = 900×0.8×0.10 / 0.05 = 1440 (laminar or low transitional). Since Re ≈
1440 < 2000 → laminar flow.

For laminar flow, friction factor f = 64 / Re = 64 / 1440 = 0.04444.

Darcy–Weisbach head loss:

2
L V
hf =f .
D 2g

Compute V²/(2g) = 0.8² / (2×9.81) = 0.64 / 19.62 = 0.03263 m.

L/D = 50 / 0.10 = 500.
hf = 0.04444 × 500 × 0.03263 = 0.04444 × 16.315 = 0.725 m.

Pressure drop ΔP = ρ g hf = 900 × 9.81 × 0.725 = 900 × 7.112 = 6,401 Pa ≈ 6.40 kPa.

Final Answer:
ΔP ≈ 6,401 Pa (≈ 6.40 kPa

Problem 6
Water at 20°C (ρ = 998 kg/m³, μ = 1.002×10⁻³ Pa·s) flows in a commercial steel pipe (ε = 0.045
 71

mm) of diameter 0.150 m and length 250 m. The volumetric flow rate is Q = 0.0150 m³/s.
Compute the pressure drop Δp between the ends using the Darcy–Weisbach equation. Use the
Haaland approximation to get the friction factor.

Given:

ρ = 998 kg/m³, μ = 1.002e-3 Pa·s

Pipe roughness ε = 0.045 mm = 4.5e-5 m
D = 0.150 m, L = 250 m
Q = 0.0150 m³/s
g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Find: (a) mean velocity v, (b) Reynolds number Re, (c) friction factor f (Haaland), (d) head loss
h_f and pressure drop Δp (Pa and kPa).

Solution:

Mean velocity v = Q/A = 0.8488 m/s.

Reynolds number Re = ρ v D / μ = 1.2682e+05.
Friction factor (Haaland) f ≈ 0.01854.
Head loss hf = f (L/D) v²/(2g) = 1.135 m.
Pressure drop Δp = ρ g hf = 1.1110e+04 Pa = 11.11 kPa.

Problem 7
 72

Design problem: A flow Q = 0.0250 m³/s of water (ρ = 998 kg/m³, μ = 1.002×10⁻3 Pa·s) must be
conveyed through a straight pipe of length 400 m with allowable head loss hf,max = 5.0 m. The
pipe material has roughness ε = 0.045 mm. Estimate a suitable diameter D such that hf ≤ 5.0 m.
Use Haaland approximation and iterate (or search) numerically.

Given:

Q = 0.0250 m³/s, L = 400 m, h_f,max = 5.0 m

ρ = 998 kg/m³, μ = 1.002e-3 Pa·s, ε = 4.5e-5 m
Use Haaland for f.

Required:

Find a suitable pipe inner diameter D (m) that yields hf ≤ 5.0 m for given Q. Provide chosen D
and resulting f, Re, and hf.

Solution:

Selected diameter D = 0.149 m.

Resulting mean velocity v = 1.434 m/s, Re = 2.1278e+05, friction factor f ≈ 0.0174,
Head loss hf = 4.894 m ≤ 5.0 m (requirement satisfied).

Problem 8
 73

Water flows through a 40-meter-long smooth pipe with a diameter of 0.05 m at an average
velocity of 1.5 m/s. If the kinematic viscosity of water is 1.0×10⁻⁶ m²/s, determine the head loss
due to friction using the Darcy–Weisbach equation.

Given: (Fox et al., 2011)

L = 40 m

D = 0.05 m

v = 1.5 m/s

ν = 1.0×10⁻⁶ m²/s

g = 9.81 m/s²

f = 0.02

Required:

Determine the head loss due to friction using the Darcy–Weisbach equation.

Solution:

hf = f ( LD ) (2gv² )
hf = 0.02 ( 400.05 ) (1.5²
2(9.81) )

hf = 1.83 m

Problem 9
Oil with density ρ = 850 kg/m³ and viscosity μ = 0.12 Pa·s flows through a horizontal pipe of
 74

diameter 0.03 m and length 25 m at a velocity of 0.5 m/s. Determine the Reynolds number,
friction factor, and head loss due to friction.

Given: (Munson et al., 2013)

ρ = 850 kg/m³

μ = 0.12 Pa·s

D = 0.03 m

L = 25 m

v = 0.5 m/s

f = 0.602

g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Determine the Reynolds number, friction factor, and head loss due to friction.

Solution:

Re = (ρμ v D )
= (850
0.12
x 0.5 x 0.03
)
Re = 106.25 → laminar flow (Re < 2000)

f= (64Re )
= (64106.25 )
 75

f = 0.602

hf = f ( LD ) (2gv² )
hf = 0.602 ( 250.03 ) (0.5²
2(9.81) )

hf = 6.39 m
 76

Problem 10

Water flows through a horizontal PVC pipe that is 25 m long and 50 mm in diameter. The
flow velocity is 2 m/s, and the pipe has a Darcy friction factor of 0.02. Determine the head loss
due to friction and the pressure loss along the pipe.

Given: (Munson, 2013)

Pipe length, L=25 m

Pipe diameter, D=0.05 m

Average velocity, v=2 m/s

Friction factor, f=0.02

Density of water, ρ=1000 kg/m 3

Gravitational acceleration, g=9.81 m/s 2

Required:

Head loss due to friction, hf

Pressure loss, Δp

Solution:
2
L v
hf =f
D 2g
2
25 2 hf =0.02×500×0.2039 hf =2.04 m
hf =0.02× ×
0.05 2(9.81)

Δp=ρg h f Δp=(1000)(9.81)(2.04 Δp=20,012.4 Pa or 20.0 kPa

 77

Problem 11

Water from a reservoir is pumped through a 75 mm (0.075 m) PVC pipe that is 40 m long to
supply a drip irrigation system in a greenhouse. The system requires a flow rate of 0.020 m³/s,
 78

and the Darcy friction factor for the pipe is f = 0.018. Determine how much energy the pump
must supply to overcome friction losses and if the pump power is sufficient given an efficiency
of 70%.

Given: (Frenken, 2002)

Pipe length, L=40 m

Pipe diameter, D=0.075 m

Flow rate, Q=0.020 m³/s

Friction factor, f=0.018

Density of water, ρ=1000 kg/m 3

Gravity, g=9.81 m/s 2

Pump efficiency, η=70%=0.70

Required:

Friction head loss, hf (m)

Power required to overcome friction loss, P input(W)

Hydraulic power delivered to the water, P output(W)

Solution:
2 2
π D π(0.075 ) 2
A= = =0.0044179 m
4 4

Q 0.020
v= = =4.53 m/s
A 0.0044179
2 2
L v 40 (4.53 ) h =0.018×533.33×1.045=10.03 m h =10.03 m
hf =f hf =0.018× × f f
D 2g 0.075 2(9.81)
 79

P output =ρgQ h f P output =(1000)(9.81)(0.020)(10.03) P output =1,967.9 W

P output 1967.9
P input = = =2,811.3 W
η 0.70

P input =2,811.3 W

Problem 12

Water flows through a 50 m long pipe with a diameter of 0.1 m at a velocity of 2 m/s. If the
friction factor is 0.02, determine the head loss due to friction.

(Adapted from Streeter et al., 2017).

Given:

L = 50 m, D = 0.1 m, V = 2 m/s, f = 0.02, g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
 80

Head loss, h_f

Solution:

h_f = f(L/D) (V²/2g) = 0.02(50/0.1) (4/19.62) = 2.04 m

Final Answer:

Head loss = 2.04 m

Problem 13

Water flows through a 50 m long pipe with a diameter of 0.1 m at a velocity of 2 m/s. If the
friction factor is 0.02, determine the head loss due to friction.

(Adapted from Streeter et al., 2017).

Given:

L = 50 m, D = 0.1 m, V = 2 m/s, f = 0.02, g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
 81

Head loss, h_f

Solution:

h_f = f(L/D) (V²/2g) = 0.02(50/0.1) (4/19.62) = 2.04 m

Final Answer:

Head loss = 2.04 m

Problem 14

The pipe flow is driven by pressurized air in the tank. Assuming f = 0.014 and the flow rate is
13.60 liter/sec.

Given:

Discharge: Q = 13.60 liter/sec

Friction: f = 0.014

Required:
 82

Find the velocity of the water in the pipe.

Find the head loss in the pipe neglecting minor losses.

Find the gauge pressure needed to provide a flow rate of 13.60 liter/sec in kPa.

Solution:

Velocity of water in the pipe:

Q = AV
2
π 0.05
0.0136 = ( ) (V)
4

V1 = 6.93 m/s

Head loss in the pipe:

2
fl V
hf =
D2g
2
0.014 × 160 × 6.93
hf =
0.05 × 2 ×9.81

hf = 109.66 m

Gage pressure needed to provide a flow of 13.60 liters/sec:

2 2
V P V P
( + +z) = ( + +z) + HL
2g γ w 1 2g γw 2
 83

2
P
( 0+ +10) = ( 6.93 + 0+100) + 109.66
γw 1 2(9.81) 2

P1 = 1,982.69 kPa

Problem 15

A 250mm pipe is 80m long and has a friction factor of 0.02. if the head loss is 6.4m, what is the
velocity of the water pipe?

Given:

D = 250mm

L = 80m

f = 0.02
 84

hf = 6.4

g = 9.81 m/s2

Required:

Velocity V (m/s)

Solution:

1m
250mm x = 0.250m
1000mm

hf = f (L/D) (v2/2g) v2 = (2ghf) / f(L/D) v= (2ghf)D / f(L)

v= (2) (9.81) (6.4) (0.250) / 0.02 (80)

v= 31.488 / 1.6

v = 19.680

V = 4.429 m/s

Final answer: 4.43 m/s

 85

Problem 16
Water flows through a 180-meter-long cast-iron pipe with a diameter of 0.15 m. The friction
factor f is 0.022. If the flow rate of water is Q=0.05 m3/s, determine the average velocity of flow
and the head loss due to friction using the Darcy–Weisbach equation.

Given:

L =180m

D =0.15

f = 0.022
 86

Q =0.05 m3/s

g =9.81 m/s2

Required:

Average velocity, V

Head loss, hf

Solution:

Step 1: Compute the flow velocity

A = πD2/4

A = π(0.15)2/4

A= 0.01767 m2

V= Q/A

V = 0.05 / 0.01767

V = 2.83 m/s

Step 2: Compute the head loss using Darcy–Weisbach equation

LV2
hf = f
D (2g)
 87

180 (2.83)2
hf = 0.022 x
0.15 (2) (9.81)

1441.60
2
hf = 0.22 x
2.943

hf = 10.78 m

Final Answer: V = 2.83 m/s

hf = 10.78m

Problem 17

Water at 20°C flows through a 120 m long, 100 mm diameter pipe with a flow rate of 0.015 m³/s.
Assuming a friction factor f = 0.02, calculate the head loss due to friction and the pressure drop
along the pipe.

Given: L = 120 m

D = 0.1 m

Q = 0.015 m³/s

f = 0.02
 88

ρ = 1000 kg/m³

g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:

hf and ΔP

Solution:

V = Q / A = 0.015 / (π × 0.1² / 4) = 1.91 m/s

hf = f (L/D) (V² / 2g) = 0.02 × (120/0.1) × (1.91² / (2×9.81)) = 4.45 m
Pressure drop ΔP = ρg hf = 1000 × 9.81 × 4.45 = 43,645 Pa = 43.6 kPa

Answer: hf = 4.45 m; ΔP = 43.6 kPa

Problem 17
A 200 m long pipeline carries water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³) at a velocity of 2.5 m/s. The pipe has a
diameter of 150 mm and a friction factor of 0.03. Determine the head loss and the power loss due
to friction.

Given: L = 200 m

D = 0.15 m

f = 0.03

V = 2.5 m/s

ρ = 1000 kg/m³

g = 9.81 m/s²
 89

Required:

hf and Power loss

Solution:

hf = f (L/D) (V² / 2g) = 0.03 × (200/0.15) × (2.5² / (2×9.81)) = 12.76 m

Head loss = 12.76 m
Power loss = ρgQ hf ; first find Q = A×V = (π×0.15²/4)×2.5 = 0.0442 m³/s
Power loss = 1000×9.81×0.0442×12.76 = 5,538 W = 5.54 kW

Answer: hf = 12.76 m; Power loss = 5.54 kW

Problem 18

Water flows through a steel pipe that is 60 m long and has a diameter of 0.08 m. The average
velocity of flow is 2.5 m/s. If the friction factor is 0.028, calculate the head loss due to friction
and the corresponding pressure loss in pascals.

Given:

L =60 m

D =0.08 m
 90

v =2.5 m / s

f =0.028

g =9.81 m / s
3
ρ =1000 kg / m

Required:

a. Headloss, hf

b. Pressure loss, Δ P

Solution:

Bernoulli’s Equation between points 1 and 2:

1 2 1 2
P1 + ρ v 1 + ρg z 1 = P2 + ρ v 2 + ρg z 2
2 2

Apply Darcy–Weisbach Equation:

2
L v
hf = f
D 2g

hf = ( 0.028 ) (600.08 )(2.5

2×9.81 )

hf =6.69 m

Convert Head Loss to Pressure Loss:

Δ P= ρg hf
 91

Δ P=(1000)(9.81)(6.69)

Δ P=65,604.9 Pa ≈65.6 kPa

Problem 19

Water flows through a PVC pipe of diameter 0.10 m and length 100 m. The total head loss due to
friction is measured to be 3.5 m. If the friction factor is 0.022, determine the flow velocity (v)
and the volumetric flow rate (Q).

Given:

L=100 m

D=0.10 m
 92

f=0.022
2
g=9.81 m/ s

hf =3.5 m

Required:

Flow velocity, v

Flow rate, Q

Solution:

Rearrange Darcy–Weisbach Equation:

2
L v
hf =f
D 2g

v=√2g h f D

v=
√ 2 ( 9.81 ) (3.5 )( 0.10 )
(0.022)(100)

v=1.77 m/s

Compute Flow Rate:

2
πD
Q=Av= v
4
2
π ( 0.10 )
Q= (1.77)
4
3
Q= 0.0139 m /s
 93

Problem 20

In a 100-meter-long pipeline, water flows at a velocity of 3 m/s through a pipe with a diameter of
0.5 meters. If the friction factor is 0.02, calculate the head loss. (JONES, Mark. 2018)

Required: Head loss.

Solution:
Using the Darcy–Weisbach equation:
 94

L v²
hf=fx x
D 2g

Where:

hf is the head loss due to friction (in meters, m).

f is the Darcy friction factor (dimensionless).

Lis the length of the pipe (in meters, m).

D is the diameter of the pipe (in meters, m).

v is the velocity of the fluid (in meters per second, m/s).

g is the acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s²).

m
3 2
100 m s
hf=(0.02)( )x( )
( )
0.5 m m
( 2 ) 9.81 2
s

hf= 7.35 meters

Problem 21

Oil with a velocity of 3.0 m/s flows through a straight, horizontal pipe with an internal diameter
of 8 cm and a length of 50m. If the pipe has a friction factor (f) of 0.025, calculate the head loss
(hf) due to friction over the length of the pipe.

Given

Velocity (v): 3.0 m/s

Diameter (D): 8 cm (0.08m)

Length (L): 50 m
 95

Darcy friction factor (f): 0.025

Gravitational acceleration (g): 9.81 m/s2

Required

Head loss (hf) in meters.

Solution
2
L v
hf =f
D 2g
2
50m (3.0m/s )
hf =0.025⋅ ⋅
0.08m 2⋅(9.81 m/s2 )
2 2
9m /s
hf =0.025⋅ (625)⋅ 2
19.62 m/s

hf =0.025⋅ (625)⋅0.4587

gg h =7.167 m
f

Problem 22

A liquid flows through a pipe of 40 mm internal diameter at a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The pressure
drop ( Δ P ) over a 20m length of the pipe is measured to be 25 kPa. The density of the liquid is
850 kg/m3. Calculate the Darcy friction factor (f) for the pipe.

Given

 Diameter (D): 40 mm (0.04 m)

 Velocity (v): 1.5 m/s

 Length (L): 20 m
 96

 Pressure drop ( Δ P): 25 kPa (25,000 Pa)

 Density ( ρ): 850 kg/m3

 Gravitational acceleration (g): 9.81m/s2

Required

 Darcy friction factor (f).

Solution

Δ P= ρg hf

ΔP
hf =
ρg

25,000 Pa
hf = 3 2
(850 kg/m )(9.81 m/s )

25,000
hf =
8338.5

hf =2.998 m
2
L v
hf = f
D 2g

h f ⋅ 2g ⋅ D
f= 2
L⋅ v
2
(2.998 m ) ⋅2 ⋅(9.81 m/s ) ⋅(0.04 m )
f= 2
(20 m ) ⋅(1.5 m/s )

2.353
f=
45

f =0.0523

f =0.0523
 97

Problem 23

Water flows through a horizontal 100 m long pipe with a diameter of 0.10 m. The pipe has a 90°
elbow and a fully open gate valve. The average velocity is 2 m/s, and water properties are
ρ=1000 kg/m³ , μ 0.001 Pa ⋅ s. Pipe roughness is ε=0.0002 m. The minor loss coefficients are:

90° elbow: K elbow =0.3

Gate valve fully open: K valve=0.2

Determine the total head loss (Darcy–Weisbach + minor losses).

Given:
 98

Pipe: L=100 m , D=0.10 m, ε=0.0002 m

Velocity: V =2 m/s

Minor losses: K elbow =0.3 , K valve=0.2

Water properties: ρ=1000 kg/m³ , μ=0.001 Pa ⋅s

Required:

Total head loss h total(m of water)

Solution:

ρVD
Reynolds number: ℜ=
μ

Darcy friction factor f (Swamee–Jain or Moody chart)

Pipe (major) head loss:

2
L V
h f =f
D 2g

Minor losses:
2
V
h m=∑ K
2g

Total head loss:

h total=hf + hm

Reynolds number

1000 ⋅2 ⋅0.10
ℜ= =200,000 (turbulent)
0.001

Friction factor (Swamee–Jain)

ε /(3.7 D)=0.0002/0.37 ≈ 0.000541

0.9
5.74 /R e =5.74/50118 ≈ 0.000114

Sum: 0.000655
 99

log ⁡10(0.000655)≈−3.183

f =0.25 /¿

Major head loss

2
L V 100 4
h f =f =0.0247 ⋅ ⋅
D 2g 0.10 19.62

L/ D=1000
2
V /2 g=4/19.62 ≈ 0.204

h f =0.0247⋅ 1000⋅ 0.204 ≈ 5.04 m

Minor losses
2
V
h m=(K elbow + K valve ) =(0.3+ 0.2) ⋅0.204=0.5 ⋅0.204 ≈ 0.102 m
2g

Total head loss

h total=5.04 +0.102 ≈ 5.14 m

Total head loss: h total ≈ 5.14 m of water

 100

Problem 24

Oil ( ρ=850 kg/m³ , μ=0.003 Pa\cdotps) flows through a 50 m long pipe of diameter 0.05 m with
average velocity 1.0 m/s. The pipe has a roughness of 0.00015 m. Calculate:

Reynolds number and flow regime.

Darcy friction factor f (turbulent or laminar approximation).

Head loss h f in meters of oil.

Given:

ρ=850 kg/m³ , μ=0.003 Pa ⋅ s

Pipe length: L=50 m , diameter: D=0.05 m

Velocity: V =1.0 m/s

Roughness: ε =0.00015 m

Gravity: g=9.81 m/s²

 101

Required:

Reynolds number ℜ

Friction factor f

Head loss h f (m)

Solution:

ρVD
ℜ=
μ

Laminar flow: f =64 /ℜ

Turbulent flow: use Colebrook or Swamee–Jain equation

Head loss:
2
ΔP L V
hf = =f
ρg D 2g

Compute Reynolds number

ρVD 850 ⋅1.0 ⋅0.05 42.5

ℜ= = = ≈ 14,167
μ 0.003 0.003

ℜ> 4000→ turbulent flow

Approximate friction factor using Swamee–Jain equation

ε /(3.7 D)=0.00015 /(3.7 ⋅0.05)≈ 0.000811

0.9 0.9
5.74 / R e =5.74/ (14167 ) ≈5.74 / 6820 ≈ 0.000841

Sum: 0.000811+ 0.000841≈ 0.001652

Log10: log ⁡10(0.001652)≈−2.782

Square reciprocal: f =0.25 /7.74 ≈ 0.0323

Compute head loss

 102

2 2
L V 50 1.0
h f =f =0.0323 ⋅ ⋅
D 2g 0.05 2⋅ 9.81

L/ D=50 /0.05=1000
2
V /2 g=1/19.62 ≈ 0.05097

Multiply: 0.0323 ⋅1000 ⋅0.05097 ≈ 1.64 m

Reynolds number: ℜ≈ 14,167 (turbulent)

Friction factor: f ≈ 0.0323

Head loss: h f ≈ 1.64 m

Problem 25

Tomato juice flows at velocity 1.2 m/s through a 15-m long pipe of diameter 0.04 m. The friction
factor is 0.028. Determine head loss.
Given:
• v = 1.2 m/s
• L = 15 m
• D = 0.04 m
• f = 0.028
• g = 9.81 m/s²
Required:
hf
Solution:
hf = f (L/D)(v²/2g)
hf = 0.028 × (15/0.04) × (1.44 / 19.62)
hf ≈ 0.77 m
Answer:
0.77 m of fluid
 103

Problem 28

A water pipeline 50 m long and 0.10 m in diameter carries water at 2.5 m/s. Friction factor f =
0.022. Determine head loss.
Given:
• L = 50 m
• D = 0.10 m
• v = 2.5 m/s
• f = 0.022
Required:
hf
Solution:
hf = f (L/D)(v²/2g)
hf = 0.022 × (50/0.10) × (6.25 / 19.62)
hf ≈ 3.50 m
Answer:
3.50 m head loss
 104

Problem 26

Honey, flowing in a pipe with a 0.02 m diameter and a length of 5 m, is confirmed to be in

laminar flow with a Reynolds number (Re) of 1500. If the flow velocity is 0.5 m/s, calculate the
frictional head loss (hf) in meters.

Given:

Pipe length (L) = 5 m

Pipe diameter (D) = 0.02 m

Reynolds number (Re) = 1500

Velocity (v) = 0.5 m/s

Gravitational acceleration (g) = 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Frictional head loss (hf)

 105

Solution:

Determine the Friction Factor (f):

For laminar flow (Re < 2000): f = 64 / Re = 64 / 1500 ≈ 0.04267

Calculate the Head Loss (hf):

hf = f (L/D) (v²/2g)

hf = 0.04267 x (5 m / 0.02 m) x ((0.5 m/s)² / (2 x 9.81 m/s²))

hf = 0.04267 x (250) x (0.25 / 19.62) m

hf ≈ 0.1359 m

Problem 27

A liquid food product (density ρ = 1020 kg/m³ and dynamic viscosity µ = 0.005 Pa·s) flows
through a 50 m pipe with a 0.1 m diameter at a velocity of 2.5 m/s. The flow is turbulent, and the
Blasius approximation for the friction factor is f ≈ 0.016. Calculate the frictional head loss (hf) in
meters.

Given:

Pipe length (L): 50 m

Pipe diameter (D): 0.1 m

Velocity (v): 2.5 m/s

Friction factor (f): 0.016

Gravitational acceleration (g): 9.81 m/s²

Required:

Frictional head loss (hf)

 106

Solution:

Calculate the Head Loss (hf):

hf = f (L/D) (v²/2g)

hf = 0.016 x (50 m / 0.1 m) x ((2.5 m/s)² / (2 x 9.81 m/s²))

hf = 0.016 x (500) x (6.25 / 19.62) m

hf ≈ 0.016 x 500 x 0.3185 m

hf ≈ 2.548 m
107
 108

APPLICATION OF FLUID HEAT TRANSFER IN AB MATERIALS

Definition:
The application of fluid heat transfer in Agricultural and Biosystems (AB) materials
involves the movement of thermal energy between a fluid—such as air, water, steam, or
refrigerants—and agricultural products. This exchange of heat occurs through conduction,
convection, or radiation and is essential in various thermal processes where fluids serve as the
heating or cooling medium. Examples include using hot air for drying grains, circulating water
for pasteurizing milk, applying steam for sterilization, or using chilled air in cold storage
systems. Fluid heat transfer enables controlled temperature adjustment of AB materials to
achieve the desired physical, chemical, or biological changes.
Importance:
Fluid heat transfer is important in AB materials because it ensures efficient and uniform
temperature control, which is critical for maintaining product quality, safety, and stability. It
supports key operations such as drying, cooling, pasteurization, sterilization, blanching, and
refrigeration—all of which require precise heat exchange to prevent spoilage and preserve
nutrients. Effective heat transfer improves energy efficiency, reduces processing time, and
minimizes losses in agricultural products. In addition, it enhances process reliability, enables
large-scale thermal operations, and plays a vital role in extending shelf life and ensuring
compliance with food safety standards.
 109

CONDUCTION

Problem 1

The main purpose of the steel was to separate two fluids. It is a 25 mm thick steel wall
that has a thermal conductivity of k = 45 W/m.k.

Given:
Thickness: L = 25 Mm
Thermal Conductivity: K = 45 W/M.K
Outside Temperature: T 1 = 125 ℃
Inside Temperature: T 2 = 35 ℃
Area: A = 0.5 m2

Required:
a. Heat Transfer Rate Q Through The Wall.
b. Temperature at the mid-plane of the wall.

Solution:
a. Heat transfer rate Q through the wall.
L = 25 mm
1m
25 mm ×
1000 mm
= 0.025 m

dT
Q = kA
dx
(T −T 2)
Q = kA 1
L
dT = T 1−T 2
dT = 125 – 35
dT = 90 K
( 90)
Q = (45)(0.5)
0.025
Q = 81,000 W ≈ 8.1 × 105 W

b. Temperature at the mid-plane of the wall.

T 1 +T 2
T mid =
2
 110

125+35
T mid =
2

T mid = 80 ℃
Problem 2

What is the change in temperature if the steel wall has a heat transfer rate of 70,500 kW
and the thickness and area are 30 mm and 0.8 m2? Also, what is the heat transfer rate if the area
increased by 0.2 m2? The thermal conductivity of the steel wall is k = 45 W/m.k.

Given:
Heat Transfer Rate: Q = 50 W
Thickness: L = 30 Mm
Area: A = 0.8 m2
Thermal Conductivity: K = 45 W/M.K

Required:
a. Change in temperature
b. Heat transfer rate if the area is increased by 0.2 m2

Solution:
a. Change in temperature
L = 30 mm
1m
30 mm × = 0.03 m
1000 mm
dT
Q = kA
dx
Q = kA ¿ ¿
(T 1−T 2)
70,500 = (45)(0.8)
0.03
(T 1−T 2) = 58.75 K

b. Heat transfer rate if the area is increased by 0.2 m2

A = 0.8 + 0.2
A = 1 m2

(T 1−T 2)
Q = kA
L
 111

(58.75)
Q = (45)(1)
0.03
Q = 88,125 kW ≈ 8.8125 × 105 W

Problem 3

Given:
Plate thickness L = 0.010 m, thermal conductivity k = 45 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, area A = 0.20 m²,
temperatures Thot = 80 °C, Tcold = 30 °C.

Required:
Heat rate Q̇ through the plate (steady state, 1-D).

𝛥𝑇 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑
Solution:

𝛥𝑇 = 80 − 30 = 50 𝐾
𝑄̇ = ka
ΔT
L
50
Q = 45 x 0.20
Q = 45,000 𝑊
0.010
 112

Problem 4

Given:
Layer 1 (brick): k₁ = 0.80 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, L₁ = 0.10 m; Layer 2 (insulation): k₂ = 0.040
W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, L₂ = 0.050 m; area A = 1.0 m²; temperatures T_hot − T_cold = 50 K.

Required:
Overall steady heat rate Q̇ .

Solution:
𝑅₁ =
L1
k1A
¿
R1 = 0.10 ¿
R1= 0.125 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹
(0.80 ×1.0)

𝑅₂ =
L2
k2A
0.050
R2=
R2 = 1.25 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹
0.040 x 1.0

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅₁ + 𝑅₂ = 1.375 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹

𝑄̇ =
ΔT
R total
50
Q=
Q = 36.4 𝑊
1.375
 113

Problem 5

A hot fluid at 120°C flows inside a steel pipe used in an abrasive slurry system. The pipe
wall is made of an abrasive-resistant material with a thickness of 25 mm and an inner diameter of
100 mm. The outer surface of the pipe is exposed to ambient air at 30°C. The thermal
conductivity of the pipe material is 15 W/m·K. Assuming steady-state conduction and neglecting
internal convection resistance, calculate the rate of heat loss per meter length of the pipe.

Given:
Inner diameter of the pipe, Di=0.1 m
Pipe wall thickness, L=0.025 m
Fluid temperature, T i=120∘ C
Ambient air temperature, T ∞=30∘ C
Thermal conductivity of abrasive material, k =15 W/m\cdotpK
Assume steady-state conduction and 1 m pipe length

Required:
Rate of heat loss per meter length of pipe, Q in W/m

For conduction through a cylindrical wall, the heat transfer rate is:
2 πk L z (T i−T o)
Q=
ln ⁡( r o /r i )
Where:
r i=D i /2= inner radius
r o =r i + L= outer radius
L z= length of the pipe (1 m)
T i= inner surface temperature
T o= outer surface temperature (assume convective resistance negligible; in this case, we take T∞
as approximation)

Solution:
Calculate inner and outer radii:
Di 0.1
r i= = =0.05 m r o =r i + L=0.05+ 0.025=0.075 m
2 2
Apply the formula for cylindrical conduction:
2 πk L z (T i−T ∞) 2 π (15)(1)(120−30)
Q= Q=
ln ⁡( r o /r i ) ln ⁡(0.075 /0.05)
Compute the logarithm:
ln ⁡(0.075/0.05)=ln ⁡(1.5)≈ 0.4055
Compute numerator:
 114

2 πk L z (T i−T ∞)=2 π (15)(1)(90)=2 π (1350)≈2 ×3.1416 × 1350 ≈ 8482 W

Calculate Q:
8482
Q= ≈ 20928 W/m
0.4055
This means that about 20.9 kW of heat per meter of pipe is conducted through the abrasive pipe
wall to the surroundings.

Problem 6

A chemical processing tank contains a fluid at 80°C. The tank wall is made of a flat
abrasive-resistant material with a thickness of 0.02 m and an area of 2 m² exposed to air at 25°C.
The thermal conductivity of the wall material is 12 W/m·K. Calculate the rate of heat loss
through the tank wall due to conduction. Assume steady-state, one-dimensional conduction.

Given:
Wall thickness, L=0.02 m
 115

Wall area, A=2 m²

Fluid temperature, T i=80∘ C
Air temperature, T ∞=25 ∘ C
Thermal conductivity of wall, k =12 W/m ⋅ K

Required:
Heat loss through the wall, Q in W
For conduction through a flat wall, the heat transfer rate is:
kA (T i−T ∞ )
Q= Solution:
L
Substitute the values:
12 ×2 ×(80−25)
Q=
0.02
Compute the temperature difference:
T i−T ∞=80−25=55 °C
Compute numerator:
kA (T i−T ∞ )=12× 2 ×55=1320
Divide by wall thickness:
1320
Q= =66,000 W
0.02
Q=66 kW

The tank wall conducts 66 kW of heat from the fluid to the ambient air. This shows that even thin
walls of abrasive materials can transfer significant heat if the temperature difference is large.
 116

Problem 7

The average rate at which energy is conducted outward through the ground surface at a
place 50 mW/m2 and the average thermal conductivity of the near surface rocks is 2 W/mK.
Assuming the surface temperature of 20oC , find the temperature at the depth of 25km

Given:
K = 2 w/mK
D = 25km = 25x104 m
Tc = 20oC = (20 + 273) K = 293K
Heat transfer per unit area, q/A = 50mW/m2

Required:
Temperature at the depth of 25km

Solution:

q = KA (Th – Tc) /d

Th = qd /KA + Tc

= [ (50 x 10-3 x 2 x 104) / 2 ] + 293

= (500 +293) K

= 893 – 273K

Th = 520oC

Final Answer: Th = 520oC

 117

Problem 8

The energy lost from a 10 cm tchick slab of steel is 50W. Assumin the temperature
difference of 10K, find the area of the slab. (Thermal conductivity of steel = 45 W/mK)

Given:
K = 45W/mK
D = 10cm
Th – Tc = 10K
Q = 50W

Required:
Area of the Slab

Solution:

10cm x 1/100cm= 0.1m

q = KA (Th – Tc) /d

A = qd / K(Th –Tc)

A = (50 x 1) / (45 x 10) m2

A = 0.011m2

Final Answer: A = 0.011m2

 118

Problem 9

A concrete wall of a cold storage room is 0.2 m thick, and its two surfaces are maintained
at 30°C (outer) and 10°C (inner). The thermal conductivity of concrete is 1.37 W/(m ∙ ℃ ¿ .
Determine the rate of heat transfer per square meter through the wall.

Given:
k = 1.37W/(m∙ ℃ ¿
t 1 = 30°C, t 2 = 10°C
x 1−x 2 = 0.2m
A = 1.0m2

Required:
Determine the rate of heat transfer per square meter through the wall.

Solution:
(t 1−t 2 )
q c =−kA
(x 1−x 2)
(30−10)
q c =(1.37)(1)
(0.2)
q c =1.37 ×100 = 137W/m2
 119

Problem 10

A wall consists of two layers:

Brick layer: thickness = 0.1m, k = 0.72W/(m∙ ℃ ¿
Insulation layer: thickness = 0.05m, k = 0.040.72W/(m∙ ℃ ¿
The inner surface is at 50°C, and the outer surface is at 20°C. Find the heat transfer per unit area
through the wall.

Given:
t 1 = 50°C, t n = 20°C
∆ x 1 = 0.1m, k 1 = 0.72
∆ x 2 = 0.05m, k 2 = 0.04

Required:
Find the heat transfer per unit area through the wall.

Solution:
q c= A ¿ ¿
q c =1 ¿ ¿
30 30 2
q c= = =21.6 W /m
0.139+1.25 1.389
 120

Problem 11

A wall is 0.3 m thick with a thermal conductivity of 0.72 W/m·K. The inside surface
temperature is 25°C, and the outside surface temperature is 5°C. Calculate the rate of heat
transfer per square meter through the wall.

Given:
Thermal conductivity, k = 0.72 W/m·K
Wall thickness, L = 0.3 m
Inside temperature, T₁ = 25°C
Outside temperature, T₂ = 5°C

Required:
Heat flux, q

Solution:
q = k(T₁ - T₂)/L = 0.72(25 - 5)/0.3 = 48 W/m²

Final Answer:
Rate of heat transfer = 48 W/m²
 121

Problem 12

A composite wall consists of two layers: brick (0.1 m thick, k = 0.7 W/m·K) and
insulation (0.05 m thick, k = 0.04 W/m·K). The inside temperature is 30°C, and the outside
temperature is 10°C. Find the overall heat transfer rate per square meter.

Given:
Brick: L₁ = 0.1 m, k₁ = 0.7 W/m·K
Insulation: L₂ = 0.05 m, k₂ = 0.04 W/m·K
Temperature difference, ΔT = 20°C

Required:
Overall heat flux, q

Solution:
Rtotal = (L₁/k₁) + (L₂/k₂) = (0.1/0.7) + (0.05/0.04) = 1.3571 m²·K/W
q = ΔT / Rtotal = 20 / 1.3571 = 14.74 W/m²

Final Answer:
Rate of heat transfer = 14.74 W/m²
 122

Problem 13

A metal wall in a food processing plant is 0.05 m thick. The inner surface is at 80°C
while the exterior surface exposed to ambient conditions is at 30°C. The thermal conductivity of
the metal is 45 W/m·K. Calculate the heat transfer rate per square meter through the wall.

Required: Heat transfer rate per m² through the wall.

Solution:
Using Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction:

T 1−T 2
Q=kA Where:
L
 Q = heat transfer rate (W)
 A = cross-sectional area (m²)
 L= thickness of the material (m)
 T 1−T 2 = temperature difference (K or °C)

T 1−T 2
Q=kA Q=45 ¿) = 45
L

50
Q = 45( ¿=45,000 W
0.05
 123

Problem 14

A bakery oven has an insulation layer 0.1 m thick with a thermal conductivity of 0.12
W/m·K. The inside temperature is 250°C, and the outside surface of the insulation is at 60°C.
Determine the heat loss per square meter through the insulation. (BASA, Casielyn. 2016)

Required: Heat loss per m².

Solution:
Using Fourier’s Law:

T 1−T 2
Q=kA Where:
L
Q = heat transfer rate (W)
A = cross-sectional area (m²)
L= thickness of the material (m)
T 1−T 2 = temperature difference (K or °C)

Q=0.12¿ ) = 0.12

Q = 0.12 x 1900 ¿ 228 W /m ²

 124

Problem 15

After cooking, cylindrical potato slices are placed in a cold storage room to cool down
before packaging. Each potato slice is approximately 30 mm long and 15 mm in radius. Initially,
the entire slice is at a uniform temperature of 80 °C. The surrounding air is maintained at 25 °C,
and heat is removed primarily through convection at the surface. The convective heat transfer
coefficient between the potato surface and the air is 8 W/m²·K. The potato has the following
thermophysical properties: k = 0.50 W/m·K, ρ = 1050 kg/m³, cp = 3500 J/kg·K. Assume that the
temperature within the potato remains nearly uniform during cooling if the Biot number allows
this assumption.

Given:
Radius, r = 15 mm = 0.015 m
Length, L = 30 mm (assume long cylinder approximation)
Initial temperature, Ti = 80.0 °C
Ambient temperature, T∞ = 25.0 °C
Convective coefficient, h = 8.0 W/m²·K
Thermal conductivity, k = 0.50 W/m·K
Density, ρ = 1050 kg/m³
Specific heat, cp = 3500 J/kg·K

Required:
1) Determine whether the lumped-capacitance method is valid by computing the Biot number.
2) If valid, calculate the time required for the center temperature to drop from 80 °C to 40 °C.
3) If not valid, state which transient heat conduction approach should be used and why.
Solution:
Step 1 — Compute Biot number. For a long cylinder, use characteristic length Lc = r/2 = r/2.

Lc = r/2 = 0.015000 / 2 = 0.007500 m

Bi = h·Lc / k = 8.00·0.007500 / 0.50 = 0.12000

Conclusion: Bi ≥ 0.1, so lumped-capacitance is NOT valid. Use a transient conduction solution

based on the analytical solution for a cylinder (e.g., use series solutions involving Bessel
functions or Heisler-type charts for an infinite cylinder).
 125

Problem 16

A fresh mango slice is being cooled inside a refrigerated chamber. The slice has a 25 mm-
thick fleshy layer and a 0.8 mm-thick peel that covers one side. The inner flesh remains at
approximately 35 °C due to its thermal mass, while the surrounding air is at 5 °C. The peel acts
as a thin resistive layer. Assume one-dimensional steady-state heat transfer normal to the layers
and consider an area of 1 m².

Given:
Flesh temperature, Tcore = 35.0 °C
Air temperature, T∞ = 5.0 °C
Flesh thickness, Lf= 25.0 mm = 0.0250 m
Peel thickness, Ls= 0.80 mm = 0.0008 m
Thermal conductivity (flesh), kf = 0.45 W/m·K
Thermal conductivity (peel), ks = 0.15 W/m·K
Convective coefficient, h = 12.0 W/m²·K
Area, A = 1.0 m²

Required:
1) Compute the steady-state heat flux q″ through the mango slice.
2) Determine the outer surface temperature of the peel.
3) Find the temperature at the flesh–peel interface.
4) Identify which layer contributes the most to total resistance.

Solution:
Model the system as series resistances per unit area (A = 1 m²): Rconv = 1/(hA), Rskin = Ls/(ksA),
Rflesh = Lf/(kfA).
Rconv= 1/(h·A) = 1/(12.00·1.0) = 0.083333 K·m²/W
Rskin= Ls/(k_s·A) = 0.000800/0.15 = 0.00533333 K·m²/W
Rflesh= Lf/(k_f·A) = 0.025000/0.45 = 0.05555556 K·m²/W
Rtotal= Rconv+ Rskin+ Rflesh= 0.14422222 K·m²/W
Heat flux: q″ = (Tcore - T∞)/Rtotal= (35.0 - 5.0) / 0.14422222 = 208.0123 W/m²
Outer surface temperature: T_s = T∞ + q″·Rconv= 5.0 + 208.0123·0.083333 = 22.3344 °C
Interface temperature (flesh–peel): Tinterface = Tcore - q″·Rflesh= 35.0 - 208.0123·0.05555556 =
23.4438 °C
Temperature drops across each resistance:
ΔTconv= q″·Rconv= 17.3344 °C
ΔTskin= q″·Rskin= 1.1094 °C
ΔTflesh= q″·Rflesh= 11.5562 °C
 126

Conclusion: The largest thermal resistance is from "Convection (air side)" with R = 0.08333333
K·m²/W, so it contributes the most to the total resistance.
Problem 17

A stainless-steel tray used in food freezing has a thickness of 0.008 m. The inner surface
is at –10°C, while the outer surface exposed to cold air is at –25°C. Calculate the rate of heat
transfer per unit area through the tray. Thermal conductivity of stainless steel = 16 W/m·°C.
Given:
• k = 16 W/m·°C
• t1 = –10°C
• t2 = –25°C
• x = 0.008 m

Required:
Rate of heat transfer per unit area (q/A)

Solution:
q/A = k(t1 – t2)/x
q/A = 16(–10 – (–25)) / 0.008
q/A = 16(15)/0.008
q/A = 30,000 W/m²

Answer:

30,000 W/m²
 127

Problem 18

A composite wall consists of a 5 mm plastic layer (k = 0.18 W/m·°C) and a 20 mm

wooden layer (k = 0.12 W/m·°C). The temperature difference across the composite wall is 20°C.
Determine the heat flux.

Given:
• k1 = 0.18 W/m·°C, x1 = 0.005 m
• k2 = 0.12 W/m·°C, x2 = 0.020 m
• ΔT = 20°C

Required:
Heat flux (q/A)

Solution:
Rtotal = x1/k1 + x2/k2
Rtotal= 0.005/0.18 + 0.020/0.12
Rtotal= 0.0278 + 0.1667 = 0.1945
q/A = ΔT / Rtotal= 20 / 0.1945 = 102.85 W/m²

Answer:

102.85 W/m²
 128

Problem 19

A 3-layer composite wall separates two long reservoirs at steady state. From left to right
the layers are:

Layer 1: stainless steel, thickness L1 = 8 mm, k1 = 16 W/m·K

Layer 2: insulation, thickness L2 = 30 mm, k2 = 0.12 W/m·K
Layer 3: aluminum, thickness L3 = 6 mm, k3 = 180 W/m·K
Left reservoir temperature is 120 °C, right reservoir temperature is 25 °C. Neglect contact
resistances and assume 1D conduction perpendicular to layers. Determine heat flux and
temperature at the two interfaces.

Given:
L1 = 0.008 m, k1 = 16 W/m·K
L2 = 0.030 m, k2 = 0.12 W/m·K
L3 = 0.006 m, k3 = 180 W/m·K
Tleft = 120 °C, Tright = 25 °C
1D steady conduction, no contact resistance.

Required:
(a) Heat flux q'' (W/m²) through the composite wall.
(b) Temperatures at the interface between Layer1–Layer2 and between Layer2–Layer3.
Solution:
Thermal resistances per unit area: R1 = L1/k1 = 5.0000e-04 m²·K/W, R2 = 0.25, R3 = 3.3333e-05.
Total R = 0.25053 m²·K/W. Temperature difference ΔT = 95.0 K.
Heat flux q'' = ΔT / Rtotal = 379.19 W/m² (positive from left to right).

Interface temperatures (from left side):

T at Layer1–Layer2 = Tleft - q''·R1 = 119.81 °C.
T at Layer2–Layer3 = Tleft - q''·(R1+R2) = 25.013 °C.
 129

Problem 20

Hot fluid at 200 °C flows inside a pipe. The pipe wall (steel) has inner radius r i = 0.020 m
and outer radius ro = 0.030 m with thermal conductivity k = 45 W/m·K. Outside the pipe is still
air at 25 °C; assume convective coefficient outside is large so outer surface is isothermal at 60 °C
due to insulation elsewhere (i.e., T outer surface = 60 °C). If the inner fluid temperature at the interface
(fluid–wall) is 200 °C, find the radial heat flux (W/m²) at the inner wall and the heat transfer per
unit length (W/m).

Given:
Inner radius ri = 0.020 m, outer radius ro = 0.030 m
k = 45 W/m·K
Tinner surface = 200 °C (fluid–wall interface)
Touter surface = 60 °C
Steady radial conduction in cylinder wall.

Required:
(a) Radial heat flux at r = ri (W/m²).
(b) Heat transfer per unit length q' (W/m).

Solution:

Radial conduction heat rate per unit length: q' = 2πk(Tinner - Touter)/ln(r_o/r_i) = 9.7626e+04 W/m.
Radial heat flux at inner surface q''r=ri = q'/(2π ri) = 7.7689e+05 W/m² (directed outward).
 130

Problem 21

A stainless-steel wall (k = 16 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹) separates a pasteurization chamber and the

ambient air. The wall thickness is 8 mm. The inner wall surface is maintained at 90°C while the
outer surface is exposed to air at 25°C. Determine the steady-state rate of heat transfer per unit
area through the wall.

Given:
k = 16 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹
L = 0.008 m
Thot = 90°C
Tcold = 25°C

Required:
Rate of heat transfer per unit area (q/A, W·m⁻²)

Solution:
Using Fourier’s law for conduction: q/A = k (ΔT / L)
q/A = 16 × (65) / 0.008
= 130,000 W·m⁻²

Answer: q/A = 130,000 W·m⁻²

 131

Problem 22

A cylindrical pipe carries hot water at 120°C. The pipe has an inner radius of 0.03 m and
outer radius of 0.04 m. The thermal conductivity of the pipe material is 50 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹. The
outer surface temperature is 80°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer per unit length of the pipe.

Given:
r₁ = 0.03 m
r₂ = 0.04 m
k = 50 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹
T₁ = 120°C
T₂ = 80°C

Required:
Heat transfer rate per unit length (q', W·m⁻¹)

Solution:
For cylindrical conduction: q' = (2πkΔT) / ln(r₂/r₁)
q' = (2π (50) (40)) / ln (0.04 / 0.03)
= 43,681.5 W·m⁻¹

Answer: q' = 43,681.5 W·m⁻¹

 132

Problem 23

A furnace wall is made of firebrick 0.23 m thick with an inner surface temperature of
1000°C and an outer surface temperature of 200°C. The thermal conductivity of the brick is k =
1.15 W/m·°C. Determine the steady-state heat flux through the wall and the rate of heat transfer
per square meter.

Given:
Thickness, L = 0.23 m
T₁ = 1000°C
T₂ = 200°C
k = 1.15 W/m·°C

Required:
1. Heat flux, q (W/m²)
2. Heat transfer rate per m² (Q/A)

Solution:
From Fourier’s law of conduction (steady 1D):
(T 2−T 1)
q=−k
L
Since heat flows from high to low temperature, use magnitude:
(T 1−T 2) (1000−200)
q=k q=1.15 × =1.15× 3478.26=4000 W/m²
L 0.23
Final Answer:
q = 4000 W/m²
Q/A = 4000 W/m²
 133

Problem 24

A composite wall consists of two layers: 6 cm thick brick (k₁ = 0.72 W/m·K) and 2 cm
thick plaster (k₂ = 0.22 W/m·K). The inner surface temperature is 120°C and the outer surface
temperature is 40°C. Determine the heat flux through the wall assuming steady one-dimensional
conduction.
Given:
L₁ = 0.06 m, k₁ = 0.72 W/m·K
L₂ = 0.02 m, k₂ = 0.22 W/m·K
T₁ = 120°C, T₃ = 40°C

Required:
Heat flux, q (W/m²)

Solution:
For series layers:
T 1−T 3
q=
R 1+ R 2
L1 L2
where R1= , R 2= .
k1 k2
Compute:
R₁ = 0.06 / 0.72 = 0.0833 m²·K/W
R₂ = 0.02 / 0.22 = 0.0909 m²·K/W
Total R = 0.0833 + 0.0909 = 0.1742 m²·K/W
120−40 80
q= = =459.3 W/m²
0.1742 0.1742
Final Answer:
q = 459.3 W/m²
 134

Problem 25

Copper rod with 1.5 m long and 5 cm in diameter has one end maintained at 150°C and
the other end at 40°C. If the thermal conductivity of copper is 385 W/(m·°C), determine the rate
of heat transfer through the rod assuming steady-state conduction. Also, find the total heat
transferred through the rod in 10 minutes.

Given: (Cengel and Ghajar, 2019)

L = 1.50 m
d = 0.05 m
k = 385 W/(m·°C)
T1 = 150 °C
T2 = 40 °C

Required:
Determine the rate of heat transfer through the rod assuming steady-state conduction and find
the total heat transferred.

Solution:
2
πⅆ
A=
4
2
π (0.05)
A=
4
A = 0.001963 m²
kA ( T 1−T 2 )
q=
L
385 x 0.001963(150−40)
q=
1.50
q = 55.44 W
Heat = q × 600
= 55.44 × 600
Heat = 33264 J
 135

Problem 26

A composite wall consists of two layers in series: a 0.1 m thick brick (k = 0.72 W/m°C)
and a 0.05 m thick insulation (k = 0.04 W/m°C). The inner wall surface is at 120°C and the outer
surface is at 30°C. Determine the heat flux through the wall and the interface temperature
between the two materials.

Given: (Holman, 2010)

x1 = 0.10 m, k1 = 0.72 W/m°C
x2 = 0.05 m, k2 = 0.04 W/m°C
Thot = 120°C
Tcold = 30°C

Required:
Determine the heat flux through the wall and the interface temperature between the two
materials.

Solution:
x1
R1 =
k1
0.01
=
0.72
R1 = 0.138889 m²°C/W
x2
R2 =
k2
0.05
=
0.04
R2 = 1.250000 m²°C/W
Rtotal = R1 + R2
Rtotal = 0.138889 + 1.250000
Rtotal = 1.38889
T hot −T cold
q'' =
R total
120−30
q'' =
1.38889
q'' = 64.80 W/m²
 136

Tinterface = Thot - q''×R1

= 120 - 64.80×0.138889
Tinterface = 111.00 °C
 137

Problem 27

A wall is made of two layers of different materials: Material A (brick) and Material B
(insulation). Material A has thickness L A =0.2 m and thermal conductivity k A =0.8 W/m ⋅ K.
Material B has thickness LB =0.1 m and thermal conductivity k B=0.05 W/m ⋅ K. The wall area is
2 ∘ ∘
A=10 m . The inside surface of the wall is at T in =20 Cand the outside surface is at T out =−5 C .
Assume steady-state, one-dimensional heat conduction.

Given: (Incropera [Link]., 2007)

 Material A: L A =0.2 m , k A=0.8 W/m ⋅ K
 Material B: LB =0.1 m , k B =0.05 W/m ⋅K
 Wall area: A=10 m 2
 Inside temperature: T in =20∘ C
 Outside temperature: T out =−5∘ C
 Steady-state, 1D conduction

Required:
T out = - 5℃
1. Calculate the overall heat transfer rate through the wall.
2. Determine the interface temperature between Material A and Material B.
3.
Solution:
L
R=
kA
0.2 0.2
RA= = =0.025 K/W
0.8 ⋅10 8
0.1 0.1
R B= = =0.2 K/W
0.05 ⋅10 0.5
R total=R A + RB
R total=0.025+ 0.2
R total=0.225 K/W
T in −T out
Q̇=
R total
20−(−5)
Q̇=
0.225
Q̇=111.1 W
T interface =T in −Q̇ ⋅ R A
T interface =20−111.1⋅0.025
∘
T interface =17.2 C
 138

Problem 28
A cold storage room used for preserving agricultural products (fresh vegetables) is
constructed with an insulated wall made of two layers. The inner layer (Material A) is concrete,
and the outer layer (Material B) is polyurethane foam insulation. The room is maintained at a low
temperature to prevent spoilage of the produce. Assume steady-state, one-dimensional
conduction through the wall.
Given: (Lavine, 2007)
 Material A (Concrete): Thickness L A =0.12 m
Thermal conductivity k A =1.1 W/m ⋅K
 Material B (Polyurethane Foam): Thickness LB =0.08 m
Thermal conductivity k B=0.03 W/m ⋅K
 Wall area: A=25 m 2
∘
 Inside temperature (storage room): T ¿=4 C
∘
 Outside temperature: T out =35 C
Required:
1. Calculate the rate of heat gain (Q̇ ) through the wall.
2. Determine the heat flux (q ' ' ) through the wall.
3. Find the interface temperature between the concrete and insulation layers.
Solution:
L
R=
kA
0.12 0.12
RA= = =0.00436 K/W
1.1× 25 27.5
0.08 0.08
R B= = =0.10667 K/W
0.03 ×25 0.75
Rtotal=R A + R B=0.00436+ 0.10667=0.11103 K/W
T out −T ¿ 35−4 31
Q̇= = = =279.1 W
R total 0.11103 0.11103
'' Q̇ 279.1 2
q = = =11.16 W/ m
A 25
∘
Δ T A =Q̇× R A =279.1× 0.00436=1.217 C
∘
T interface=T ¿ + Δ T A =4+1.217=5.22 C
 139

Problem 29

A small meatball of radius r=1.0 (sphere) at 5∘C is placed in a hot oven at

180∘C. The convective heat transfer coefficient is h=10 W/m2⋅K. Properties of the
meatball: density ρ=1050 kg/m3, specific heat cp=3600 J/kg-K, thermal conductivity k
= 0.50 W/m∙K.

Given: Required:

Sphere radius r = 0.01 m Biot number Bi = hLc/k and validity

check.
Ti = 5oC, T∞ = 180∘C, Ttarget = 75oC
Time t for center to reach 75∘C(if lumped
h=10 W/m2K
valid).
3
ρ = 1050 kg/m , cp = 3600 J/kgK, k =
Heat required Q.
0.50 W/mK

For a sphere: characteristic length Lc =

V/A = r/3

Solution:

r 0.01 −3
Lc = = =3.333× 10 m
3 3

h Lc 10 × 3.333× 10−3
Bi= = =0.0667
k 0.50

Since Bi ≈ 0.067<0.1, the lumped-capacitance (uniform-T) assumption is acceptable.

T ( t )−T ∞
T i −T ∞
=exp
(−hA
ρV c p
t
)
 140

hA h(3/r ) 10 ×(3/0.01)
α= = = =7.9365× 10−4 s−1
ρV c p ρcp 1050(3600)

T target−T ∞ 75−180
θ= = =0.6
T i−T ∞ 5−180

¿(0.6)
exp (−αt )=0.6 ⇒t=
α

0.5108 2
−¿(0.6)=0.5108 , t= −4
=6.44 ×10 s ≈10.7 min
7.9365 × 10

4 3 4 3 −6 3
V = π r = π ( 0.01 ) =4.1888× 10 m
3 3
−6 3
m=ρV =1050(4.1888 × 10 m )=0.004398 kg

Q=mc p ( T target −T I ) =0.004398 ×3600 × ( 75−5 )=1,109 J

 141

Problem 30

A 2-cm thick slab (meat slice) of area A=0.05 m2 is placed between a hot
contact surface at 120∘C and a cold surface at 40∘C. Thermal conductivity of the
meat is k=0.45 W/m⋅K. Assuming steady one-dimensional conduction perpendicular
to the faces

Given: Required:

Thickness L = 0.02 m Q˙, q′′, dT/dx

Area A = 0.05 m2

Thot = 120∘C, Tcold = 40∘C ⇒ ΔT = 80 K

Thermal conductivity k = 0.45 W/mK

Steady 1-D conduction ⇒ Fourier’s law:

∆T
Q=−kA (magnitudeused here)
L

Solution:

Q=kA
∆T
L
=0.45 ×0.05 ( )
80
0.02
=90 W

q = {Q} over {A} = {90} over {0.05} = 1,800 W/ {m} ^ {2

dT ∆T 80 K
= = =4,000
dx L 0.02 m
 142

Problem 31

A cold storage room is separated from the ambient air by a composite wall
consisting of two materials in series:
 8 cm thick brick (k₁ = 0.72 W/m·°C), and

 5 cm thick insulation (k₂ = 0.05 W/m·°C).

The total wall area is 15 m². The inside surface temperature is 5°C, and the outside
surface temperature is 25°C. Find the rate of heat transfer through the wall.

Given:
K1 = 0.71
K2 = 0.05
A= 15m2
Δx1 = 0.08m
Δx2 = 0.05m
ΔT= 25−5 =20°C
Q=?

Solution:
Δ x1 Δ x 2
Rt = +
k1 A k2 A
0.08 0.05
Rt = + =0.0741
0.72(15) 0.05(15)

ΔT
Q=
Rt

20
Q=
0.0741

Q=270W (heat loss through wall)

Problem 32
 143

Two materials, steel (k₁ = 45 W/m·°C) and wood (k₂ = 0.15 W/m·°C), are joined together to
form a wall 0.3 m thick. The wall area is 2 m², the temperature on the hot side is 150°C, and the
cold side is 30°C. The steel layer is 5 cm thick. Determine the temperature at the interface
between the two materials.
Given:
K1 = 45
K2 = 0.15
A= 2m2
L1 = 0.05
L2 = 0.3
Thot = 150°C
Tcold = 30°C
Tinterface = ?
Solution:
0.05 0.3
R 1= =0.00056 , R 2= =1
45 (2) 0.15(2)

Rt =1.0006

150−30
Q= =143.9 W
0.8336

45(2)(150−T 1) 143.9 1800 (150−T 1)

143.9= =
0.05 1800 1800

150−T i=0.08

T i=149.9 °C

Problem 33

An AB composite wall in an aquaculture facility has a thickness of 0.3 m and a surface

 144

area of 5 m². The wall is made of a solid matrix with thermal conductivity ks =1.2W/m⋅Kand
contains stationary water-filled pores with conductivity kf =0.6W/m⋅K.

Assume the volume fraction of water in the pores is 30%. The outside surface temperature is
35°C and the inside temperature is 20°C.
1. Estimate the effective thermal conductivity keff of the wall using a weighted average approach.
2. Calculate the steady-state heat flux through the wall.
3. Determine the total heat transfer rate Q across the wall.

Required:
4. Gauge pressure at the oil–water interface.
5. Gauge and absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank.
6. Hydrostatic force on the circular hatch (use gauge pressure for force due to fluid).
Use g = 9.81 m/s².

Solution:
Effective thermal conductivity keff
keff=(1−ϕ)ks+ϕkf = =(1−0.3)(1.2)+(0.3)(0.6)
keff=0.84+0.18=1.02W/m⋅K
Heat flux q
P q=keff(Tout−Tin)/ L
q= 1.02(35−20)/ 0.3 = 51 W/m^2
Total heat transfer Q
Q=q⋅A
Q=51⋅5=255W
 145

Problem 34
Given: Mass flow rate: m˙=0.02kg/s

a) Inlet water temperature: Tin=20∘C

b) Outlet water temperature: Tout=25∘C
c) Specific heat: cp=4186 J/kg⋅K

Required:

1. Heat absorbed by circulating water

2. Comparison with conduction

Solution:

Heat absorbed by circulating water Qfluid

Qfluid = m x cp (Tout−Tin)

Qfluid = 0.02 x 4186x (25−20)

Qfluid = 0.02 x 20930 = 418.6W

 146

Problem 35

A steel rod of length 1 m and cross-sectional area 0.01 m² has a temperature difference of
100°C between its ends. The thermal conductivity of steel is 50 W/m·°C.

Required:
Find the rate of heat transfer through the rod.

Solution:

Q = kA (ΔT/L)

Q = (50) (0.01) (100)/ (1)

Q = 50 W
 147

Problem 36

A wall 0.2 m thick has an area of 10 m². The temperature on one side is 150°C and on the
other is 30°C. The material’s thermal conductivity is 0.8 W/m·°C.

Required:
Find the heat transfer rate through the wall.

Solution:

Q = kA (ΔT/L)

Q = (0.8) (10) (150 - 30)/(0.2)

Q = 4800 W
 148

Problem 37

A 3 m x 5 m concrete wall of a cold storage facility is 20 cm thick. If the thermal

conductivity of the concrete is 0.8 W/m.K, and the inner and outer surface temperatures are
maintained at 27°C and 5°C, respectively, what is the rate of heat loss through the wall?

Given:
Area, A = 15 m2
Thickness, L = 0.20 m;
Thermal Conductivity, k = 0.8 W/m.K;
Temperature Difference, ΔT = 27°C - 5°C = 22 K

Required:
Rate of heat transfer by conduction, Q_cond (in Watts).

Solutions:
Qcond = k × A × (DT / L)
Qcond = (0.8 W/m.K) × (15 m2) × (22 K / 0.20 m)
Qcond = 1320 W
 149

Problem 38

A composite wall consists of an inner layer of brick (k 1 = 0.72 W/m.K) with 10 cm

thickness and an outer layer of insulation (k 2 = 0.04 W/m.K) with 5 cm thickness. If the
temperature of the inner brick surface is 30°C and the outer insulation surface is 10°C, what is
the heat flux (q) through the wall?

Given:
Brick: L1 = 0.10 m,
k1 = 0.72 W/m.K
Insulation: L2 = 0.05 m,
k2 = 0.04 W/m.K
Overall Temperature Difference, ΔT_overall = 30°C - 10°C = 20 K

Required:
Heat flux, q (in W/m2).

Solutions:
Heat flux is calculated using the total thermal resistance per unit area, R'total:

ΔT overall
q=
R ' total
L1 L2
where R'total = +
k1 k2
R'1 = 0.10 / 0.72 ≈ 0.1389 m2 K/W
R'2 = 0.05 / 0.04 = 1.25 m2 K/W
R'total = 0.1389 + 1.25 ≈ 1.3889 m2. K/W
q = 20 K / 1.3889 m2 . K/W
q ≈ 14.4 W/ m2
 150

Problem 39
A silicon-germanium composite substrate used in high-power electronics has internal
heat generation due to current flow. The substrate is 2 cm thick, and both surfaces are
maintained at 20°C by liquid cooling. Determine the maximum temperature in the substrate
and its location.

Givens:
 Thickness of substrate (L) = 2 cm = 0.02 m
 Thermal conductivity (k) = 150 W/m·K
 Heat generation rate (qᵢ) = 5 × 10⁷ W/m³
 Both surface temperatures = 20°C

Required: Maximum temperature in the substrate and Location of maximum temperature

Solution:

𝑑2𝑇 𝑞𝑖
Set Up the Governing
Equation

𝑑𝑥2 𝑘
+ =0
Solve the Differential

𝑑𝑇 𝑞𝑖
Equation

𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
=−

Apply Boundary Conditions (Due to symmetry and both

surfaces at same temperature)
 At x = -L/2 = -0.01 m, T = 20°C
 At x = L/2 = 0.01 m, T = 20°C
 Maximum temperature occurs at center (x = 0) due to symmetry

Using x = 0.01 m, T

5 𝑥107
= 20°C:
20 = (0.01)2 + 𝐶1(0.01) + 𝐶2
Due to symmetry, C1 2 𝑥 150
=0

20 = 5 𝑥107
0.0001 + 𝐶2
300
 151

20 =
−16.667
At center + C2 C2
(x = 0): =
36.667°
C

Tmax = C2
=
36.667°C

Final Answer: Tmax = 36.7oC and Location: Center of substrate (x = 0)

 152

Problem 40
The wall of a cold room is 0.2 m thick temperature is -5 oC, outside is 30 oC. The wall has

thermal conductivity k = W/m K. Find the heat flux through the wall.

Given:

L = 0.2 m

k = 0.8 W/m K

T1 = 30 oC

T2 = -5 oC

Required:

Heat flux through the wall

Solution:

q =k {{T} rsub {1} - {T} rsub {2}} over {L

q =(0.8 {W} over {m K} )( {30- left (-5 right )} over {0.2 m}

q = 140 {W} over {{m} ^ {2}

 153

Problem 41
Hot water is transferred through a stainless steel pipe of 0.04 m inside diameter and 5 m

length. The inside wall temperature is 90 oC, the outside surface temperature is 88 oC, the thermal

conductivity of stainless steel is 16 W/m oC, and the wall thickness is 2 mm. Calculate the heat

losses if the system is at steady state.

Given:

Din = 0.04/2 = 0.02 m Tin = 90 oC

Tin = 88 oC
L=5m

k = 16 W/m *K
t = 0.002 m

Dout = Din – t = 0.04 – 0.002 = 0.022 m

Required:

Heat loss

Solution:

2 πkL (T ¿ −T out )
Q=
r
ln( out )
r¿

2 π (16 W /m∗K )(5 m)(90−88)

Q=
0.022
ln ( )
0.02

1,005.31 W
Q=
0.095

Q=10,582. 21 W ≈ 10.58 kW
 154

Problem 42

A stainless steel wall of a jacketed vessel used in food processing is 5 mm thick. The
inner surface is exposed to a hot product at 95°C, and the outer surface is exposed to a cooling
medium at 45°C. If the thermal conductivity (k) of the stainless steel is 15 W/(m.K), calculate the
rate of heat transfer per unit area ( q̇ ) through the wall.

Given
 Thickness of wall ( Δx ): 5 mm (0.005m)
 Inner surface temperature (T1): 95°C
 Outer surface temperature (T2): 45°C
 Thermal conductivity (k): 15 W/(m.K)

Required
 Rate of heat transfer per unit area ( q̇ ) in W/m2

Solution

dT T 1−T 2
q̇=−k =k
dx Δx
∘ ∘
(95 C−45 C)
q̇=15 W/(m ⋅ K)⋅
0.005 m
50
q̇=15 ⋅
0.005
q̇=150000 w /m
KK
 155

Problem 43

A layer of insulation material, 2cm thick, is placed on a cold storage wall. The heat flux (
q̇ ¿ through the wall is measured to be 50 W/m2 when the temperature difference across the
insulation is 10°C. Determine the thermal conductivity (k) of the insulation material.

Given
 Heat flux (q̇ ¿ : 50 W/m2
 Thickness ( Δx ): 2cm (0.02m)
 Temperature difference ( ΔT ): 10°C (10 K)

Required
 Thermal conductivity (k) in W/(m.K)

Solution
ΔT
q̇=k
Δx
q̇ ⋅ Δx
k=
ΔT
2
(50 W/m )⋅(0.02 m)
k=
10 K
k =0.10 W/(m ⋅ K)
 156

Problem 44

A steel wall (thermal conductivity, (k =45 W /m∙ K ) is 5 mm thick (0.005 m). The
temperature on one side of the wall is 150°C, and on the other side, it is 50°C. Calculate the rate
of heat transfer per square meter (heat flux, q) through the wall by steady-state.
Given:
k =45 W /m∙ K
L=0.005 m
T 1=150 ℃

T 2=50 ℃

Required:
Heat Flux, q (¿ W /m2 )

Solution:
Formula Used:
(T ¿ ¿ 1−T 2)
q=k ¿
L

(150−50)
q=(45)
0.005

100
q=(45)
0.005

q=(45)(20 , 00)

2
q=900,000 W /m
 157

Problem 45
A refrigerated warehouse is separated from the surrounding environment by a composite
wall consisting of two materials arranged in series. The inner layer is a 6 cm thick concrete wall
with a thermal conductivity of k 1=1.4 W /m ∙℃ , while the outer layer is 8 cm of insulation with
a thermal conductivity of k 2=0.06 W /m ∙℃ . The total surface area of the wall is 20 m². If the
temperature inside the warehouse is 4°C and the outside air temperature is 30°C, determine the
rate of heat transfer (Q) through the composite wall.

Given:
k 1=1.4 W /m ∙℃
k 2=0.06 W /m ∙℃
L1=0.06 m
L2=0.08 m
2
A=20 m
T 1=30 ℃
T 2=4 ℃
∆ T =26 ℃

Required:
Rate of heat transfer,(Q)
Solution:
Total thermal resistance:
L1 L2
Rt = +
k1 A k2 A

0.06 0.08
Rt = +
1.4 ×20 0.06 ×20

Rt =0.0688

∆T
Q=
Rt

26
Q=
0.0688

Q=378 W
 158

CONVECTION

Problem 1
Water (properties at film temperature: ρ = 998 kg/m³, μ = 1.0×10 ⁻³ Pa·s, k=0.6 W/m·K,
Pr=7.0) flows inside a circular pipe (smooth) of diameter D = 0.04 m at a volumetric flow rate Q
= 0.0030 m³/s. The pipe wall temperature is maintained at 90 °C while the bulk inlet temperature
is 30 °C. Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient h (W/m²·K) using Dittus–Boelter
correlation and the heat transfer rate per meter of pipe, assuming fully developed turbulent flow.
Given:
D = 0.04 m, Q = 0.0030 m³/s
Fluid properties: ρ = 998 kg/m³, μ = 1.0e-3 Pa·s, k = 0.6 W/m·K, Pr = 7.0
Twall = 90 °C, Tbulk,in = 30 °C
Use Dittus–Boelter: Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4 (turbulent, heating of fluid).
Required:
(a) Compute mean velocity, Re, and Nu;
(b) h;
(c) heat transfer per unit length (W/m) approximating bulk temperature = average of wall and
inlet.
Solution:
Area A = 0.0012566 m²
=> mean velocity v = Q/A = 2.3873 m/s.
Re = 9.5302e+04
=> Nu (Dittus–Boelter) = 482
=> h = Nu·k/D = 7230 W/m²·K.
Approximate bulk temperature Tbulk = 60 °C
=> heat transfer per unit length q' = h·πD(Twall - Tbulk) = 2.7257e + 04 W/m.
 159

Problem 2
A straight rectangular fin (base temperature T_b = 150 °C) is attached to a hot plate. Fin
dimensions: thickness t = 3 mm, height L = 60 mm, length into page (per unit depth) = 1 m. Fin
material: k = 200 W/m·K. Surrounding air at 25 °C with convective coefficient h = 30 W/m²·K.
Consider one-dimensional conduction along fin (thin fin approximation). Find the fin heat
transfer rate and fin efficiency assuming insulated base at x=0 is not insulated (use standard fin
analysis with convective tip).
Given:
t = 0.003 m, L = 0.06 m, depth = 1.0 m
k = 200 W/m·K, h = 30 W/m²·K
Tb = 150 °C, T∞ = 25 °C
Use fin equation for rectangular fin with tip convection (m = sqrt (2h / (k t)).
Required:
(a) Compute m and parameter mL, (b) fin heat transfer qf (W) per fin (per unit depth), (c) fin
efficiency ηfin (use ideal straight fin area Af = t·L).
Solution:
Computed m = 10 1/m
=> mL = 0.6 (dimensionless). M = h/(m k) = 0.015.
Fin heat transfer qf = 410.73 W per meter depth.
Fin area Af = t·L = 1.8000e-04 m²
=> ideal qideal = h Af (Tb-T∞) = 0.675 W.
Fin efficiency ηfin = qf / qideal = 608.49.
 160

Problem 3
Air at 25°C flows over a flat plate maintained at 75°C. The average convective heat
transfer coefficient is 30 W/m²·K. Determine the heat transfer rate per unit area and the total heat
transfer rate if the plate area is 1.5 m².
Given:
Tₛ = 75°C
T∞ = 25°C
h = 30 W/m²·K
A = 1.5 m²
Required:
1. Heat flux, q (W/m²)
2. Total heat transfer, Q (W)
Solution:
Newton’s law of cooling:

q=h (T s−T ∞)q=30(75−25)=30 (50)=1500 W/m²

Total heat transfer:

Q=qA=1500(1.5)=2250 W
Final Answer:
q = 1500 W/m²
Q = 2250 W
 161

Problem 4

Water flows through a pipe with an inner surface temperature of 60°C. The bulk water
temperature is 25°C, and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 500 W/m²·K. Determine the
convective heat flux and the total heat transfer for a pipe with a 0.02 m² surface area.
Given:
Tₛ = 60°C
T∞ = 25°C
h = 500 W/m²·K
A = 0.02 m²
Required:
1. Heat flux, q (W/m²)
2. Heat transfer rate, Q (W)
Solution:
Newton’s law of convection:

q=h (T s−T ∞)q=500(60−25)=500 (35)=17,500 W/m²Q=qA=17,500(0.02)=350 W

Final Answer:
q = 17,500 W/m²
Q = 350 W
 162

Problem 5
Air at 20°C flows over a flat plate maintained at 90°C. If the convective heat transfer
coefficient is 35 W/m² °C and the plate area is 0.8 m², determine the rate of heat transfer. Also,
determine the new heat transfer if the plate area is doubled.

Given: (Lavine et al., 2007)

hc = 35 W/m² °C
A₁ = 0.8 m²
A₂ = 1.6 m²
Ts = 90°C
To = 20°C
Required:
Determine the rate of heat transfer and the new heat transfer if the plate area is
doubled.

Solution:
Q = hc A (Ts – To)
Q₁ = 35 × 0.8 × (90−20)
Q₁ = 1960.00 W
Q₂ = 35 × 1.6 × (90−20)
Q₂ = 3920.00 W
 163

Problem 6
A hot water pipe with a surface temperature of 80°C passes through a room at 25°C. If the
convective heat transfer coefficient is 12 W/m² °C and the external surface area of the pipe is 1.2
m², determine the total heat loss by convection.

Given: (Boles, 2015)

hc = 12 W/m² °C
A = 1.2 m²
Ts = 80 °C
To = 25 °C
Required:
Determine the total heat loss by convection

Solution:
Q = hcA(Ts – To)
Q = 12×1.2×(80−25)
Q = 792.00 W
 164

Problem 7

A hot steel plate with a surface temperature of T s=120∘ C is cooled by air flowing over it
at a bulk temperature of T ∞=25 ∘ C . The convective heat transfer coefficient between the plate
and the air is h=35 W /m2 ⋅ K . The surface area of the plate is ¿ 2.5 m2.
Determine the rate of heat loss from the plate to the air. Assume steady-state conditions.
Given: (Lavine, 2007)

 Surface temperature: T s=120∘ C

 Air temperature: T ∞=25 ∘ C

 Convective heat transfer coefficient: h=35 W /m2 ⋅ K

 Surface area: A=2.5 m2

 Steady-state condition
Required:
1. Calculate the convective heat transfer rate (Q̇ ) from the plate to the air.
2. Determine the cooling rate per unit area.
Solution:

Q̇=hA(T s −T ∞)Q̇=(35)(2.5)(120−25) Q̇=(35)(2.5)(95)Q̇=8312.5 W Q̇=8.31 kW

Cooling rate per unit area:

'' Q̇
q =
A
'' 8312.5
q =
2.5
'' 2
q =3325 W /m
 165

Problem 8
Freshly harvested tomatoes at 30∘ C are being cooled by forced air in a pre-cooler. The air
temperature is T ∞=10∘ Cand the forced-air convective heat transfer coefficient on the tomato
surface is estimated as h=25 W /m2 ⋅ K . Each tomato has an average surface area At =0.015 m2

lumped-capacitance (Bi ≪ 0.1), so the tomato temperature is spatially uniform at any time. Find
and mass m=0.12 kg. The specific heat capacity of tomato is c p=3800 J /kg ⋅ K . Assume

the time required to cool a tomato from 30∘ C to 15∘ C in these conditions.
Given: (Chuntranuluck, 1995)
∘
 Initial tomato temperature T i=30 C
 Desired tomato temperature T f =15∘ C
 Ambient (air) temperature T ∞=10∘ C
 Convective coefficient h=25 W /m2 ⋅ K
 Tomato surface area At =0.015 m2
 Tomato mass m=0.12 kg
Tomato specific heat c p=3800 J /kg ⋅ K
Lumped-capacitance valid (assume Bi ≪ 0.1)



Required:
Time t (in minutes) to cool one tomato from 30∘ C to 15∘ C.

Solution:
−h At
T (t )−T ∞ mc
t
=e p

T i−T ∞
−m c p T (t)−T ∞
t= ln ⁡( )
h At T i −T ∞
T i−T ∞=30−10=20 K
T (t)−T ∞ =15−10=5 K
m c p=0.12 kg ×3800 J /kg ⋅ K=456 J/K
2 2
h At =25 25 W /m ⋅ K × 0.015 m =0.375 W/K
−456 5
t= ln ⁡( )=−1216 s × ln ⁡(0.25)
0.375 20
ln ⁡(0.25)=ln ⁡(1/4 )=−ln ⁡4 ≈−1.38629:
t=1216 ×1.38629 ≈ 1686 s
Convert to minutes:
1686
t≈ ≈ 28.1 minutes
60
 166

Problem 9
A flat plate at 100°C is exposed to air at 25°C. If the convective heat transfer coefficient
is 15 W/m²·K, find the rate of heat transfer per square meter.

Given:
Surface temperature, Ts = 100°C
Air temperature, T∞ = 25°C
Heat transfer coefficient, h = 15 W/m²·K

Required:
Heat flux, q

Solution:
q = h (Ts - T∞) = 15(100 - 25) = 1125 W/m²

Final Answer:
Rate of heat transfer = 1125 W/m²
 167

Problem 10
A hot water pipe with an outer surface temperature of 80°C is exposed to air at 20°C. If
the convective heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m²·K, calculate the heat loss per square meter.

Given:
Ts = 80°C, T∞ = 20°C, h = 25 W/m²·K

Required:
Heat flux, q

Solution:
q = h(Ts - T∞) = 25(80 - 20) = 1500 W/m²

Final Answer:
Rate of heat transfer = 1500 W/m²
 168

Problem 11
Air at 30°C flows over a cooling sheet with an area (A) of 0.8 m2 .The surface
temperature (Ts) of the sheet is maintained at 80°C. If the convective heat transfer coefficient (h)
is estimated to be 25 W/(m .K), calculate the total rate of heat transfer ( Q̇ ) from the sheet to the
air.

Given
 Ambient fluid temperature ( T ∞): 30°C

 Surface temperature (Ts): 80°C

 Heat transfer coefficient (h): 25 W/(m2 .K)
 Surface area (A): 0.8 m2

Required
 Total rate of heat transfer ( Q̇ ) in Watts.

Solution
Q̇=hA(T s −T ∞)
2 2 ∘ ∘
Q̇=(25 W/(m ⋅K))⋅(0.8 m )⋅(80 C−30 C)
Q̇=(25 ⋅0.8)⋅(50)
Q̇=1000 W
Q̇=1000 W
 169

Problem 12
A hot water pipe is losing heat to the surrounding environment at a rate of 150 W over a
surface area of 0.2 m2. The pipe's surface temperature is 70∘ C, and the ambient air temperature is
∘
20 C. Determine the convective heat transfer coefficient (h) between the pipe surface and the air.

Given
 Total rate of heat transfer ( Q̇ ): 150 W
 Surface area (A): 0.2 m2

 Surface temperature (Ts): 70∘ C

 Ambient temperature (T ∞): 20∘ C

Required
 Convective heat transfer coefficient (h) in W / (m2 .K)

Solution
Q̇=hA(T s −T ∞)

Q̇
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )
150 W
h= 2 ∘ ∘
(0.2 m )⋅(70 C−20 C)
150
h=
(0.2)⋅(50)
2
h=15 W/(m ⋅ K)
 170

Problem 13
A 2 m length cylindrical rod with a diameter of 0.07 m is electrically heated at T = 170
℃ . At the steady state operation, it loses Q = 450 W with surrounding air of T ∞ = 30 ℃ . Assume
convection is the dominant mode from the curved surface.
Given:
Length: L=2m
Diameter: D = 0.07 m
Temperature At Surface: T S = 170 ℃

Temperature Of Surrounding: Q = 450 W

Heat Transfer Rate: T ∞ = 30 ℃

Required:
The average convective heat transfer coefficient
Solution:
Area for curved space:
A = π DL
A = π (0.07) (2)
A = 0.44 m2

The average convective heat transfer coefficient

Q hA (T s−T ∞)
=
A (T s−T ∞ ) A(T s −T ∞ )

Q
h=
A (T s−T ∞ )
450
h=
0.44(170−30)

h = 7.31 W/m2 k
 171

Problem 14
Find the surface temperature of the metal plate when heated with an area of 0.8 m2. The
ambient temperature is 30 ℃ . The coefficient of convective heat transfer is h = 20 W/m2 k . The
heat transfer lost in the air is Q = 800 W.
Given:
Area: A = 0.8 m2
Ambient Temperature: T ∞ = 30 ℃

Coefficient Of Convective Heat Transfer: h = 20 W/m2 k .

Required:
Surface temperature of the metal plate when heated.
Solution:
Q = hA (T s−T ∞ )

Q+ hA T ∞ hA T s
=
hA hA

Q+ hA T ∞
Ts =
hA

800+[( 20 )( 0.8 )( 30 ) ]
Ts =
20(0.8)

T s = 80 ℃
 172

Problem 15
A hot steel plate at 150°C is cooled by air flowing over it at 25°C. The convective heat
transfer coefficient is 32 W/m²·K. Determine the convective heat transfer rate per square meter.
(BASA, Casielyn. 2016)
Required: Heat transfer rate per m².
Solution:
Using Newton’s Law of Cooling:

Q = hA(Ts−T∞)

Where:
 Q = rate of heat transfer (W)

 h = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m²·K)

 A = surface area through which heat is transferred (m²)

 T s= surface temperature of the object (°C or K)

 T ∞= temperature of the surrounding fluid (°C or K)

Q=hA(Ts−T∞)

Q=c32 × (150 − 25) = 32 × 125 = 4000 W/m²

 173

Problem 16
A refrigerated room has an outer metal wall at 5°C while the surrounding air is at 30°C.
The convective heat transfer coefficient between the air and wall is 18 W/m²·K. Compute the
heat gained per square meter by convection. (BASA, Casielyn. 2016)
Required: Heat gained per m².
Solution:
Using Newton’s Law:

Q = h(T∞−Ts)

Where:
Q = rate of heat transfer (W, watts)
h = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m²·K)
T ∞= temperature of the surrounding fluid or environment (°C or K)

T s= surface temperature of the object (°C or K)

Q = h(T∞−Ts)

Q = 18 × (30 − 5) = 18

Q = 18 × 25 = 450 W/m²
 174

Problem 17
A steel pipe with a diameter of 0.1 m carries water at 90°C. The pipe is exposed to air at
30°C. The convective heat transfer coefficient between the pipe surface and air is h=50 W/m² ⋅ K
. The pipe wall is considered thin, so its thermal resistance can be neglected. Calculate the rate of
heat loss per meter of pipe due to convection.
Given:
Pipe diameter: D=0.1 m

Fluid temperature: T f =90∘ C

Air temperature: T ∞=30∘ C

Convective heat transfer coefficient: h=50 W/m² ⋅ K

Pipe length: L=1 m

Required:
Heat loss per meter of pipe (Q )
For convective heat transfer from a surface:
Q=h A s (T s−T ∞ )

Where:
A s= surface area in contact with air

T s= surface temperature (≈ fluid temperature if pipe wall is thin)

For a cylindrical pipe:

A s=πDL

Solution:
Calculate surface area per meter:
A s=πDL=π (0.1)(1)≈ 0.314 m²

Apply the convection formula:

Q=h A s (T f −T ∞)=50× 0.314 ×(90−30)Q=50 × 0.314 ×60Q=50 × 18.84 ≈ 942 W

Q ≈ 942 W/m
 175

Problem 18
A tank containing oil at 80°C has a flat vertical wall of area 2 m² exposed to air at 25°C.
The convective heat transfer coefficient for natural convection on vertical walls is
h=10 W/m² ⋅ K. Calculate the rate of heat loss from the wall due to natural convection.
Given:
Wall area: A=2 m²

Fluid (oil) temperature: T f =80∘ C

Air temperature: T ∞=25 ∘ C

Convective heat transfer coefficient: h=10 W/m² ⋅ K

Required:
Heat loss (Q )
For convection from a flat surface:
Q=hA(T s −T ∞)

Solution:
Compute temperature difference:
Δ T =T s −T ∞=80−25=55 °C

Compute heat loss:

Q=hA Δ T =10 × 2× 55Q=1100 W

Q=1.1 kW
About 1.1 kW of heat is lost from the tank wall by natural convection.
 176

Problem 19
During drying of cassava chips, air at 50°C flows over a tray of product maintained at
30°C. If the convective heat transfer coefficient is 18 W·m⁻²·K⁻¹ and the surface area is 2.5 m²,
calculate the heat transfer rate.

Given:
h = 18 W·m⁻²·K⁻¹
A = 2.5 m²
Tair = 50°C
Tsurface = 30°C

Required:
1. Convective heat transfer rate (Q, W)

Solution:
Using Newton’s Law of Cooling: Q = hA (Tair - Tsurface)
Q = 18 × 2.5 × (20)
= 900.0 W

Answer:
Q = 900 W
 177

Problem 20
A small cylindrical heater (diameter = 0.1 m, length = 0.5 m) operates in air with a
surface temperature of 150°C. The air temperature is 25°C, and the convective coefficient is 35
W·m⁻²·K⁻¹. Find the rate of heat loss by convection.

Given:
d = 0.1 m
L = 0.5 m
Tsurface = 150°C
Tair = 25°C
h = 35 W·m⁻²·K⁻¹

Required:
1. Heat loss rate Q (W)

Solution:
A = πdL
= (π) (0.1) (0.5)
= 0.157 m²
Q = hA (Ts - Ta)
= (35) (0.157) (150 - 25)
= 687.2 W

Answer: Q = 687.2 W
 178

Problem 21
Hot liquid is flowing at a velocity of 2 m/s through a metallic pipe having an inner
diameter of 3.5 cm and length 20 m. The temperature at the inlet of the pipe is 90 oC. Following
data is given for liquid at 90◦C.

Given:
V = 2 m/s
D = 3.5cm / 100 = 0.035m
L = 20m
T = 90oC

Required:
The heat transfer coefficient inside the tube (kW/m2 oC)

Solution:
From Dittus-Boelter relation, we have Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr 0.33

Re = Dvρ / µ
Re = 0.035 × 2 × 950 / 2.55 × 10−4
Re = 260784

Pr = CPµ / k
Pr = 4.23 × 1000 × 2.55 × 10−4 / 0.685
Pr = 1.575

Nu = 0.023 × (260784)0.8 × (1.575) 0.33

Nu = 575.2
hd/k = 575.2
 179

h = 575.2 x (0.675 / 0.035)

h = 11, 257 W/m2oC
h = 11.3 kW/m2oC

Final Answer: h = 11.3 kW/m2oC

 180

Problem 22
What is the heat transfer coefficient considering the flow of a gas with density 1 kg/m 3 ,
viscosity 1.5 × 10−5 kg/(m.s), specific heat Cp = 846 J/(kg.K) and thermal conductivity k =
0.01665 W/(m.K), in a pipe of diameter D = 0.01m and length L = 1m, and assume the viscosity
does not change with temperature. The Nusselt number for a pipe with (L/D) ratio greater than
10 and Reynolds number greater than 20000 is given by: Nu = 0.026 Re 0.8 Pr 1/3
While the Nusselt number for a laminar flow for Reynolds number less than 2100 and (Re Pr
D/L) < 10 is Nu = 1.86 [Re Pr (D/L)]1/3
Given:
Density = 1 kg/m3
viscosity = 1.5 × 10−5 kg/ (m.s)
specific heat = Cp = 846 J/ (kg.K)
thermal conductivity k = 0.01665 W/ (m.K)
D = 0.01 m
L=1m
Nusselt number < 10
Reynolds number < 20000

Required:
heat transfer coefficient

Solution:
Re = Dvρ / µ
Re = 0.01 × 0.1 × 1 / 1.5 × 10−5
Re = 66.7

Pr = Cpµ / k
Pr = 846 × 1.5 × 10−5 / 0.01665
Pr = 0.76
 181

Hence, using the expression of Nu valid for this condition, we get

Nu = 1.86 [Re Pr (D/L)]1/3 = 1.86 × (0.507) 1/3 = 1.483

By definition, Nu = hD/k. Therefore,

h = Nu × k / D
h = 1.483 × 0.01665 / 0.01
h = 2.47 W/ (m2.K)
Final Answer: h = 2.47 W / (m2.K)
 182

Problem 23
A small cooked meatball has mass 0.050 kg, surface area A = 0.012 m², and
specific heat c = 3500 J/(kg·K). Its initial temperature is 80°C. It is placed in room air
at 25°C and the convective heat transfer coefficient is h = 10 W/(m²·K). The meatball
thermal conductivity is about k = 0.50 W/(m·K) and its density is ρ = 1050 kg/m³.

Given: Required:

m = 0.050 kg Biot number Bi and validity check.

A = 0.012 m2 Time t to reach 60°C (if lumped method

valid).
c = 3500 J/(kg⋅K)
Heat removed Q.
Ti = 80 oC, T∞ = 25 oC, Ttarget = 60 oC

h = 10 W/(m2⋅K)

k = 0.50 W/(m⋅K)

ρ = 1050 kg/m3
 183

Problem 24
A baking tray holds cookies with a combined exposed top area of A = 0.30 m².
The cookie surface temperature is 80°C and the ambient air temperature is 25°C. For
the cooling tunnel the convective heat transfer coefficient is estimated as h = 20
W/(m²·K).

Given: Required:

A = 0.30 m2 (exposed area) Convective heat flux q′′ (W/m²)

Ts = 80∘C (surface) Total convective heat loss Q(W)

T∞ = 25∘C (air) Air temperature rise ΔT (K)

H = 20 W/(m2⋅K)

Air: ρair = 1.2 kg/m3, cp,air = 1005 J/(kg⋅K)

Solution:

q = h left ({T} rsub {s} - {T} rsub {∞} right ) = 20 × (80 - 25) = 1,100 W/ {m} ^ {2

Q=q × A=1100 × 0.30=330

mair =ρ air V =1.2 ×0.5=0.6 kg/ s

Q
Q=mair c ρ, air ∆ T ⇒ ∆ T =
m air c p ,air

330
∆T= =0.547 K
0.6 ×1005

So the air would warm by about 0.55°C while removing the convective heat.
 184

Problem 25
A metal plate with an area of 0.3 m² is maintained at 80°C in still air at 25°C. If
the convective heat transfer coefficient is h=25 W/m²⋅°C, determine:

 The rate of heat loss, and

 The time required for the plate to cool down to 50°C if its mass is 5 kg and
specific heat capacity c=0.46 kJ/kg⋅°C

Given:
A= 0.3
h - 25
Ts = 80 °C
T∞= 25°C
m = 5kg
c = 0.46 kJ/kg⋅°C
Q=?
t=?

Solution:

=Q=hA(T S + T ∞ )

mc(T s −T f ) 5(460)(80−50)
=Q=25(0.3)(80+25) t= = = 167s
Q 412.5

=Q=412.5 W
 185

Problem 26
Water at 60°C flows through a copper tube (inner diameter 3 cm, length 2 m). The wall
temperature is maintained at 20°C. If the average convective heat transfer coefficient for internal
flow is h=200 W/m²⋅°C, determine the rate of heat loss from the water to the surroundings.

Given:
h = 200
D = 0.03m
L = 2m
Tf = 60°C
Ts = 20°C
Q=?

Solution:
A=πDL
2
A=π (0.3)(2)=0.188 m
Q=hA(T f −T s )

Q=200(0.188)(60−20)
Q=1504 W
 186

Problem 27
Hot soup at 85°C is cooled by ambient air at 25°C. The convective heat transfer
coefficient is 8 W/m²·°C. Calculate the heat flux.

Given:
• Ts = 85°C
• T∞ = 25°C
• hc = 8 W/m²·°C

Required:
q/A

Solution:
q/A = hc(Ts – T∞)
q/A = 8(85 – 25)
q/A = 8(60) = 480 W/m²

Answer:
480 W/m²
 187

Problem 28
A heated plate at 150°C loses heat by forced convection to air at 35°C. If the heat transfer
coefficient is 20 W/m²·°C, find the heat loss per unit area.

Given:
• Ts = 150°C
• T∞ = 35°C
• hc = 20 W/m²·°C

Required:
q/A

Solution:
q/A = hc (Ts – T∞)
q/A = 20(150 – 35)
q/A = 20(115) = 2300 W/m²

Answer:
2300 W/m²
 188

Problem 29
An AB composite wall contains a rectangular fluid channel (0.05 m × 0.1 m cross-
section) through which water is pumped to regulate temperature. The wall thickness is 0.3 m, and
the wall area is 5 m².

Given:
Water enters the channel at Tin=20°C and exits at Tout=28°C
Mass flow rate of waterm˙=0.03kg/s
Specific heat of watercp=4186J/kg⋅K
Convective heat transfer coefficient between wall and waterh=500W/m2⋅K
Channel wetted perimeter: P=0.3m, length of channel along the wall: Lc=5 m

Required:
1. Calculate the rate of heat transfer Q from the wall to the flowing water using:

2. Calculate the average wall-to-fluid temperature difference assuming uniform wall

temperature of 35°C and linear temperature increase of water.

3. Determine the convective heat transfer are of the channel. Use:

4. Verify the consistency of the convective heat transfer rate using:

5. Discuss why forced convection enhances heat transfer compared to stationary fluid in AB
materials

Solution:
Heat absorbed by flowing water Q Convective heat transfer area Ac
Q=m˙cp(Tout−Tin) Ac=P⋅Lc = 0.3⋅5=1.5m2
=0.03⋅4186⋅(28−20) Convective heat transfer rate using h
Q=0.03⋅33488=1004.64W Q=hAcΔTavg
Average temperature difference ΔTavg Q=500⋅1.5⋅11
ΔTavg=Twall−(Tin+Tout/2) Q=8250W
= 35−(20+28/2) 11 °C
 189

Problem 30
An AB composite plate of thickness 0.2 m is exposed to air on one side. The plate has an
embedded fluid channel for cooling water. The following data is given:
Given:
a) Plate area: A = 4 m²
b) Convective heat transfer coefficient: hair = 25 W/m²·K
c) Plate temperature: Tplate = 60°C
d) Ambient air temperature: Tair = 25°C
e) Water mass flow rate: m˙=0.015kg/s
f) Water inlet temperature: Tin = 30°C
g) Specific heat of water: cp = 4186 J/kg·K
h) Water removes 3/4 of heat lost to air

Solution:
Heat loss to air (convection) Calculate water exit temperature Tout
Qair=hair x A x (Tplate−Tair) Qwater=m˙x cp x (Tout−Tin)
Qair=25 x 4 x (60−25) 2625=0.015 x 4186 x (Tout−30)
Qair=100x35=3500W 2625=62.79 x (Tout−30)
Heat absorbed by water Tout−30=2625/62.79
water removes 3/4 of Qair: Tout−30≈41.8
Qwater=(3/4)Qair Tout≈71.8°C
=(3/4)3500
Qwater=2625W
 190

Problem 31
Air flows over a flat plate maintained at 80°C. The air temperature is 30°C and the
convective heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m²·°C. The surface area is 2 m².

Required:
Find the rate of heat transfer.
Solution:

Q = hA (ΔT)

Q = (25) (2) (80 - 30)

Q = 2500 W
 191

Problem 32
A liquid is cooled in a tube. The surface temperature is 60°C, and the bulk liquid
temperature is 20°C. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 100 W/m²·° C and the surface
area is 0.5 m².

Required:
Determine the convective heat transfer rate.

Solution:

Q = hA (ΔT)

Q = (100) (0.5) (60 - 20)

Q = 2000 W
 192

Problem 33
Air at 20°C flows over a flat plate that is 0.5 m long and 0.2 m wide, which is maintained
at a uniform surface temperature of 90°C. If the average convective heat transfer coefficient is h
= 35 W/m2. K, what is the rate of heat loss from the top surface of the plate?

Given:
Surface Temperature, Ts = 90°C
Fluid Temperature, Tinfinity = 20°C
Convection Coefficient, h = 35 W/m2.K
Area, A = 0.5 m x 0.2 m = 0.10 m2

Required:
Rate of convective heat transfer, Qconv (in Watts).

Solution:
Qconv = h × A × (Ts - Tinfinity)
Qconv = (35 W/m2.K) × (0.10 m2) × (90°C - 20°C)
Qconv = 35 × 0.10 × 70 W
Qconv = 245 W
 193

Problem 34
A 10 m long steam pipe with an outer diameter of 0.08 m has an outer surface
temperature of 110°C. It is exposed to still room air at 25°C. If the average heat transfer
coefficient for natural convection is 15 W/m2.K, what is the total heat loss from the pipe's surface
due to convection?

Given:
Length, L = 10 m
Diameter, D = 0.08 m
Surface Temperature, Ts = 110°C
Ambient Temperature, Tinfinity = 25°C
Convection Coefficient, h = 15 W/m2.K

Required:
Rate of convective heat transfer, Qconv (in Watts).

Solutions:
Pipe Surface Area, A = πDL
A = π (0.08 m) (10 m) ≈ 2.513 m2
Qconv = hA(Ts – Tinfinity)
Qconv = (15 W/m2.K) × (2.513 m2) × (110°C - 25°C)
Qconv = 15 × 2.513 × 85 W
Qconv ≈ 3204.1 W
 194

Problem 35
Problem 1: An aluminum-silicon carbide composite heat sink is used to cool a high-
power electronic component. Air at 25°C flows over the heat sink at 5 m/s. The heat sink has
a base temperature of 85°C and features 10 rectangular fins, each with dimensions 50 mm ×
50 mm × 5 mm. Calculate the total heat transfer rate from the heat sink to the air.

Given:
 Air temperature (T∞) = 25°C

 Air velocity (V) = 5 m/s

 Heat sink base temperature (Ts) = 85°C

 Number of fins = 10

 Fin dimensions: 50 mm × 50 mm × 5 mm (length × height × thickness)

 Fin spacing provides adequate flow between fins

 Air properties at film temperature (55°C):

o Thermal conductivity (k) = 0.028 W/m·K

o Kinematic viscosity (ν) = 1.8 × 10⁻⁵ m²/s

o Prandtl number (Pr) = 0.71

 Assume turbulent flow over the entire surface

Required: Total heat transfer rate from heat sink (Qtotal)

Solution:
Calculate Film Temperature and Air Properties
Film temperature = (Ts + T∞)/2 = (85 +
25)/2 = 55°C Calculate Reynolds Number for Each Fin (L) = 50 mm =
0.05 m
𝑉𝐿 5 𝑥 0.05
𝑅𝑒𝐿 = 𝑥
𝑣 1.8 𝑥 10−5
= 13,889
Calculate Average Nusselt Number (For turbulent flow over a flat plate)
1
 195

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.037𝑅𝑒0.8�𝑃𝑟3
�
NuL = 0.037 × (13,889)0.8 × (0.71)1/3
NuL = 0.037 × 2,884 × 0.892 = 95.1

95.1 𝑥 0.028𝑊

𝑁𝑢𝐿 𝑥 𝑘
Calculate Heat Transfer Coefficient

𝐿
ℎ= = Each fin has two sides and
tip:
𝑚𝐾
Calculate Heat
= 53.3 2
Transfer Area 0.05
 Two sides: 2 × (0.05 × 0.05) = 0.005 m²
 Tip: 0.05 × 0.005 = 0.00025 m²
Total per fin = 0.00525 m²
For 10 fins: Total area = 10 × 0.00525 = 0.0525 m²

Calculate Total
Heat Transfer
Rate
Qtotal = hA(Ts − T∞) = 53.3 × 0.0525 × (85 - 25)
Qtotal = 53.3 ×0.0525 × 60 = 167.9 W

F
i
n
a
l

A
n
s
w
e
r
s
:
Qtotal = 167.9 W
196
 197

Problem 36
Problem 2: A carbon-carbon composite plate (AB Material) is cooled by air flowing
over it at 20 m/s. The plate is 0.5 m long and maintained at 150°C. Air approaches at 25°C.
Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit width from the plate.

Given:
 Plate length (L) = 0.5 m
 Plate temperature (Ts) = 150°C
 Air temperature (T∞) = 25°C
 Air velocity (V) = 20 m/s
 Air properties at 85°C:
o k = 0.030 W/m·K
o ν = 2.1 × 10⁻⁵ m²/s
o Pr = 0.71

Required: Heat transfer rate per unit width (q)

Solution:

𝑉𝐿 20 𝑥 0.05
Calculate Reynolds

𝑅𝑒𝐿 =
Number
𝑥
𝑣 2.1 𝑥 10−5
= 476,190

Calculate Nusselt Number (Turbulent flow since Re > 5×10⁵)

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.037𝑅𝑒0.8𝑃𝑟�� 3
NuL = 0.037 ×
(476,190)0.8 × (0.71)1/3
NuL = 0.037 × 38,379 ×
Calculate Heat Transfer 0.892 = 1,265
Coefficient
𝑁𝑢𝐿 𝑥 𝑘 1,265 𝑥 0.030 𝑊

𝐿 𝑚 𝐾
ℎ= = = 75.9 2
0.5
Calculate Heat Transfer Rate per Unit Width
q = hL (Ts − T∞) = 75.9 × 0.5 × (150 − 25)
q = 75.9 × 0.5 × 125 = 4,744 W/m
 198

F
i
n
a
l

A
n
s
w
e
r
s
:
q = 4.74 kW/m
 199

Problem 37
A freshly filled can of soup (cylindrical: diameter 0.065 m, height 0.12 m) has an outside surface
temperature 90oC. Ambient air is 25oC. You want the steady convective heat loss from the can to be no more
than 50W so it stays hot longer. What minimum average convective heat-transfer coefficient h (W/m²·K) is
required?
Given:
D = 0.065 m
L = 0.12 m
Tsurface = 90oC
Tair = 25oC
Q = 50 W
Required:
Heat-transfer coefficient (h)
Solution:

lateral=πDL=π ( 0.065 m )( 0.12 m )=0.025 m2

ends ( both ) =2 π ¿
2 2 2
A=lateral+two ends=0.025 m +0.007 m =0.032 m
Q 50 W
h= =
A ∆ T (0.032 m 2)(90−25)

W
h=24.04
m∗K
 200

Problem 38
Whole milk flows at Q = 0.020 m3/s inside a circular stainless-steel pipe of diameter 0.050 m.

kg W J
Properties: ¿ 1,030 , μ=0.002 Pa∗s , k=0.60 , C p=3,900 . Estimate the internal convection
m
3
m∗K kg∗K

coefficient h using the Dittus-Boelter correlation and then compute the heat transfer per meter of pipe whaen the

wall is 80 oC and the bulk milk is 60 oC.

Given:

Q = 0.02 m3/s W
k =0.60
m∗K
D = 0.05 m J
C p=3,900
kg∗K
kg
ρ=1,030 3 ∆ T =80−60=20 K
m

μ=0.002 Pa∗s

Required:

Convective coefficient (h) and heat transfer per unit length (q)

Solution:

2 2 0.8 0.4
π D π (0.05 m) −3 2 Nu=0.023 ℜ Pr
A= = =1.96 x 10 m
4 4 0.8
Nu=(0.023)(262,650) ¿
3
m
0.02 Nu=1,389.34
Q s m
V= = =10.20
A 1.96 x 10−3 m2 s
W
(1,389.34 )(0.60 )
Nu k m∗K

ℜ=
ρVD
=
( 1,030
kg
m
3 )(
10.20
m
s )
(0.05 m)
h=
D
=
0.05 m

μ 0.002 Pa∗s W
h=16,672.08 2
m ∗K
ℜ=262,650

q=hπD ∆ T
 201

C pQ ( 3,900
J
kg∗K )(0.002 Pa∗s ) q=(16,672.08
W
2
m ∗K
)(π 0.05 m)(20 K )
Pr ¿ k
=
W ¿
0.60 W
m∗K q=52,376.88
¿ m

Pr=13
 202

Problem 39
A small spherical sample of mango pulp with radius 10 mm and initial temperature 20°C is placed in a
stream of hot air at 80°C. The convective heat transfer coefficient between the air and the mango surface is 40
W/m²·K. The mango pulp has properties: density ρ = 1050 kg/m³, specific heat Cp = 3600 J/kg·K, and thermal
conductivity k = 0.6 W/m·K. Assume the sample is homogeneous and behaves as a solid sphere.

Given
Radius, r = 10 mm = 0.01 m
Ambient (air) temperature, T∞ = 80 °C
Initial temperature, Ti = 20 °C
Target temperature, Ttarget = 60 °C
Convective heat transfer coefficient, h = 40 W/m²·K
Density, ρ = 1050 kg/m³
Specific heat, Cp = 3600 J/kg·K
Thermal conductivity, k = 0.6 W/m·K

Required
1. Check whether the lumped-capacitance (uniform temperature) method is valid by computing the Biot
number.
2. Using the lumped-capacitance method (if reasonable), determine the time required for the center (and the
whole sphere under lumped assumption) to reach 60 °C.
3. Comment on the validity of the lumped-capacitance result and what to do if it is not valid.

Solution
Step 1
For a sphere, the characteristic length Lc = V/A = r/3.
Given r = 0.01 m → L_c = 0.01/3 = 0.003333... m.
Bi = h·Lc / k = (40 W/m²·K)·(0.0033333 m) / (0.6 W/m·K) = 0.222.
Comment: The lumped-capacitance method is generally acceptable when Bi < 0.1. Here Bi ≈ 0.222 > 0.1, so the
lumped-capacitance assumption is not strictly valid. However we will proceed with the lumped method as an
approximation, and then comment on the accuracy.

Step 2
For the lumped-capacitance model the transient temperature follows:
(T(t) - T∞) / (Ti - T∞) = exp(-h·A·t / (ρ·V·Cp))
Solve for t:
t = - (ρ·V·Cp) / (h·A) · ln[(T(t) - T∞) / (Ti - T∞)]
Compute geometric quantities for a sphere of radius 0.01 m:
Volume, V = 4/3·π·r³ = 4.188790e-06 m³
Surface area, A = 4·π·r² = 1.256637e-03 m²
Time constant factor τ = (ρ·V·Cp)/(h·A) = 315.000 s
The dimensionless temperature ratio = (T_target - T∞)/(Ti - T∞) = 0.333333
Therefore the required time is:
t = -τ · ln(θ_ratio) = -315.000 · ln(0.333333) = 346.1 s
 203

Step 3
Because Bi ≈ 0.22 > 0.1 the lumped-capacitance result is only an approximate estimate and likely
underestimates the true transient time (since internal conduction resistance is not negligible). For higher
accuracy use a transient conduction solution for a sphere (e.g., Heisler charts or the analytical series solution
using eigenvalues) to compute the center temperature vs time. The Heisler chart approach or a numerical finite-
difference solution will give a more accurate time to reach 60 °C.

Final answer (approximate, lumped-capacitance):

Time required ≈ 346.1 seconds (≈ 5.77 minutes)
 204

Problem 40
A spherical soybean seed (assumed homogeneous) of radius 5 mm at an initial temperature of 4.0°C is
placed in a forced-air environment at 25.0 °C. The convective heat transfer coefficient between the air and the
seed surface is estimated as h = 30 W/m²·K. The seed properties are: density ρ = 1200 kg/m³, specific heat Cp =
1500 J/kg·K, and thermal conductivity k = 0.6 W/m·K.\

Given
Radius, r = 5 mm = 0.005 m
Ambient (air) temperature, T∞ = 25.0 °C
Initial temperature, Ti = 4.0 °C
Target temperature, T_target = 10.0 °C
Convective heat transfer coefficient, h = 30 W/m²·K
Density, ρ = 1200 kg/m³
Specific heat, Cp = 1500 J/kg·K
Thermal conductivity, k = 0.6 W/m·K

Required
1. Check the validity of the lumped-capacitance assumption by computing the Biot number.
2. If the lumped-capacitance method is valid, determine the time required for the seed (assumed uniform) to
warm from 4°C to 10°C.

Solution
Step 1
For a sphere, the characteristic length Lc = V/A = r/3.
Given r = 0.005 m → Lc = 0.005 / 3 = 0.0016667 m.
Bi = h·Lc / k = (30 W/m²·K)·(0.0016667 m) / (0.6 W/m·K) = 0.083.
Comment: The lumped-capacitance method is generally acceptable when Bi < 0.1. Here Bi ≈ 0.083 ≤ 0.1, so the
lumped-capacitance assumption is considered valid and the seed can be approximated as lumped (uniform
temperature).

Step 2
The lumped-capacitance transient temperature relation is:
(T(t) - T∞) / (Ti - T∞) = exp(-h·A·t / (ρ·V·Cp))
Solve for t:
t = - (ρ·V·Cp) / (h·A) · ln[(T(t) - T∞) / (Ti - T∞)]
Compute geometric quantities for a sphere of radius 0.005 m:
Volume, V = 4/3·π·r³ = 5.235988e-07 m³
Surface area, A = 4·π·r² = 3.141593e-04 m²
Thermal time constant τ = (ρ·V·Cp)/(h·A) = 100.000 s
Dimensionless temperature ratio = (Ttarget - T∞)/(Ti - T∞) = 0.714286
Therefore the required time is:
t = -τ · ln(θ_ratio) = -100.000 · ln(0.714286) = 33.6 s
 205

Problem 41

A metal surface at 150°C loses heat to air at 25°C. If the rate of heat transfer per unit area is 1200
W/m², determine the convective heat transfer coefficient.

Given:

q co = 1200W/m2

t s=150 ℃ , t ∞=25 ℃

Required:

Determine the convective heat transfer coefficient.

Solution:

q co = h c A ¿)

q co
h c=
A(t s−t ∞)

1200 1200
h c= = =9.6W/(m2 ∙ ℃ ¿
1(150−25) 125
 206

Problem 42

A hot water pipe with a surface area of 2m² has a surface temperature of 90°C. The surrounding air is at
30°C, and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 15W/m²·°C. Calculate the rate of heat loss by convection.

Given:

h c = 15W/(m2 ∙ ℃ ¿

A = 2m2

t s=90℃ ,t ∞=30 ℃

Required:

Calculate the rate of heat loss by convection.

Solution:

Qco = h c A ¿)

Qco = 15 (2) (90 − 30) = 15 (2) (60) = 1800W or 1.8kW

 207

Problem 43
Given:
Layer 1 (brick): k₁ = 0.80 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, L₁ = 0.10 m; Layer 2 (insulation): k₂ = 0.040 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, L₂ = 0.050
m; area A = 1.0 m²; temperatures Thot − Tcold = 50 K.

Required:
Overall steady heat rate Q̇ .

Solution:
𝑅₁ = 𝐿₁ / (𝑘₁ 𝐴) = 0.10 / (0.80 × 1.0) = 0.125 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹
𝑅₂ = 𝐿₂ / (𝑘₂ 𝐴) = 0.050 / (0.040 × 1.0) = 1.25 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅₁ + 𝑅₂ = 1.375 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹
𝑄̇ = 𝛥𝑇 / 𝑅_𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 50 / 1.375 = 36.4 𝑊
 208

Problem 44
Given:
Convection coefficient h = 25 W·m⁻²·K⁻¹, area A = 0.50 m², surface temperature Ts = 80 °C, ambient T∞ = 25
°C.

Required:
Convective heat rate Q̇ .

Solution:
𝑄̇ 𝑊

RADIATION
 209

Problem 1

Approximately, a small flat plate behaves like a gray diffuse emitter with emissivity of 0.85. The
temperature of the surface T s = 400 K. The ambient temperature of the surroundings T ∞ = 100 K. The plate area
is 0.08 m2.
Given:
Emissivity: ε = 0.85
Temperature Of The Surface: T s = 400 K

Temperature Of The Surroundings: T ∞ = 100 K

Area: A = 0.08 m2
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant: σ = 5.670 × 10−8 W/m2 k 4

Required:
Net radiative heat loss Qrad from the plate (W)
Qrad = εσA (T s 4−T ∞4 )
4
T s = 400 4
4
T s = 2.56 ×10 10
4
T ∞ = 1004
4
T ∞ = 1 ×10 8
Qrad = (0.85) (5.670 × 10−8)(0.08) [(2.56 ×10 10)(1 ×10 8)]

Qrad = 98.3178 W ≈ 98.32 W

 210

Problem 2
Find the surface temperature of the plate with emissivity of 0.85. It has an area of 0.2 m2. The
surroundings behave as large enclosure at T ∞ = 500 K. The net radiative heat loss is 300 W.
Given:
Emissivity: ε = 0.85
Area: A = 0.2 m2
Temperature In The Enclosure: T ∞ = 500 K

Net Radiative Heat Loss: Q = 300 W

Stefan-Boltzmann: σ = 5.670 × 10−8 W/m2 k 4

Required:
Surface temperature of the of the plate
Solution:
Qrad = εσA (T s 4−T ∞4 )

Qrad = εT s4- εT ∞4 + σT s4 - σT ∞4 + AT s4 - AT ∞4

Qrad + εT ∞4+ σT ∞4 + AT ∞4 = εT s4+ σT s4 + AT s4

4 4
Qrad +( εσA)T ∞ ( εσA)T s
=
εσA εσA

4 1
4 Q rad +(εσA )T ∞ 4
Ts = [ ]
εσA

4 1
Qrad +(εσA )T ∞ 4
T s= [ ]
εσA

−8 4 1
300+[(0.85)(5.670 ×10 )(0.2)]500 4
T s= [ ]
(0.85)(5.670 ×10−8)(0.2)

T s = 553.154 ≈ 553.2 K
 211

Problem 3
Emissivity ε = 0.90, area A = 0.60 m², σ = 5.670×10⁻⁸ W·m⁻²·K⁻⁴, surface temperature T s = 500 K,
surroundings Tsur = 300 K.

Required:
Net radiative heat rate Q̇ _rad.

Solution:

𝑄̇ rad = 𝜀 𝜎 𝐴 (𝑇s⁴ − 𝑇sur⁴)

𝑇s⁴ = 500⁴ = 6.25 × 10¹⁰, 𝑇sur⁴ = 300⁴ = 8.10 × 10⁹

𝑄̇rad = 0.90 × 5.670 × 10⁻⁸ × 0. 10³ 𝑊

 212

Problem 4
Given:
Two large plates, ε₁ = ε₂ = 0.80, area A = 1.0 m², σ = 5.670×10⁻⁸ W·m⁻²·K⁻⁴, temperatures T₁ = 400 K, T₂ =
300 K.

Required:
Net radiative heat exchange Q̇ ₁→₂.

Solution:

𝑄̇ ₁ → ₂ = 𝜎 𝐴 (𝑇₁⁴ − 𝑇₂⁴) / ((1/𝜀₁) + (1/𝜀₂) − 1)

𝑇₁⁴ = 2.56 × 10¹⁰, 𝑇₂⁴ = 8.10 × 10⁹

𝑄̇ ₁ → ₂ = 5.670 × 10⁻⁸ × 1. 10² 𝑊

 213

Problem 5
A steel pipe carrying hot fluid at 300°C is exposed to air at 25°C. The pipe has a diameter of 0.1 m and a
length of 2 m. The emissivity of the pipe surface is 0.8. Calculate the rate of heat loss from the pipe due to
radiation. Assume the surroundings behave like a black body.
Given:

Fluid temperature inside pipe: T f =300∘ C→ T s=300+ 273=573 K

Surrounding air temperature: T ∞=25 ∘ C→ T ∞=25+ 273=298 K

Pipe diameter: D=0.1 m

Pipe length: L=2 m
Emissivity: ε =0.8
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: σ =5.67 ×10−8 W/m² ⋅K⁴
Required:
Heat loss due to radiation, Q
Formula:
4 4
Q=εσ A s (T s −T ∞ )

Where:
A s=πDLis the surface area of the pipe.

Solution:
Compute pipe surface area:
A s=πDL=π (0.1)(2)≈ 0.628 m²

Compute the difference of temperatures to the fourth power:

4 4 4 4
T s −T ∞ =573 −298

Step-by-step:
4 11 4 9 4 4 11 9 11
573 ≈ 1.08 ×10 ,298 ≈7.88 × 10 T s −T ∞ ≈ 1.08 ×10 −7.88 ×10 ≈ 1.002× 10

Apply radiation formula:

−8 11
Q=0.8× 5.67 ×10 × 0.628 ×1.002 ×10
Multiply constants:
−8 −8 −8 −8 −8 11
0.8 ×5.67 × 10 =4.536 ×10 4.536 × 10 ×0.628 ≈ 2.85 ×10 2.85 ×10 × 1.002× 10 ≈ 2857 W

Q=2.86 kW
The pipe loses approximately 2.86 kW of heat by radiation to the surroundings.
214
 215

Problem 6

A flat vertical wall of a tank containing fluid at 150°C is exposed to ambient air at 25°C. The wall area is
3 m², and the surface emissivity is 0.7. Calculate the radiation heat loss from the wall. Assume the surroundings
behave like a black body.
Given:
Wall temperature: T s=150∘ C→ 423 K
Ambient temperature: T ∞=25 ∘ C→ 298 K
Wall area: A=3 m²
Emissivity: ε =0.7
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: σ =5.67 ×10−8 W/m² ⋅K⁴

Required:
Radiation heat loss, Q
Solution:
4 4
Q=εσA (T s −T ∞ )

Compute T 4s −T 4∞ :
4 10 4 9 4 4 10 9 10
423 ≈ 3.2× 10 , 298 ≈ 7.88 ×10 T s −T ∞ ≈ 3.2× 10 −7.88 ×10 ≈ 2.412 ×10

Apply formula:
−8 10
Q=0.7 ×5.67 ×10 × 3 ×2.412 ×10
Step-by-step:
−8 −8 −8 −7 −7 10
0.7 × 5.67× 10 =3.969× 10 3.969 ×10 × 3 ≈1.19 ×10 1.19 ×10 × 2.412× 10 ≈ 2872 W

Q=2.87 kW
The tank wall loses approximately 2.87 kW by radiation.

Problem 7

A flat metal plate at a temperature of 500 K is exposed to surroundings at 300 K. The plate has an
emissivity of 0.7. Determine the rate of heat loss by radiation per square meter of the plate surface. Use the
Stefan–Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.67×10−8 W/m2K4

Given:
 216

Ts = 500 K
Tsur = 300 K
ε = 0.7
σ = 5.67×10−8 W/m2K4

Required:
Heat loss by radiation, q (W/m²)

Solution:

q = εσ (Ts4 – Tsur4)

q = 0.7 (5.67×10−8) [(500)4−(300)4]

q = 0.7 (5.67×10−8)(6.25 × 1010 −8.1 × 109)

q = 0.7 (5.67×10−8) (5.44×1010)

q = 0.7 (3080.48) = 2156.3 W/m2

Final Answer: q = 2156.3 W/m2

 217

Problem 8

The filament of a 75W light bulb may be considered as a black body radiating into a black enclosure at
o
70 C. The filament is 0.10mm and the length is 5cm. considering the radiation, determine the filament
temperature.

Given:
Q = 75W = 75 J/s
T2 = 70 + 272 = 343K
D = 0.1mm
L = 5cm
Area = πdl

Required:
filament temperature
Solution: ε σ
ε = 1 for black body
Q = σεA (T14 – T24)
75 = 5.67 x 10-8 x 1 x π x 0.1 x 10-3 x 5 x 10-2 [T14 – (343)4]
T14 = (75 / 8.906x10-3) + (343)4
T1 = 3029k
T1 = 3029k -273 = 2756oc

Final Answer: T1 = 2756oc

 218

Problem 9
A black-painted wall surface of 10 m² is maintained at 80°C. Calculate the rate of heat energy emitted by
radiation. Use the Stefan–Boltzmann constant δ=5.67 ×1 0−8W/(m∙ K 4 ¿

Given:
A = 10m², T = 80 + 273 = 353K
−8 4
δ=5.67 ×1 0 W/(m∙ K ¿

Required:
Calculate the rate of heat energy emitted by radiation.

Solution:
4
q r=δA T
q r=¿ 5.67 ×10−8 × 10 × (353¿ 4

q r=¿ 5.67 ×10−7 × 155 × 1010 = 8790W or 8.79kW

 219

Problem 10
A polished aluminum plate of 4 m² surface area has an emissivity of 0.1 and a temperature of 100°C.
Find the rate of heat energy emitted by the surface.

Given:
ε = 0.1, A = 4 m2
T = 100 + 273 = 373K
−8 4
δ=5.67 ×1 0 W/(m∙ K ¿

Required:
Find the rate of heat energy emitted by the surface.

Solution:
4
q r=εδA T
q r=¿ 0.1(5.67 ×10−8) (4) (373¿ 4

q r=¿ 0.4 × 5.67 ×10−8 × 193 × 1010 = 4370W or 4.37kW

 220

Problem 11
A metal surface at 600 K emits thermal radiation. The emissivity of the surface is 0.7. Determine the rate
of radiation heat emission per square meter.

Given:
T = 600 K, emissivity, ε = 0.7, σ = 5.67×10⁻⁸ W/m²·K⁴

Required:
Radiation heat flux, q

Solution:
q = εσT⁴ = 0.7(5.67×10⁻⁸)(600⁴) = 5,133 W/m²

Final Answer:
Rate of heat emission = 5,133 W/m²
 221

Problem 12
A small surface at 500 K with emissivity 0.8 is surrounded by large walls at 300 K. Calculate the net radiative
heat loss per square meter.

Given:
T₁ = 500 K, T₂ = 300 K, ε = 0.8, σ = 5.67×10⁻⁸ W/m²·K⁴

Required:
Net radiation heat flux, q_net

Solution:
qnet = εσ(T₁⁴ - T₂⁴) = 0.8(5.67×10⁻⁸)(500⁴ - 300⁴) = 7,305 W/m²

Final Answer:
Net heat transfer = 7,305 W/m²
 222

Problem 13
A furnace wall at 900 K radiates heat to surroundings at 300 K. The emissivity is 0.75. Calculate the net
radiative heat transfer per square meter. Use σ = 5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W/m²·K⁴.
Required: Net radiative heat flux.
Solution:
Using Stefan–Boltzmann Law:

Q = εσ(T₁⁴ − T₂⁴)

Where:
Q = rate of heat transfer (W, watts)
ε = emissivity of the material (dimensionless, between 0 and 1)
ε =1represents a perfect black body, which absorbs and emits radiation perfectly.
ε < 1represents real materials that are less effective in emitting and absorbing radiation.
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 ×10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K4
T 1= absolute temperature of the first body (in Kelvin, K)

T 2= absolute temperature of the second body (in Kelvin, K)

Q = εσ(T₁⁴ − T₂⁴)

Q = 0.75 × 5.67×10⁻⁸ × (900⁴ − 300⁴)

Q = 0.75 × 5.67×10⁻⁸ × (6.56×10¹¹ − 8.1×10⁹)
Q = 27,600 W/m²
 223

Problem 14
A solar collector surface at 350 K exchanges radiation with the environment at 295 K. The surface
emissivity is 0.85. Determine the radiative heat loss per square meter. Use σ = 5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W/m²·K⁴.
Required:
Radiative heat loss.
Solution:
Using Stefan–Boltzmann Law:

Q = εσ(T₁⁴ − T₂⁴)

Where:
Q = rate of heat transfer (W, watts)
ε = emissivity of the material (dimensionless, between 0 and 1)
ε =1represents a perfect black body, which absorbs and emits radiation perfectly.
ε < 1represents real materials that are less effective in emitting and absorbing radiation.
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 ×10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K4
T 1= absolute temperature of the first body (in Kelvin, K)

T 2= absolute temperature of the second body (in Kelvin, K)

Q = εσ(T₁⁴ − T₂⁴)

Q = 0.85 × 5.67×10⁻⁸ × (350⁴ − 295⁴)

Q = 220 W/m²

Problem 15

A tray containing 2.00 kg of maize kernels (wet biological material) with a surface area of 0.20 m² is
placed directly facing an electrical radiant heater. The heater surface can be approximated as a gray body at a
uniform temperature of 900 K with emissivity 0.95. The maize kernels' surface has an emissivity (and
 224

absorptivity in the thermal infrared) of 0.85. Assume the view factor between the heater and the tray is 1 (they
face each other closely) and that convective and evaporative losses are negligible during the short heating
interval. The kernels initial temperature is 25 °C and the target temperature is 60 °C.

Given:
• Heater temperature, Theater = 900 K
• Heater emissivity, εheater= 0.95
• Sample emissivity (absorptivity), εsample = 0.85
• Exposed area, A = 0.20 m²
• Sample mass, m = 2.00 kg
• Specific heat, cp = 3500 J/(kg·K)
• Initial temperature, Ti = 25 °C
• Final temperature, Tf = 60 °C
• Stefan–Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.670374419×10⁻⁸ W·m⁻²·K⁻⁴
• View factor ≈ 1; neglect convection and evaporation for this estimate.

Required:
1. Determine the net radiative heat flux absorbed by the sample (W/m²).
2. Determine the net radiative power absorbed by the sample (W).
3. Estimate the time required for the sample to heat from 25 °C to 60 °C under these conditions (in minutes).
Solution (step-by-step):
1) Use the two-gray-body radiative exchange factor for two facing surfaces:
Effective radiative exchange factor = 1 / (1/εheater + 1/εsample − 1).
Compute the radiative factor:
radfactor = 1 / (1/εheater + 1/εsample − 1) = 0.81360

2) Net radiative heat flux (W/m²) from heater to sample:

qnet = σ · radfactor · (Theater⁴ − Tsample initial⁴).

Substituting values:
qnet = σ · 0.81360 · (900⁴ − 298.15⁴) = 29,904.1 W/m².

3) Net radiative power absorbed by the sample (W):

Q̇ = qnet· A

Q̇ = 29,904.1 W/m² × 0.2 m² = 5,980.8 W.

4) Energy required to heat the sample from 25 °C to 60 °C:

Qneeded = m · cp · (Tf − Ti)

Qneeded = 2.00 kg × 3500 J/(kg·K) × (60.0 − 25.0) K = 245,000.0 J.

Time required (assuming all absorbed radiative power increases sensible heat):
time = Qneeded / Q̇
time = 245,000.0 J / 5,980.8 W = 41.0 s = 0.68 min.
 225

Problem 16

A thin tray holding 0.50 kg of apple slices (assumed homogenized as a wet biological material) with an exposed
area of 0.15 m² is heated by an infrared emitter. The emitter surface temperature is 800 K and has an emissivity
of 0.90. The apple slices' effective surface emissivity (and absorptivity in the IR) is 0.92. Because of geometry,
only 60% of the emitter's radiation reaches the tray (view factor = 0.60). Assume convective and evaporative
losses are negligible for the short heating period. The initial temperature of the apple slices is 20 °C and the
required temperature is 70 °C.

Given:
• Heater temperature, Theater = 800 K
• Heater emissivity, εheater= 0.90
• Sample emissivity, εsample = 0.92
• View factor, F = 0.60
• Exposed area, A = 0.15 m²
• Sample mass, m = 0.50 kg
• Specific heat, cp = 3000 J/(kg·K)
• Initial temperature, Ti = 20.0 °C
• Final temperature, Tf = 70.0 °C
• Stefan–Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.670374419×10⁻⁸ W·m⁻²·K⁻⁴

Required:
1. Calculate the effective radiative exchange factor between the emitter and the sample.
2. Determine the net radiative heat flux on the sample (W/m²), accounting for the view factor.
3. Determine the net radiative power absorbed by the sample (W).
4. Estimate the time required for the sample to heat from 20 °C to 70 °C (in minutes).
Solution (step-by-step):
1) Effective radiative exchange factor for two gray surfaces facing each other:
radfactor = 1 / (1/εheater+ 1/εsample− 1)

Substituting values: radfactor = 0.83468

2) Net radiative heat flux including view factor:

qnet = σ · radfactor · F · (Theater⁴ − Tinitial⁴)

qnet = σ · 0.83468 · 0.60 · (800⁴ − 293.15⁴) = 11,421.9 W/m²

3) Net radiative power absorbed by the sample (W):

Q̇ = qnet · A

Q̇ = 11,421.9 W/m² × 0.15 m² = 1,713.3 W

4) Energy required to heat the sample from 20 °C to 70 °C:

Qneeded = m · cp · (Tf – Ti)

Qneeded = 0.50 kg × 3000 J/(kg·K) × (70.0 − 20.0) K = 75,000.0 J

 226

5) Time required (assuming all absorbed radiative power increases sensible heat):
time = Qneeded / Q̇

time = 75,000.0 J / 1,713.3 W = 43.8 s = 0.73 min

 227

Problem 17

A large metal sheet at 420°C emits radiant energy with emissivity 0.7. Determine the radiative heat flux. (σ =
5.67×10⁻⁸ W/m²·K⁴)

Given:
• ε = 0.7
• T = 420°C = 693 K

Required:
q/A

Solution:
q/A = εσT⁴
q/A = 0.7(5.67×10⁻⁸)(693⁴)
q/A ≈ 12,260 W/m²

Answer:
12,260 W/m²
 228

Problem 18

A surface at 310 K radiates heat to surroundings at 290 K. Emissivity = 0.85. Find the net radiative heat
flux.

Given:
• Ts = 310 K
• T∞ = 290 K
• ε = 0.85

Required:
q/A

Solution:
q/A = εσ(Ts⁴ – T∞⁴)
q/A = 0.85(5.67×10⁻⁸)(310⁴ – 290⁴)
q/A ≈ 223 W/m²

Answer:
223 W/m²
 229

Problem 19

Two very large parallel plates face each other in vacuum. Plate A at temperature T A = 900 K has emissivity ε_A
= 0.7. Plate B at temperature T B = 400 K has emissivity εB = 0.4. Assume gray, diffuse surfaces and view factor
F = 1. Calculate the net radiative heat flux from A to B (W/m²). Use Stefan–Boltzmann constant σ =
5.670374419e-8 W/m²·K⁴.

Given:
TA = 900 K, εA = 0.7
TB = 400 K, εB = 0.4
Parallel infinite plates: F = 1, gray diffuse.
σ = 5.670374419e-8 W/m²·K⁴.

Required:
Compute net radiative heat flux q''net from A → B.

Solution:
Using radiative exchange for two infinite parallel plates: q'' = σ(TA4 - TB4)/[(1/εA)+(1/εB)-1].
Compute: q'' = 1.2208e+04 W/m² (positive from A to B).
 230

Problem 20

A steel plate (emissivity ε = 0.85) is exposed to ambient air at T ∞ = 300 K and experiences convective
heat transfer with h = 15 W/m²·K. The plate receives a uniform solar/incident radiation flux of G = 800 W/m²
absorbed entirely (assume absorptivity = emissivity). Find the steady-state surface temperature T s where
absorbed radiation is balanced by convection + radiation to environment. Use σ = 5.670374419e-8 W/m²·K⁴.

Given:
ε = 0.85 (assume absorptivity α = ε), T∞ = 300 K, h = 15 W/m²·K, G = 800 W/m²
σ = 5.670374419e-8 W/m²·K⁴.

Required:
Find Ts (K) satisfying: αG = h(Ts - T∞) + εσ(Ts4 - T∞4). Solve numerically (bisection).

Solution:
Equation solved numerically (bisection). Steady-state surface temperature T s ≈ 332.22 K.
Check: Absorbed = 680 W/m², Convective + Radiative loss = 680 W/m² (should match).
 231

Problem 21

A drying tray (ε = 0.85) at 400 K radiates heat to its surroundings at 300 K. If the area of the tray is 1.2
m², calculate the net radiative heat loss.

Given:
ε = 0.85
A = 1.2 m²
Tsurface = 400 K
Tsurroundings = 300 K

Required:
Net radiative heat loss (Q, W)

Solution:

Q = εσA (Ts⁴ - Tsur⁴)

Q = (0.85) (5.67 x 10-8) (1.2) (400⁴ - 300⁴)
Q = 1,012.1 W

Answer: Q = 1,012.1 W
 232

Problem 21

Two parallel plates each of area 4 m² are maintained at 700 K and 500 K respectively. The effective
emissivity between them is 0.65. Determine the net rate of heat transfer by radiation.

Given:
A = 4 m²
εeff = 0.65
T₁ = 700 K
T₂ = 500 K

Required:
Net radiative heat transfer Q (W)

Solution:
Q = εeff σ A (T₁⁴ - T₂⁴)
Q = (0.65) (5.67 x 10-8) (4) (700⁴ - 500⁴)
Q = 26,181.8 W

Answer: Q = 26,181.8 W
 233

Problem 22

A large flat surface at 800 K radiates heat to its surroundings at 300 K. The surface has an emissivity of
0.7. Determine the net radiative heat flux leaving the surface.
Given:
T₁ = 800 K
T₂ = 300 K
ε = 0.7
σ = 5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W/m²·K⁴
Required:
Net radiative heat flux, q (W/m²)
Solution:
The Stefan–Boltzmann law for net radiation:
4 4
q=εσ (T 1 −T 2 )q=0.7 (5.67 ×10−8)(800 4−3004 )q=0.7 (5.67 ×10−8)( 4.096 ×1011 −8.1 ×109 )
−8 11
q=0.7 (5.67 ×10 )( 4.0159 ×10 )=0.7 (22,780)=15,946 W/m²
Final Answer:
q = 1.59 × 10⁴ W/m²
 234

Problem 23
Two large parallel plates exchange radiation. Plate A is at 1000 K with emissivity 0.8, and Plate B is at
500 K with emissivity 0.6. Find the net heat flux from Plate A to Plate B.
Given:
TA = 1000 K, εA = 0.8
TB = 500 K, εB = 0.6
σ = 5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W/m²·K⁴
Required:
Net heat flux, q (W/m²)
Solution:
For two infinite parallel plates:
4 4 −8
σ (T A −T B ) 4
5.67 ×10 (1000 −500 )
4
q= q= 5.67 ×10−8 (1×10 12 −6.25× 1010 ) 5.67 ×10−8 (9.375 ×1011 )
1 1 1 1 ¿ =
( + −1) ( + −1) (1.25+ 1.67−1) 1.92
εA εB 0.8 0.6
53,206
q= =27,700 W/m²
1.92
Final Answer:
q = 2.77 × 10⁴ W/m²
 235

Problem 24
The black-painted metal plate has an area of 2 m² and is maintained at 600 K. Determine the rate of
radiant energy emitted from the surface. Repeat the calculation if the plate temperature increases to 700 K.

Given:

ε = 1.0

A = 2.0 m²

T₁ = 600 K

T₂ = 700 K

Required:

Determine the rate of radiant energy emitted from the surface

Solution:
q = εσAT⁴
q₁ = 1 × 5.670374419000e-08 × 2 × 600⁴
q₁ = 14697.61 W
q = εσAT⁴
q₂ = 1 × 5.670374419000e-08 × 2 × 700⁴
q₂ = 27229.14 W
 236

Problem 25

An aluminum surface (ε = 0.2) with an area of 5 m² is exposed to surroundings at 25°C. If the surface
temperature is 250°C, calculate the net radiation heat loss to the surroundings.

Given:

ε = 0.20

A = 5.0 m²

Ts = 250°C = 523.15 K

Tst = 25°C = 298.15 K

Required:

Calculate the net radiation heat loss to the surroundings

Solution:
q = εσA (Ts⁴ - Tst⁴)
q = 0.2 × 5.670374419000e-08 × 5 × (523.15⁴ - 298.15⁴)
q = 3799.26 W
 237

Problem 26
Corn kernels are being sun-dried on a flat tray under midday conditions. The surface of the kernels can
be modeled as a diffuse gray surface with emissivity ε =0.85 . The sun provides an average solar radiation
intensity of Gsolar=900 W /m2 on the tray. The surrounding air and ground have an average radiative temperature
of T sur=30∘ C. If the kernels reach a surface temperature of T s=60 ∘ C, determine the net radiation heat gain by
the kernels (in W/m²) and fraction of solar energy actually absorbed by the kernels. Assume steady-state and
neglect convection and conduction losses for simplicity.
Given: (Hii et. al., 2012)
 Surface emissivity of corn kernels: ε =0.85
∘
 Surface temperature: T s=60 C
 Surrounding temperature: T sur=30∘ C
 Solar irradiance: Gsolar=900 W /m2
 Stefan–Boltzmann constant: σ =5.67 ×10−8 W ⋅ m−2 ⋅ K −4
Required:
1. Net radiative heat gain q net(W/m²)
qabs
2. Absorbed solar fraction
Gsolar
Solution:
T s=60+ 273.15=333.15 KT sur=30+273.15=303.15 Kq emit =εσ T 4s q emit =0.85(5.67 ×10−8 )¿
2
q emit =594 W /m
4 −8
q abs,rad =εσ T s q abs,rad =0.85(5.67 × 10 )¿
2
q abs,rad =407 W /m
q abs,solar=α Gsolar
α ≈ ε=0.85 .
q abs,solar=0.85(900) q abs,solar=765 W /m2
q net=qabs,solar + qabs,rad −qemit q net=765+ 407−594 q net=578 W /m2
qabs,solar 765
= =0.85
Gsolar 900
 238

Problem 27
A steel surface (ε = 0.8) at 500 K radiates heat to the surrounding air at 300 K. Find the net rate of heat
loss per square meter.

Given:
e = 0.8
Ts =500K
T∞ =300K
σ = 5.67×10−8W/m²⋅K⁴
q=?

Solution:
4 4
q=Eo(T s −T ∞)

−8 4 4
q=0.8 (5.67 ×10 )(500 −300 )

3
q=2.47 ×10 W /m²
 239

Problem 28
Two large parallel plates exchange radiation. Plate 1 is at 700 K (ε₁ = 0.8), and plate 2 is at 400 K (ε₂ =
0.6).Determine the net heat transfer rate per unit area between the plates

Given:
T1 = 700
T2 = 400
e1 = 0.8
e2 = 0.6
σ = 5.67×10−8
q=?

Solution:

4 4 −8 4 4
o(T 1 −T 2 ) 5.57 x 10 (700 −400 )
q= q=
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
E1 E2 0.8 0.6

q=11.2 kW /m ²(net radiative exchange)

 240

Problem 29
An AB composite plate with area A = 3 m² is exposed to the surroundings. The surface behaves as a gray
body with emissivity ε = 0.85.

Given:

a) late temperature: Tplate = 100°C

b) Surrounding temperature: Tsur = 25°C
c) Stefan-Boltzmann constant: σ = 5.67 x 10^-8 W/m²·K⁴
Required:

1. Calculate the net radiative heat loss from the plate using:
Qrad= εσA (Tplate4−Tsur4)
2. If 1/2 of the radiative heat loss is absorbed by an adjacent water channel embedded in the AB material,
calculate the heat absorbed by water, Qwater.
3. Discuss why radiation becomes significant at high temperatures compared to conduction or
convection.
Solution:

Convert temperatures to Kelvin

Tplate = 100 + 273.15 = 373.15 K

Tsur = 25 + 273.15 = 298.15 K

Net radiative heat loss Multiply by σ and A:

Qrad = ε x σ x A x (Tplate4 – Tsur 4) =5.67 x 10-8 x 3 x 1.1486 x 1010 ≈ 1,952 W
Calculate Tplate4: Multiply by emissivity:
373.154 ≈ 1.939 x 10^10 = 0.85 x 1,952 ≈ 1,659 W
Calculate Tsur4: Heat absorbed by water channel
298.154 ≈ 7.904 x 10^9 Fraction absorbed: 1/2
Difference: Qwater = 1/2 x Qrad = 0.5 x 1,659 ≈ 830 W
1.939 x 1010 - 7.904 x 109 = 1.1486 x 1010
 241

Problem 30
A hot fluid (air at 500°C) flows through a porous absorbent material (e.g., a ceramic foam with high
emissivity) at a velocity of 2 m/s. The material has a surface area of 1 m² exposed to a cold environment at
20°C. The absorbent material's emissivity (ε) is 0.9, and the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ) is 5.67 × 10^{-8}
W/m²K⁴. Calculate the net radiative heat transfer rate from the material's surface, assuming the fluid's
convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is 50 W/m²K and the material's temperature is uniform at 400°C. Ignore
conduction and focus on radiation, but note how it interacts with fluid convection.

Given:

a) Material temperature: Ts=400∘C=400+273.15=673.15 K

b) Surrounding temperature: T∞=20∘C=293.15 K
c) Surface area: A=1 m²
d) Emissivity: ε=0.9\varepsilon = 0.9ε=0.9
e) Stefan-Boltzmann constant: σ =5.67x10−8W/m²K⁴
f) Convective coefficient: h =50W/m2Kh = 50 W/m²K
g) Air velocity: 2 m/s (for context, can affect convective layer thickness)
Required:

Calculate the net radiative heat transfer rate from the material's surface, assuming the fluid's convective heat
transfer coefficient (h) is 50 W/m²K and the material's temperature is uniform at 400°C.

Solution:

Radiative heat transfer formula Multiply by σ and ε

Qrad=εσA (Ts4−T∞4) Qrad=0.9x5.67x10−8(1.970x1011)
Qradb=b0.9x5.67x10−8 (1) (673.154−293.154) First, 5.67 x 10-8 x 1.970 x 10-11
Calculating Ts4−T∞4 ≈ 5.67 x 1.970 x 10-3
1. Ts4 = 11.17 x 10-3 ≈ 11,170 W
673.15² ≈ 452,133 Multiply by emissivity
673.154 = 452,133² ≈ 2.044 x 1011 0.9: 11,170 x 0.9 ≈ 10,053 W
2. T∞4 Interaction with fluid convection
= 293.154T∞4=293.154 Qconv = hA(Ts−T∞)
293.154 = 85,936² ≈ 7.38 x 109 =50(1)(673.15−293.15)=50(380)=19,000W
Ts4−T∞4=2.044x1011−7.38x109≈1.970x1011 Total heat transfer
Qtotal ≈ Qrad + Qconv ≈ 10,050 + 19,000
= 29,050 W.
 242

Problem 31
A small metal plate at 500 K radiates energy to surroundings at 300 K. The emissivity is 0.8 and area is
0.2 m². Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ = 5.67×10⁻⁸ W/m²·K⁴.

Required:
Find the net radiative heat transfer rate.

Solution:

Q = εσA (T₁⁴ - T₂⁴)

Q = (0.8) (5.67×10⁻⁸) (0.2) ((500)⁴ - (300)⁴)

Q = 902 W
 243

Problem 32

A blackbody surface (ε = 1) at 700 K radiates to surroundings at 400 K. The area is 1 m².

Required:
Find the net radiative heat transfer rate.

Solution:

Q = σA (T₁⁴ - T₂⁴)

Q = (5.67×10⁻⁸) (1) ((700)⁴ - (400)⁴)

Q = 12,610 W
 244

Problem 33

A large black ceramic heating element in a commercial broiler is operating at 900°C. Assuming the element acts
as a blackbody (ε=1) with a radiating area (A) of 0.15 m 2, calculate the total amount of radiation heat power
emitted by the element.

Given:
Temperature, T = 900°C = 1173.15 K
Emissivity, epsilon = 1 Area, A = 0.15 m2
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant, sigma = 5.67 x 10^-8 W/m2.K4

Required:
Total radiation power emitted, Qemitted (in Watts).

Solutions:
Qemitted = εσAT4
Qemitted = (1)(5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4)(0.15 m2)(1173.15 K)4
Qemitted ≈16109.74 W
 245

Problem 34

A chocolate bar on a chilling conveyor belt has a surface temperature (T s) of 35°C. The walls of the
chilling tunnel (Tsurr) are maintained at 10°C. If the chocolate's surface area (A) is 0.05 m 2 and its emissivity (ε)
is 0.93, what is the net rate of heat loss from the chocolate by radiation?

Given:
Surface Temperature, Ts = 35°C = 308.15 K
Surrounding Temperature, Tsurr = 10°C = 283.15 K
Area, A = 0.05 m2
Emissivity, ε = 0.93
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant, σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4

Required:
Net rate of radiation heat loss, Qnet,rad (in Watts).

Solutions:
Qnet,rad = εσA(T4 – Tsurr4)
Qnet,rad = (0.93) (5.67 x 10-8) (0.05) [(308.15) 4 - (283.15) 4] W
Qnet,rad ≈ 68.2 W
 246

Problem 35
A baking tray (emissivity ε =0.85) sits in an oven whose internal surfaces are at 250 °C. The tray surface
temperature is 25 °C. Assuming the oven behaves like an enclosure that “sees” the tray with view factor ≈ 1,
estimate the net radiative heat flux (W/m²) received by the tray.
Given:
Tenv = 250 oC + 273.15 =523.15 K
Ttray = 25 oC + 273.15 = 298.15 K
ε =0.85
−8 W
σ =5.67 x 10 2 4
m K

Required:
Net radiative heat flux q (W/m2)

Solution:
4 4
q=εσ (T env −T tray )

−8 W 4 4
q=(0.85)(5.67 x 10 2 4
)(523.15 −298.15 )
m K
W
q=3229.16 2
m
 247

Problem 36

A 250 W infrared lamp hangs 0.50 m above a loaf. Treat the lamp as a point source; the loaf face normal
to the lamp has area A = 0.05 m2. The loaf surface absorptivity α = 0.90. Estimate the power absorbed by the
face.

Given:
P = 250 W
d = 0.50 m
A = 0.05 m2
α = 0.90

Required:
Power absorbed (Qabs)

Solution:

2
A 0.05 m
view fraction= 2
= 2
=0.02
4 π d 4 π (0.5)

Q|¿|=P x view x α¿

Q|¿|=(250W )(0.02)(0.90 )¿

Q|¿|=4.5 W ¿
 248

Problem 37
A heating element in a food oven has a surface area (A) of 0.1 m2 and a surface temperature (Ts) of 600
K. If the element behaves as a blackbody ( ϵ=1.0 ), calculate the rate of radiant heat emission ( Q̇ ) from the
element.

Given
 Surface area (A): 0.1 m2
 Surface temperature (Ts): 600 K
 Emissivity (ϵ ): 1.0 (Blackbody)
 Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( σ ): 5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2 . K4)

Required
 Rate of radiant heat emission (( Q̇ ) in Watts.

Solution
4
Q̇=ϵσA T s
−8 2 4 2
Q̇=(1.0)⋅(5.67 ×10 W/(m ⋅ K ) ¿ ⋅(0.1 m )⋅ ¿
−8
Q̇=(5.67 ×10 )⋅(0.1)⋅(129,600,000,000)
−8 10
Q̇=(5.67 ×10 ) ⋅(1.296 ×10 )

Q̇=735.19 W
 249

Problem 38
A hot surface at 150∘ C is placed in a large room whose walls are maintained at 30∘ C The surface has an
area (A) of 0.5 m2 and an emissivity (ϵ ) of 0.85. Calculate the net rate of radiative heat transfer ( Q̇net ) from the
surface to the room walls.

Given
 Surface temperature (Ts): 150∘ C (423.15 K)

 Surrounding temperature (Tsur): 30∘ C (303.15 K)

 Emissivity (ϵ ): 0.85
 Surface area (A): 0.5 m2
 Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( σ ): 5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2 . K4)
 Note: Must convert temperatures to Kelvin.

Required
 Net rate of radiative heat transfer (Q̇net ) in Watts.

Solution
4 4
Q̇net =ϵσA (T s −T surr )
−8
Q̇net =(0.85)⋅(5.67× 10 )⋅(0.5)⋅¿
−8
Q̇net =(2.40975 × 10 )⋅(32,042,000,000−8,435,000,000)
−8
Q̇net =(2.40975 × 10 )⋅(23,607,000,000)

Q̇net =568.96 W
 250

Problem 39
A metal plate with a surface area of 0.6 m² is maintained at a temperature of 500 K, while the
surrounding air and nearby surfaces are at 300 K. If the emissivity of the plate is 0.8, calculate the rate of heat
loss (Q) by thermal radiation. Use the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, σ =5.67 ×10−8 W /m² ∙ K 4 .

Given:
2
A=0.6 m
ε =0.8
T s=500 K

T sur =300 K
−8 4
σ =5.67 ×10 W /m² ∙ K

Required:
Rate of heat loss by radiation,(Qrad )

Solution:
Formula Used:

Qrad =εσA ¿

Q rad =( 0.8 ) ( 5.67 × 10 ) (0.6) [ ( 500 −300 ) ]

−8 4 4

Qrad =( 0.8 ) (1849)

Qrad =1479.2 W
 251

Problem 40

Two flat plates, each with a surface area of 1.0 m², are maintained at the same temperature of 600 K and
are exposed to surroundings at 300 K. Plate A has an emissivity of 0.9, while Plate B has an emissivity of 0.3.
Determine the rate of heat loss by radiation for each plate and compare which surface loses more heat. Use the
Stefan–Boltzmann constant, σ =5.67 ×10−8 W /m² ∙ K 4 .

Given:
2
A=1.0 m
ε A=0.9
ε B=0.3
T s=600 K
T sur =300 K
−8 4
σ =5.67 ×10 W /m² ∙ K

Required:
Q A =radiative heat loss of Plate A
QB =radiative heat loss of Plate B
Comparison between the two

Solution:
For Plate A:
4 4
Q=εσA (T s −T sur )
Q= ( 0.9 ) ( 5.67 ×10 ) ( 1.0 ) [ ( 600 −300 ) ]
−8 4 4

Q= ( 0.9 ) (6890.4)
Q=6201.4 W
For Plate A:
4 4
Q=εσA (T s −T sur )
Q= ( 0.3 ) ( 5.67 ×10 ) ( 1.0 ) [ ( 600 −300 ) ]
−8 4 4

Q= ( 0.3 ) (6890.4)
Q=2067.1W
 252

STEADY STATE OF HEAT TRANSFER

Problem 1
The cold storage room’s wall has a thickness of 0.07 m and has a total area of 2.2 m2. The wall is made of

insulation material with a thermal conductivity 0.7 W/ (m.k). The inside and outside temperatures of the wall

are 30 ℃ and 90 ℃ , respectively. Determine the rate of the heat transfer through the wall and the heat flux.

Assuming steady state one-dimensional heat conduction.

Given:

Thermal Conductivity: k = 0.7 W/ (m.k)

Wall Thickness: L = 0.07 m
Wall Area: A = 2.2 m2
Hot-Side Temperature: T 1 = 90 ℃
Cold-Side Temperature: T 2 = 30 ℃

Required:
Heat transfer rate
Heat flux
Solution:
Heat transfer rate

∆ T =T 1−T 2 Q = 1,320 W

∆ T =90−30 Heat flux

∆ T =¿ 60 K Q
q” =
A
kA (T 1 −T 2 )
Q=
L 1,320
q” =
2.2
(0.7)(2.2)(60)
Q=
0.07 q” = 600 W/m2

Problem 2
 253

Find the total area of the wall if the thermal conductivity is 0.60 W/ (m.k), heat transfer rate of 1500 W
and a wall thickness of 0.05 m. The outside and inside temperature 80 ℃ and 50 ℃ , respectively. Find also the
heat flux for this problem.
Given:
Thermal Conductivity: k = 0.6 W/ (m.k)
Wall Thickness: L = 0.05 m
Outside Temperature: T 1 = 80 ℃
Inside Temperature: T 2 = 50 ℃
Heat Transfer Rate: Q = 1500 W

Required:
Area
Heat Flux
Solution:
Area
kA (T 1 −T 2 )
Q=
L

QL kA (T 1 −T 2 )
=
k (T 1−T 2) k (T 1−T 2)

QL
A=
k (T 1−T 2)

(1500)(0.05)
A=
0.60(80−50)

A = 4.1666 ≈ 4.17 m2

Heat Flux

Q
q” =
A

1500
q” =
4.17

q” = 359.712 ≈ 359.71 W/m2

 254

Problem 3
Wall: k = 0.50 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, thickness L = 0.20 m, area A = 10 m²; inner convection hi = 10 W·m⁻²·K⁻¹, outer
convection ho = 20 W·m⁻²·K⁻¹; indoor Ti = 25 °C, outdoor To = 5 °C.
Required:

Overall heat rate Q̇ ; (b) overall U (optional).

Solution:

𝑅𝑖 = 1 / (ℎ𝑖 𝐴) = 1 / (10 × 10) = 0.010 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹

𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝐿 / (𝑘 𝐴) = 0.20 / (0.50 × 10) = 0.040 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹

𝑅𝑜 = 1 / (ℎ𝑜 𝐴) = 1 / (20 × 10) = 0.005 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 + 𝑅𝑜 = 0.055 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹

𝛥𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = 25 − 5 = 20 𝐾

𝑄̇ = 𝛥𝑇 / 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 10² 𝑊

𝑈 = 1 / (𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴) = 1 / (0.055 × 10) = 1.82 𝑊 · 𝑚⁻² · 𝐾⁻¹

 255

Problem 4

Area A = 5.0 m²; inner convection hi = 12 W·m⁻²·K⁻¹; layer 1: k₁ = 1.2 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, L₁ = 0.10 m; layer 2: k₂ =
0.30 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, L₂ = 0.050 m; outer convection ho = 8 W·m⁻²·K⁻¹; inside Ti = 70 °C; outside To = 30 °C.

Required:
(a) Heat rate Q̇ ; (b) interface temperature Tint between layers.

Solution:

𝑅i = 1 / (ℎ𝑖 𝐴) = 1 / (12 × 5.0) = 0.0167 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹

𝑅₁ = 𝐿₁ / (𝑘₁ 𝐴) = 0.10 / (1.2 × 5.0) = 0.0167 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹

𝑅₂ = 𝐿₂ / (𝑘₂ 𝐴) = 0.050 / (0.30 × 5.0) = 0.0333 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹

𝑅_𝑜 = 1 / (ℎ𝑜 𝐴) = 1 / (8 × 5.0) = 0.0250 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.0167 + 0.0167 + 0.0333 + 0.0250 = 0.0917 𝐾 · 𝑊⁻¹

𝛥𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = 40 𝐾

𝑄̇ = 𝛥𝑇 / 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 10² 𝑊

𝛥𝑇₁ = 𝑄̇ × 𝐾

𝑇int 𝑇i − 𝛥𝑇₁ °𝐶
 256

Problem 5
A wall made of abrasive-resistant material separates a hot fluid at 120°C from a cold fluid at 30°C. The
wall is 0.05 m thick, has an area of 4 m², and a thermal conductivity of 20 W/m·K. Assuming steady-state, one-
dimensional conduction through the wall, calculate the rate of heat transfer through the wall.
Given:
Wall thickness: L=0.05 m
Wall area: A=4 m²
Thermal conductivity: k =20 W/m\cdotpK
Hot fluid temperature: T h=120∘ C
Cold fluid temperature: T c =30∘ C

Required:
Steady-state heat transfer rate, Q

Solution:
For steady-state, one-dimensional conduction through a flat wall:
kA (T h−T c )
Q=
L
Compute temperature difference:
Δ T =T h−T c =120−30=90°C
Substitute values into formula:
20 × 4 × 90
Q=
0.05
Multiply numerator:
20 × 4 × 90=7200
Divide by thickness:
7200
Q= =144,000 W
0.05

Q=144 kW
The steady-state heat transfer through the wall is 144 kW.
 257

Problem 6
A tank contains hot water at 80°C. The tank wall is composed of two layers: an inner layer of steel 0.01 m
thick (k 1=50 W/m·K ) and an outer layer of abrasive-resistant material 0.02 m thick ( k 2=15 W/m·K ). The wall
area is 3 m², and the outside temperature is 25°C. Assuming steady-state, one-dimensional conduction, calculate
the heat transfer rate through the composite wall.
Given:
Inner layer thickness: L1=0.01 m , k 1=50 W/m·K

Outer layer thickness: L2=0.02 m , k 2=15 W/m·K

Wall area: A=3 m²

Hot water temperature: T h=80∘ C

Ambient temperature: T c =25∘ C

Required:
Steady-state heat transfer rate, Q
Solution:
For composite wall in series, the thermal resistance method is used:

T h−T c L1 L2
Q= R total= +
Rtotal k1 A k2 A

Compute individual resistances:

L1 0.01 0.01 −5 L2 0.02 0.02 −4

R 1= = = ≈ 6.667 ×10 K/WR2= = = ≈ 4.444 ×10 K/W
k 1 A 50× 3 150 k 2 A 15 ×3 45

Compute total thermal resistance:

−5 −4 −4
R total=R1 + R 2=6.667 ×10 + 4.444 ×10 ≈ 5.111× 10 K/W

Compute heat transfer rate:

T h−T c 80−25 Q= 55
Q= = −4 −4
≈ 107,600 W
Rtotal 5.111× 10 5.111× 10

Q ≈ 108 k W

Problem 7
 258

A concrete wall 0.3 m thick separates indoor air at 22°C from outdoor air at -5°C. The thermal
conductivity of concrete is k = 1.7 W/m·°C, and the wall area is 10 m². Determine the rate of heat loss
through the wall under steady-state conditions.

Given:
L = 0.3m
K =1.7 W/m oC
A = 10m2
Tinside = 22oC

Required:
Rate of heat transfer, Q (W)

Solution:
kA (T ¿ −T out )
Q=
L
( 1.7 )(10)(22−(−5 ) )
Q=
0.3
( 1.7 )(27)
Q=
0.3
459
Q=
0.3
Q = 1530W
Final Answer: 1530W
 259

Problem 8

A composite wall is made of brick (0.2 m thick) and plaster (0.05 m thick). The thermal conductivity
of brick is k1 = 1.2 W/m·°C and of plaster is k2 = 0.8 W/m·°C. The wall separates indoor air at 30°C from
outdoor air at 0°C, and the wall area is 5 m². Determine:
a.) The rate of heat transfer through the wall.
b.) The temperature at the interface between the brick and plaster.

Given:
L1 = 0.2m
L2 = 0.05m
k1 =1.2 W/m oC
k1 = 0.8 W/m oC
Tinside = 30 oC
Toutside = 0oC
A = 5m2
Required:
Heat transfer, Q (W)
Interface temperature, Tinterface (°C)
Solution:
Step 1: Total thermal resistance (series conduction):
Rtotal = (l1/k1A) + (L2/k2A)
Rtotal =[0.2/1.2(5)] + [0.05/0.8 (5)]
Rtotal = 0.0333 + 0.0125 = 0.0458 oC/W
Step 2: Heat transfer rate:
Q = (Tinside – Toutside) /Rtotal
Q = (30-0) / 0.0458
Q = 655W
Step 3: Temperature at the interface (brick side):
ΔTbrick = Q (L1/k1A)
ΔTbrick = 655 [0.2 / 1.2 (5)]
ΔTbrick = 21.8 oC
Tinterface = Tinside − ΔTbrick = 30 − 21.8 ≈ 8.2∘C

Final answer: Q = 655 W & Tinterface = 8.2∘C

 260

Problem 9
A refrigerated storage wall consists of a 0.12 m thick concrete layer (k = 1.40 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹) and an
insulation layer (k = 0.04 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹). The inner surface (inside cold room) is at 5°C and the outside surface is
at 35°C. The wall area is 12 m². To limit energy loss, the heat gain through the wall must not exceed 600 W.
Determine the minimum insulation thickness required.
Given:

Concrete thickness x c =0.12m

−1 −1
k c =140W ∙ m ∙ K , k i=0.40 W ∙ m−1 ∙ K −1

T out =35 ℃ , T ¿=5 ℃

A= 12m2, Qmax =600W

Required:

Determine the minimum insulation thickness required.

Solution:

A (T out −T ¿ )
q c=
xc xi
+
kc ki

xi A (T out −T ¿ ) x c
= −
ki Qmax kc

A (∆T ) x c
x i=k i( − )
Q max kc

Δ T =35−5=30 K

12 ×30 2
A Δ T /Qmax = =0.6 m K/W .
600

xi 2
=0.12/1.40=0.085714 m K/W .
kc

xi 2
=0.6−0.085714=0.514286 m K/W .
ki

x i=k i × 0.514286=0.04 ×0.514286=0.020571 m

 261

Problem 10

A steam-carrying steel pipe has inner radius r 1=0.05 mand outer pipe radius r 2=0.07 m(pipe

wall). The pipe is insulated with thickness 0.04 mso the outer insulation radius is r 3=0.11m. The inside

pipe surface temperature is 120°C and the outer surface of the insulation is 40°C. Thermal

conductivities: steel k s=16 W ¿−1 K −1, insulation k ins=0.035 W ¿−1 ¿−1. Assuming steady radial

conduction, determine:

Given:

r 1=0.05 m, r 2=0.07 m, r 3=0.11 m

∘ ∘
T r 1=120 C , T r 3=40 C

−1 −1 −1 −1
k s=16 W ¿ ¿ , k ins =0.035 W ¿ ¿

Required:

(a) the steady heat loss per unit pipe length (W·m ⁻¹), and

(b) the interface temperature at r =r 2(temperature between steel and insulation).

Solution:

' 2 π (T r 1−T r 3)
q=
ln ⁡(r 2 /r 1 ) ln ⁡(r 3 /r 2)
+
ks k ins

ln ⁡(r 2 /r 1)
Δ T steel =q' × ⇒T r 2=T r 1 −ΔT steel
2π ks

ln ⁡(r 2 /r 1 )=ln ⁡(0.07 /0.05)=ln ⁡(1.4 )=0.33647

ln ⁡(r 3 /r 2 )=ln ⁡(0.11/0.07)=ln ⁡(1.5714)=0.45159

ln ⁡(r 2 /r 1) ln ⁡(r 3 /r 2) 0.33647 0.45159

+ = + =0.02103+12.903=12.924 .
ks k ins 16 0.035
 262

2 π (120−40) 2 π ×80 502.6548

q'= = = ≈ 38.90 W ¿−1 .
12.924 12.924 12.924

' ln ⁡(r 2 /r 1 ) 0.33647 0.33647

Δ T steel=q =38.90× =38.90 × ≈ 38.90 × 0.003345 ≈ 0.130C .
2 π ks 2 π ×16 100.531

∘
T r 2=120−0.130 ≈ 119.87 C

Problem 11

A cylindrical pipe with an inner radius of 0.02 m and an outer radius of 0.04 m has inner and

outer surface temperatures of 150°C and 100°C, respectively. If the thermal conductivity is 16 W/m·K,

determine the steady-state heat transfer rate per meter length of the pipe. (Based on Holman, 2019).

Given:

r₁ = 0.02 m, r₂ = 0.04 m, T₁ = 150°C, T₂ = 100°C, k = 16 W/m·K, L = 1 m

Required:

Rate of heat transfer, Q

Solution:

Q = (2πkL (T₁ - T₂)) / ln(r₂/r₁) = (2π×16×1× (150 - 100)) / ln (0.04/0.02) = 7,238 W/m

Final Answer

Rate of heat transfer = 7,238 W per meter length

 263

Problem 12
A wall with a thickness of 0.2 m has an inner surface temperature of 100°C and an outer surface

temperature of 60°C. If the thermal conductivity of the wall material is 0.5 W/m·K, determine the steady-state

heat flux.

Given:

k = 0.5 W/m·K, L = 0.2 m, T₁ = 100°C, T₂ = 60°

Required:

Heat flux, q

Solution:

q = k (T₁ - T₂)/L = 0.5(100 - 60)/0.2 = 100 W/m²

Final Answer

Heat flux = 100 W/m²

 264

Problem 13

A composite wall consists of two layers: a brick layer 0.15 m thick with k = 0.7 W/m·K, and an

insulation layer 0.05 m thick with k = 0.05 W/m·K. The inside temperature is 40°C and the outside

temperature is 10°C. Determine the steady-state heat transfer per square meter.

Required:

Heat transfer per m².

Solution:

Total thermal resistance

L₁ L ₂
Rtotal = +
k₁ k ₂

Where:

R total= total thermal resistance (in K/W)

L1and L2= thicknesses of the two layers (in meters, m)

k 1and k 2= thermal conductivities of the two materials (in W/m·K)

A = cross-sectional area of the materials (in m²)

L₁ L ₂
Rtotal = +
k₁ k ₂

0.15 0.05
Rtotal = + =¿0.214
0.7 0.05

Rtotal = 0.214 + 1 = 1.214 K·m²/W

 265

Problem 14

A cold storage room wall has three layers: steel (0.01 m, k = 60 W/m·K), foam insulation (0.12 m, k =

0.03 W/m·K), and plywood (0.02 m, k = 0.13 W/m·K). The inside temperature is −10°C and the outside is

25°C. Compute the steady-state heat transfer per square meter.

Required:

Heat transfer per m².

Solution:

Total thermal resistance

L₁ L ₂
Rtotal = +
k₁ k ₂

Where:

R total= total thermal resistance (in K/W)

L1and L2= thicknesses of the two layers (in meters, m)

k 1and k 2= thermal conductivities of the two materials (in W/m·K)

A = cross-sectional area of the materials (in m²)

L₁ L ₂
Rtotal = +
k₁ k ₂

0.01 0.12 0.02

Rtotal = + + =¿0.00017
60 0.03 0.13

Rtotal = 0.00017 + 4 + 0.154 = 4.154 K·m²/W

 266

Problem 15

A spherical fruit is modeled as a uniform core surrounded by a thin skin (peel). The core maintains its

surface at a constant temperature Ti = 35 °C at radius a = 0.02 m. The skin is a spherical shell from r = a to r = b

where b = 0.03 m. The thermal conductivity of the skin is k = 0.2 W/(m·K). The outer surface exchanges heat

with ambient air at T∞ = 20 °C with a convective heat transfer coefficient h = 15 W/(m²·K). Assume steady-

state, no internal heat generation in the skin, and one-dimensional radial conduction through the skin.

Given:

a = 0.02 m

k = 0.2 W/(m·K)

b = 0.03 m

h = 15.0 W/(m²·K)

Ti = 35.0 °C

T∞ = 20.0 °C

Steady-state, spherical shell (1-D radial conduction)

Required:

1. Derive the temperature distribution T(r) in the skin for a ≤ r ≤ b.

2. Determine the temperature at the outer surface T(b).

3. Determine the radial heat flux at the outer surface, qr (b) (magnitude and direction).

4. Calculate the total heat transfer rate from the fruit, Qtotal (W).

Solution:

Governing equation (steady-state, spherical coordinates, no internal generation):

1/r2 d/dr ( r2 dT/dr ) = 0

General solution for temperature in the shell:

T(r) = A + B / r

Boundary conditions:

1) T(a) = A + B/a = Ti
 267

2) -k dT/dr |_{r=b} = h [ T(b) - T∞ ]

Compute derivative and apply BC 2:

dT/dr = - B / r2 => -k dT/dr |_{r=b} = k B / b2

Use BCs to solve for constants A and B:

From BC1: A = Ti - B / a

From BC2: k B / b2 = h [ A + B/b - T∞ ]

Substitute A and rearrange to solve for B:

B = h (Ti - T_∞) / ( k / b2 + h / a - h / b )

Then A = Ti - B / a and T(r) = A + B / r

Now substitute numerical values and compute:

Calculated constants and results (using a = 0.02 m, b = 0.03 m, k = 0.2 W/m·K, h = 15.0 W/m²·K, Ti =

35.0 °C, T∞ = 20.0 °C):

B = 0.476471 K·m

A = 11.176471 °C

Outer surface temperature: T(b) = A + B / b = 27.058824 °C

Radial heat flux at outer surface (outward): qr(b) = k * B / b2 = 105.882353 W/m²

Total heat transfer rate from the fruit: Qtotal = 4π k B = 1.197501 W

 268

Problem 16

A cylindrical produce (e.g., a stored tuber) of infinite length is modeled as a solid cylinder with radius R = 0.05

m. The material generates heat uniformly due to metabolic activity at a volumetric rate q''' = 1500 W/m 3. The

thermal conductivity of the material is k = 0.5 W/(m·K), and the cylinder exchanges heat with ambient air at

Tinfinity = 20 °C through convection with a heat transfer coefficient h = 25 W/(m2·K). Assume steady-state

conditions and that the cylinder is long enough to be treated as infinitely long (one-dimensional radial

conduction).

Given:

R = 0.05 m

k = 0.5 W/(m·K)

q''' = 1500 W/m3 (uniform volumetric heat generation)

h = 25 W/(m2·K)

Tinfinity = 20 °C

Steady-state, infinitely long cylinder (1-D radial conduction)

Required:

1. Determine the temperature at the cylinder surface, T(R).

2. Determine the maximum temperature at the axis (center), T(0).

3. Find the heat flux at the surface (magnitude), q''(R).

Solution:

Governing equation (steady-state radial conduction with uniform volumetric heat generation in a cylinder):

(1/r) d/dr ( r dT/dr ) + q'''/k = 0

Integrate once:

r dT/dr = - (q''' ) r2 / (2k) + C1

=> dT/dr = - q''' r / (2k) + C1 / r

Finite temperature at r = 0 requires C1 = 0. Integrate again:

T(r) = - q''' r2 / (4k) + C2

 269

Apply convective boundary condition at r = R:

-k (dT/dr)|_{r=R} = h [ T(R) - Tinfinity ]

Compute dT/dr at r = R using the analytic form:

dT/dr |_{r=R} = - q''' R / (2k)

So the heat flux at the surface (outward) is:

q''(R) = -k (dT/dr)|_{r=R} = k * (q''' R /(2k)) = q''' R / 2

Use the convective condition to find T(R):

q''(R) = h [ T(R) - Tinfinity ]

=> q''' R / 2 = h [ T(R) - Tinfinity]

=> T(R) = Tinfinity + q''' R / (2 h)

Find center temperature T(0):

T(0) = C2 = T(R) + q''' R^2 / (4k)

Now substitute numerical values:

R = 0.05 m, q''' = 1500 W/m3, h = 25 W/m2K, k = 0.5 W/mK, Tinfinity = 20 °C

Calculate T(R):

T(R) = 20.0 + (1500 × 0.05) / (2 × 25) = 21.500 °C

Calculate T(0):

T(0) = T(R) + (1500 × 0.05²) / (4 × 0.5) = 23.375 °C

Surface heat flux magnitude:

q''(R) = q''' R / 2 = (1500 × 0.05)/2 = 37.500 W/m2

 270

Problem 17
A freezer wall is made of 0.12 m polyurethane insulation (k = 0.028 W/m·°C). Inside temperature is –
20°C and outside temperature is 30°C. Determine heat transfer per unit area.

Given:
k = 0.028 W/m·°C
x = 0.12 m
T1 = 30°C
T2 = –20°C

Required:
q/A

Solution:
q/A = k(T1 – T2)/x
q/A = 0.028(30 – (–20))/0.12
q/A = 0.028(50)/0.12
q/A = 11.67 W/m²

Answer:
11.67 W/m²
 271

Problem 18

A refrigerator wall consists of 10 cm fiberglass insulation (k = 0.04 W/m·°C). If the inner temperature is

5°C and outer temperature is 32°C, find heat flux.

Given:

k = 0.04 W/m·°C

x = 0.10 m

ΔT = 32 – 5 = 27°C

Required:

q/A

Solution:

q/A = kΔT/x

q/A = 0.04(27)/0.10

q/A = 10.8 W/m²

Answer:

10.8 W/m²
 272

Problem 19

A flat plate (slab) of thickness 0.04 m generates heat uniformly at a rate q''' = 4.5×10^5 W/m³ (steady-state).

Both faces are exposed to air at T ∞ = 25 °C with convective coefficient h = 20 W/m²·K. The thermal

conductivity of the slab is k = 30 W/m·K. Find the temperature distribution across the slab and the maximum

temperature in the slab.

Given:

Thickness 2L = 0.04 m (so half-thickness L = 0.02 m), q''' = 4.5e5 W/m³

h = 20 W/m²·K, T∞ = 25 °C, k = 30 W/m·K

Symmetric slab with convection on both surfaces (x from 0 center to L surface).

Required:

(a) Expression for temperature T(x) relative to T∞ and compute Tmax at x=0.

(b) Numerical value for Tmax (°C).

Solution:

Surface temperature Ts = T∞ + q''' L / h = 475 °C.

Temperature distribution T(x) = T∞ + q'''L/h + (q'''/(2k))(L² - x²).

Maximum at center x=0: Tmax = 478 °C.

 273

Problem 20

A composite wall has two layers in series: Layer A (brick) thickness 0.10 m, k A = 0.72 W/m·K; Layer B

(insulation) thickness 0.04 m, kB = 0.045 W/m·K. Indoor temperature is 20 °C with convective coefficient h_in

= 8 W/m²·K. Outdoor air is at -5 °C with hout = 25 W/m²·K. Find the steady-state heat loss per unit area (W/m²)

through the wall.

Given:

Layer A: LA=0.10 m, kA=0.72 W/m·K

Layer B: LB=0.04 m, kB=0.045 W/m·K

Tin = 20 °C, hin = 8 W/m²·K

Tout = -5 °C, hout = 25 W/m²·K

Required:

Compute heat flux q'' (W/m²) leaving the indoor space and the overall thermal resistance.

Solution:

Resistances: Rconv,in = 0.125 m²·K/W, RA = 0.13889, RB = 0.88889, Rconv,out = 0.04.

Total R = 1.1928 m²·K/W => q'' = (Tin - Tout)/Rtotal = 20.959 W/m² (heat leaving interior).
 274

Problem 21

A composite pipe carries refrigerant at -10°C. The pipe has an inner steel layer (k = 15 W·m ⁻¹·K ⁻¹) with

inner radius 0.02 m and outer radius 0.025 m, surrounded by insulation (k = 0.06 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹) of outer radius

0.05 m. The outer insulation surface is exposed to air at 25°C. Find the rate of heat gain per meter length of

pipe.

Given:

r₁ = 0.02 m

r₂ = 0.025 m

r₃ = 0.05 m

k₁ = 15 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹

k₂ = 0.06 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹

Tin = -10°C

Tout = 25°C

Required:

Rate of heat gain per meter length (q', W·m⁻¹)

Solution:

q' = (ΔT) / (Rsteel + Rins)

Rsteel = ln (0.025 / 0.02)/ (2π × 15)

= 0.002368 K·W⁻¹·m

Rins = ln (0.05 / 0.025) / (2π × 0.06)

= 1.838630 K·W⁻¹·m

q' = (35) / (1.840998)

= 19.0 W·m⁻¹
 275

Problem 22
A cold storage room wall consists of 0.15 m thick concrete (k = 1.4 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹) and 0.05 m thick
insulation (k = 0.04 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹). The inner surface temperature is -5°C and the outer surface temperature is
35°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer per unit area.
Given:

x₁ = 0.15 m

k₁ = 1.4 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹

x₂ = 0.05 m

k₂ = 0.04 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹

Tin = -5°C

Tout = 35°C

Required:

Rate of heat transfer per unit area (q/A, W·m⁻²)

Solution:

q/A = (ΔT) / (x₁ / k₁ + x₂ / k₂)

q/A = (40) / (0.15 / 1.4 + 0.05 / 0.04)

= 29.5 W·m⁻²

Answer: q/A = 29.5 W·m⁻²

 276

Problem 23
A cold storage room wall consists of 0.15 m thick concrete (k = 1.4 W·m ⁻¹·K ⁻¹) and 0.05 m thick
insulation (k = 0.04 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹). The inner surface temperature is -5°C and the outer surface temperature is
35°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer per unit area.

Given:
x₁ = 0.15 m
k₁ = 1.4 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹
x₂ = 0.05 m
k₂ = 0.04 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹
Tin = -5°C
Tout = 35°C

Required:
1. Rate of heat transfer per unit area (q/A, W·m⁻²)

Solution:
q/A = (ΔT) / (x₁ / k₁ + x₂ / k₂)
q/A = (40) / (0.15 / 1.4 + 0.05 / 0.04)
= 29.5 W·m⁻²

Answer: q/A = 29.5 W·m⁻²

 277

Problem 24
A composite pipe carries refrigerant at -10°C. The pipe has an inner steel layer (k = 15 W·m ⁻¹·K ⁻¹) with
inner radius 0.02 m and outer radius 0.025 m, surrounded by insulation (k = 0.06 W·m ⁻¹·K ⁻¹) of outer radius
0.05 m. The outer insulation surface is exposed to air at 25°C. Find the rate of heat gain per meter length of
pipe.

Given:
r₁ = 0.02 m
r₂ = 0.025 m
r₃ = 0.05 m
k₁ = 15 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹
k₂ = 0.06 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹
Tin = -10°C
Tout = 25°C

Required:
Rate of heat gain per meter length (q', W·m⁻¹)

Solution:
q' = (ΔT) / (Rsteel + Rins)
Rsteel = ln (0.025 / 0.02)/ (2π × 15)
= 0.002368 K·W⁻¹·m
Rins = ln (0.05 / 0.025) / (2π × 0.06)
= 1.838630 K·W⁻¹·m
q' = (35) / (1.840998)
= 19.0 W·m⁻¹

Answer: q' = 19.0 W·m⁻¹

 278

Problem 25
A concrete wall 0.3 m thick separates indoor air at 22°C from outdoor air at -5°C. The thermal
conductivity of concrete is k = 1.7 W/m·°C, and the wall area is 10 m². Determine the rate of heat loss through
the wall under steady-state conditions.

Given:
L = 0.3m
K =1.7 W/m oC
A = 10m2
Tinside = 22oC

Required:
Rate of heat transfer, Q (W)

Solution:

kA (Tinside – Toutside)
Q=
L

(1.7) (10) (22 – (-5))

Q=
0.3

17 (27)
Q=
0.3

459
Q=
0.3

Q = 1530W
 279

Problem 26
A composite wall is made of brick (0.2 m thick) and plaster (0.05 m thick). The thermal conductivity of
brick is k1 = 1.2 W/m·°C and of plaster is k2 = 0.8 W/m·°C. The wall separates indoor air at 30°C from outdoor
air at 0°C, and the wall area is 5 m². Determine:
a.) The rate of heat transfer through the wall.
b.) The temperature at the interface between the brick and plaster.

Given:
L1 = 0.2m
L2 = 0.05m
k1 =1.2 W/m oC
k1 = 0.8 W/m oC
Tinside = 30 oC
Toutside = 0oC
A = 5m2

Required:
Heat transfer, Q (W)
Interface temperature, Tinterface (°C)

Solution:
Step 1: Total thermal resistance (series conduction):
Rtotal = (l1/k1A) + (L2/k2A)
Rtotal = [0.2/1.2(5)] + [0.05/0.8 (5)]
Rtotal = 0.0333 + 0.0125 = 0.0458 oC/W

Step 2: Heat transfer rate:

Q = (Tinside – Toutside) /Rtotal
Q = (30-0) / 0.0458
Q = 655W
 280

Step 3: Temperature at the interface (brick side):

ΔTbrick = Q (L1/k1A)
ΔTbrick = 655 [0.2 / 1.2 (5)]
ΔTbrick = 21.8 oC
Tinterface = Tinside − ΔTbrick = 30 − 21.8 ≈ 8.2∘C
 281

Problem 27

A cooked product at 60°C is inside a package. The product contact side is

effectively at 60°C. The package film is polyethylene, thickness 0.50 mm (0.0005 m)
and thermal conductivity k = 0.33 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹. Outside air is 25°C and the external
convective coefficient is h = 10 W·m⁻²·K⁻¹. The package exposed area is A = 0.20
m².

Given: Required:
Heat loss Q˙(W)
Tproduct = 60∘C
Outer surface temperature Ts (°C)
T∞ = 25∘C Temperature drop across film ΔTfilm (K)

Film thickness L = 0.0005 m

Film thermal conductivity k =

0.33 W/m⋅K

Convective coefficient h = 10 W/m2⋅K

Area A = 0.20 m2

Solution:
1 1
Rconv = = =0.50 K /W
hA 10 × 0.20

L 0.0005
R film= = =0.00758 K /W
kA 0.33 × 0.20

Rtot =R conv + R film=0.50+ 0.00758=0.50758 K /W

∆ T =T product −T ∞ =60−25=35 K

∆T 35
Q= = =68.95 W
R tot 0.50758

T s=T ∞ +Q Rfilm =25+68.85 ×0.50=59.48 ℃

∆ T =Q R film=68.95 ×0.00758=0.52 K

(Inner film surface ≈ Ts+ΔTfilm ≈ 59.48+0.52 ≈ 60.0℃ , consistent.)

 282

Problem 28

Hot milk flows in a stainless-steel pipe at 80°C. Inner pipe diameter is 0.050
m, wall thickness is 3.0 mm (0.003 m). The pipe material thermal conductivity is k =
16 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹. Outside convective coefficient is h = 15 W·m⁻²·K⁻¹ and ambient air
is 25°C. Compute the steady heat loss per metre of pipe (W/m) and give the outer
surface and inner wall temperatures (approx.).

Given: Required:
Fluid temperature Tf = 80∘C Heat loss per metre Q˙′(W/m)
Ambient T∞ = 25∘C Outer wall temperature To(°C) and
Inner radius r1 = 0.050/2 = 0.025 m approximate inner wall temperature
Wall thickness t = 0.003 m ⇒ r2 = r1 + Ti,w (°C)
t = 0.028 m
Pipe conductivity k = 16 W/m⋅K
External convection h = 15 W/m2⋅K
Use length L = 1.0 m(report W per metre)
Solution:

( )
r2 0.028
¿( ) ¿
r1 0.025
Rcond = = =0.001128 K /W
2 πkL 2 π × 16 ×1
1 1
Rconv = = =0.3789 K /W
h ( 2 π r 2 L ) 15 ( 2 π ×0.028 ×1 )
Rtot =R cond + Rconv =0.001128+0.3789=0.3800 K /W
∆ T =T f −T ∞=80−25=55 K
 283

∆T 55
Q= = =144.7 W /m
R tot 0.3800
Outer wall temperature (from ambient side):
T o=T ∞ +Q Rconv =25+144.7 (0.3789)=79.9 ℃
Inner wall temperature (add small conduction drop):
T i ,w =T o +Q Rcond =79.9+144.7(0.001128)=80.06 ℃

Problem 29
Steam at 200°C flows inside a steel pipe (k = 50 W/m·°C) of inner radius 2 cm and outer radius 3 cm.
The outer surface temperature of the pipe is 80°C. Find the rate of heat loss per meter length of pipe under
steady-state conditions.

Given:
Ti = 200°C
To = 80°C
k = 50
ri = 0.02m
ro = 0.03m
L = 1m
Q=?

Solution:
2 π (50)(1)(200−80)
2 πkL (T i−T o ) Q= 2 π (50)(120)
Q= 0.03 Q= Q=93.1 kW /m(heat loss along pipelength)
¿(ro /ri) ¿( ) 0.405
0.2
 284

Problem 30
A steam pipe has an inner radius of 2 cm, outer radius of 3 cm, and is covered with insulation of thermal
conductivity k2=0.08 W/m°C and thickness 2 cm. The inner pipe material has k1=45 W/m⋅°[Link] inner and
outer surface temperatures are 180°C and 40°C, respectively. Determine the rate of heat transfer per meter under
steady-state conditions.

Given:
r1 = 0.02
r2 = 0.03
r3 = 0.05
T1 = 180 °C
T3 = 40 °C
K1 = 45
K2 = 0.08
L=1
Q=?

Solution:

2 πkL(T 1−T 3 )
Q=
¿(r 2 /r 1 ) ¿(r 3 /r 2)
+
k1 k2

2 π (1)(180−40)
Q= 2 π (140) 879.6
¿(0.03 /0.02) ¿ (0.05/0.03) Q= Q=
+ 0.00225+ 4.77 4.772
45 0.08
Q=184.3 W /m
 285

Problem 31

A freezer wall is made of 0.12 m polyurethane insulation (k = 0.028 W/m·°C). Inside temperature is –
20°C and outside temperature is 30°C. Determine heat transfer per unit area.

Given:
• k = 0.028 W/m·°C
• x = 0.12 m
• T1 = 30°C
• T2 = –20°C

Required:
q/A

Solution:
q/A = k (T1 – T2)/x
q/A = 0.028(30 – (–20))/0.12
q/A = 0.028(50)/0.12
q/A = 11.67 W/m²

Answer:
11.67 W/m²
 286

Problem 32

A refrigerator wall consists of 10 cm fiberglass insulation (k = 0.04 W/m·°C). If the inner temperature is
5°C and outer temperature is 32°C, find heat flux.

Given:
• k = 0.04 W/m·°C
• x = 0.10 m
• ΔT = 32 – 5 = 27°C

Required:
q/A

Solution:
q/A = kΔT/x
q/A = 0.04(27)/0.10
q/A = 10.8 W/m²

Answer:
10.8 W/m²
 287

Problem 33
An AB composite wall of thickness L = 0.25 m and area A = 4 m² separates a hot room at 80°C from a
cold environment at 25°C. The wall is made of a composite material with thermal conductivity k = 1.5 W/m·K.

Given:
a) Wall thickness: L=0.25 m
b) Wall area: A=4 m²

c) Thermal conductivity: k=1.5 W/m⋅K

d) Hot room temperature: Thot=80°C
e) Cold side temperature: Tcold=25°C

Required:
1. Calculate the steady-state heat flux through the wall using conduction
2. Determine the total heat transfer rate Q through the wall

Solution: 1
Heat flux through the wall
q = k x (Thot - Tcold) / L
q = 1.5 x (80 - 25) / 0.25
q = 1.5 x 55 / 0.25 = 82.5 / 0.25 = 330
W/m²
Total heat transfer through the wall
Q = q x A = 330 x 4 = 1,320 W
 288

Problem 34
To improve heat removal on the cold side, air flows over the wall at a convective coefficient h = 50
W/m²·K

Given:
a) Convective coefficient: h = 50 W/m²·K
b) Air temperature: Tair = 25°C
c) Cold wall surface temperature: Twall ≈ 25°C (steady-state)

Solution 2:
Convective heat transfer
Qconv = h x A x (Twall - Tair)
Qconv = 50 x 4 x (25 - 25) = 0 W
Adjust for realistic case (Twall = 30°C)
Qconv = 50 x 4 x (30 - 25) = 50 x 4 x 5 =
1,000 W
Effective heat removal ≈ 1,000 W
(controlled by slower mechanism)
 289

Problem 35
A composite wall has two layers: Layer 1 (0.1 m thick, k₁=0.5 W/m·°C) and Layer 2 (0.2 m thick,
k₂=1.0 W/m·°C). The inside temperature is 100°C, and outside is 25°C. The wall area is 2 m².

Required:
Find the steady-state heat transfer rate through the wall.

Solution:

Rtotal = (L₁/k₁A) + (L₂/k₂A)

Rtotal = (0.1/ (0.5×2)) + (0.2/ (1×2))

= 0.1 + 0.1
= 0.2

Q = ΔT/Rtotal
= (100 - 25)/0.2
= 375 W
 290

Problem 36
A pipe with inside surface temperature 120°C loses heat steadily to the surrounding air at 25°C through
a total resistance of 0.15 °C/W.

Required:
Determine the heat loss rate.

Solution:

Q = ΔT / Rtotal

Q = (120 - 25)/0.15

Q = 633.3 W
 291

Problem 37
An insulated stainless-steel pipe carrying hot milk has an outer pipe diameter (D1) of 10 cm. It is
covered with 5 cm thick insulation (kins = 0.03 W/m.K). The temperature of the pipe surface is T1 = 80°C, and
the ambient air temperature is Tinfinity = 20°C. The external convection coefficient is ho = 12 W/m2.K. Calculate
the steady-state heat loss per unit length (qL) from the pipe.

Given:
Inner Radius, r1 = 0.05 m
Outer Radius (Insulation), r2 = 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.10 m
Insulation Conductivity, kins = 0.03 W/m.K
Pipe Surface Temp, T1 = 80°C
Ambient Temp, Tinfinity = 20°C
Outer Convection Coef, ho = 12 W/m2.K

Required:
Heat loss per unit length, qL = Q/L (in W/m).

Solutions:
Total Thermal Resistance per unit length (R'total) = R'cond,cyl + R'conv,outer
R'cond,cyl = ln(r2/r1) / (2π × kins) ≈ 3.678 m.K/W

R'conv,outer = 1 / (ho × 2π × r2) ≈ 0.1326 m.K/W

R'total ≈ 3.678 + 0.1326 = 3.8106 m.K/W
qL = (T1 - Tinfinity) / R'total
qL = (80 - 20) K / 3.8106 m.K/W
qL ≈ 15.75 W/m
 292

Problem 38
A cold storage wall separates inner air at Tinfinity, i = 5°C from outer air at Tinfinity, o = 30°C. The wall
consists of a 0.15 m insulation layer (k = 0.04 W/m.K). The convection coefficients are hi = 15 W/m2.K (inner)
and ho = 25 W/m2.K (outer). Calculate the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) for the wall under steady-state
conditions.

GIVEN:
Insulation Thickness, L = 0.15 m
Insulation Conductivity, k = 0.04 W/m.K
Inner Convection Coef, hi = 15 W/m^2.K
Outer Convection Coef, ho = 25 W/m^2.K

REQUIRED:
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U (in W/m2.K).

SOLUTIONS:
The total thermal resistance per unit area is: 1/U = 1/hi + L/k + 1/ho
1/U = 1/15 + 0.15/0.04 + 1/25
1/U = 0.0667 + 3.75 + 0.04 m2.K/W
1/U = 3.8567 m2.K/W
U = 1 / 3.8567
U = 0.2593 W/m2.K
 293

Problem 39

A refrigerator wall consists of 10 cm fiberglass insulation (k = 0.04 W/m·°C). If the inner temperature is

5°C and outer temperature is 32°C, find heat flux.

Given:

k = 0.04 W/m·°C

x = 0.10 m

ΔT = 32 – 5 = 27°C

Required:

q/A

Solution:

q/A = kΔT/x

q/A = 0.04(27)/0.10

q/A = 10.8 W/m²

Answer:

10.8 W/m²
 294

Problem 40

A flat plate (slab) of thickness 0.04 m generates heat uniformly at a rate q''' = 4.5×10^5 W/m³ (steady-state).

Both faces are exposed to air at T ∞ = 25 °C with convective coefficient h = 20 W/m²·K. The thermal

conductivity of the slab is k = 30 W/m·K. Find the temperature distribution across the slab and the maximum

temperature in the slab.

Given:

Thickness 2L = 0.04 m (so half-thickness L = 0.02 m), q''' = 4.5e5 W/m³

h = 20 W/m²·K, T∞ = 25 °C, k = 30 W/m·K

Symmetric slab with convection on both surfaces (x from 0 center to L surface).

Required:

(a) Expression for temperature T(x) relative to T∞ and compute Tmax at x=0.

(b) Numerical value for Tmax (°C).

Solution:

Surface temperature Ts = T∞ + q''' L / h = 475 °C.

Temperature distribution T(x) = T∞ + q'''L/h + (q'''/(2k))(L² - x²).

Maximum at center x=0: Tmax = 478 °C.

 295

Problem 41

A composite wall has two layers in series: Layer A (brick) thickness 0.10 m, k A = 0.72 W/m·K; Layer B

(insulation) thickness 0.04 m, kB = 0.045 W/m·K. Indoor temperature is 20 °C with convective coefficient h in =

8 W/m²·K. Outdoor air is at -5 °C with h out = 25 W/m²·K. Find the steady-state heat loss per unit area (W/m²)

through the wall.

Given:

Layer A: LA=0.10 m, k_A=0.72 W/m·K

Layer B: LB=0.04 m, k_B=0.045 W/m·K

Tin = 20 °C, hin = 8 W/m²·K

Tout = -5 °C, hout = 25 W/m²·K

Required:

Compute heat flux q'' (W/m²) leaving the indoor space and the overall thermal resistance.

Solution:

Resistances: Rconv,in = 0.125 m²·K/W, RA = 0.13889, RB = 0.88889, Rconv,out = 0.04.

Total R = 1.1928 m²·K/W => q'' = (Tin - Tout)/Rtot = 20.959 W/m² (heat leaving interior).
 296

Problem 42

A composite pipe carries refrigerant at -10°C. The pipe has an inner steel layer (k = 15 W·m ⁻¹·K ⁻¹) with

inner radius 0.02 m and outer radius 0.025 m, surrounded by insulation (k = 0.06 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹) of outer radius

0.05 m. The outer insulation surface is exposed to air at 25°C. Find the rate of heat gain per meter length of

pipe.

Given:

r₁ = 0.02 m

r₂ = 0.025 m

r₃ = 0.05 m

k₁ = 15 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹

k₂ = 0.06 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹

Tin = -10°C

Tout = 25°C

Required:

Rate of heat gain per meter length (q', W·m⁻¹)

Solution:

q' = (ΔT) / (Rsteel + Rins)

Rsteel = ln (0.025 / 0.02)/ (2π × 15)

= 0.002368 K·W⁻¹·m

Rins = ln (0.05 / 0.025) / (2π × 0.06)

= 1.838630 K·W⁻¹·m

q' = (35) / (1.840998)

= 19.0 W·m⁻¹
 297

Problem 43
A cold storage room wall consists of 0.15 m thick concrete (k = 1.4 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹) and 0.05 m thick
insulation (k = 0.04 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹). The inner surface temperature is -5°C and the outer surface temperature is
35°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer per unit area.
Given:

x₁ = 0.15 m

k₁ = 1.4 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹

x₂ = 0.05 m

k₂ = 0.04 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹

Tin = -5°C

Tout = 35°C

Required:

Rate of heat transfer per unit area (q/A, W·m⁻²)

Solution:

q/A = (ΔT) / (x₁ / k₁ + x₂ / k₂)

q/A = (40) / (0.15 / 1.4 + 0.05 / 0.04)

= 29.5 W·m⁻²

Answer: q/A = 29.5 W·m⁻²

'' '' '' LA LB

R total=R A + R B= +
kA kB

'' 0.02 m 0.015 m

R total= +
0.5 W/(m ⋅K) 0.1 W/(m ⋅K)
''
R total=0.04 +0.15
'' 2
R total=0.19 m ⋅K/W
Δ T overall T 1−T 3
q̇= ''
= ''
R total R total
∘ ∘
(120 C−30 C)
q̇=
0.19 m 2 ⋅ K/W
 298

2
q̇=473.68 W/m

Problem 44
A spherical fruit with an initial uniform temperature of 25∘ C is placed into a chiller where the air
temperature is 5∘ C. The heat transfer coefficient on the fruit surface is 10W/(m2.K). If the internal temperature
remains uniform (lumped capacitance method applies), and the fruit's total surface area is 0.005 m 2, volume is
0.00005 m3, density is 900 kg/m3, and specific heat capacity is 4,000 J/(kg. K), calculate the time required for
the fruit's temperature to drop to 10∘ C
Given
∘
 Initial temperature (Ti): 25 C
 Final temperature (T(t)): 10∘ C
 Ambient temperature ( T ∞): 5∘ C
 Heat transfer coefficient (h): 10 W/(m2 .K)
 Area (A): 0.005 m2
 Volume (V): 0.00005 m3
 Density ( ρ ): 900 kg/m3
 Specific heat capacity (cp): 4,000 J/(kg. K)

Required
 Time (t) in seconds.

Solution
T (t )−T ∞ −( ρVhAc )t
=e p

T i−T ∞
2 2
hA (10 W/(m ⋅K))⋅(0.005 m )
=
ρV c p (900 kg/m3 )⋅(0.00005 m 3 )⋅(4,000 J/(kg ⋅K))
hA 0.05
=
ρV c p 180
hA −1
=0.0002778 s
ρV c p
10−5 −(0.0002778)t
=e
25−5
5 −(0.0002778)t
=0.25=e
20
ln (0.25)=−(0.0002778)t
−1.38629=−(0.0002778)t
1.38629
t=
0.0002778
t=4,989.5seconds
299
 300

DRYING OF AB MATERIALS

Description:

Drying is the process of removing moisture from agricultural and biosystems materials—such as grains,

fruits, seeds, biomass, and other biological products—by applying heat, airflow, or natural convection. It

reduces the water content to a safe level where physical, chemical, and biological deterioration is minimized.

Drying can be done through sun drying, mechanical dryers, heated air systems, or specialty drying technologies.

Importance:

Drying is essential because it preserves product quality, extends shelf life, and prevents spoilage caused

by mold, bacteria, and enzymatic activity. It reduces weight and volume, making storage and transportation

more efficient and economical. Proper drying also maintains seed viability, ensures food safety, enhances

processing efficiency, and improves market value. In many agricultural systems, drying is crucial for

postharvest management, reducing losses and supporting stable food supply chains.
 301

EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT (EMC)

Problem 1

A batch of corn kernels is dried in a cabinet dryer at 50°C and 40% relative humidity. The initial

moisture content (wet basis) is 28%, and the final equilibrium moisture content is reached when the relative

humidity of the air inside the dryer becomes constant. Using the Henderson equation constants for corn (A =

1.22×10⁻², B = 1.57×10⁻⁴), estimate the equilibrium moisture content at this condition.

Given:

Temperature = 50°C

Relative Humidity = 40%

A = 1.22×10⁻²

B = 1.57×10⁻⁴

Required:

Equilibrium Moisture Content (Xₑ)

Solution:

Use Henderson equation: ln (1 - RH) = -A (T + 273) B(Xₑ)^B

Substitute: ln (1 - 0.40) = -1.22×10⁻² × (323) × (Xₑ)^1.57×10⁻⁴

Solving gives Xₑ ≈ 0.118 kg water/kg dry solid

Problem 2
 302

Rice is stored at 30°C and 60% relative humidity. Using the modified Henderson equation, determine
the equilibrium moisture content if A = 0.0013, B = 1.8, and n = 1.1.

Given:

Temperature = 30°C

RH = 60%

A = 0.0013

B = 1.8

n = 1.1

Required:

Equilibrium Moisture Content (Xₑ)

Solution:

Equation: ln (1 - RH) = -A (T + 273) ^B (Xₑ)^n

ln (1 - 0.6) = -0.0013 × (303) ^1.8 × (Xₑ)^1.1

Solving for Xₑ gives Xₑ ≈ 0.145 kg water/kg dry solid.

Problem 3
 303

A dried food product follows the GAB sorption isotherm: m = (m0 * C * K * a w) / ((1 - K*aw) *(1 -
K*aw + C*K*aw)), where m is moisture content (kg water / kg dry). Given GAB parameters m0 = 0.08 kg/kg dry,
C = 10, K = 0.85. Compute the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) at water activity a w = 0.60. Express result
as g water per 100 g dry basis.
Given:
GAB: m0 = 0.08 kg/kgdry, C = 10, K = 0.85
Water activity aw = 0.60

Required:
Compute EMC m (kg water/kg dry) and express in g/100g dry.

Solution:
Use GAB formula => m = 0.14895 kg water/kg dry.

Which is 14.895 g water per 100 g dry.

Problem 4
 304

A sample at equilibrium has EMC = 0.15 kg water per kg dry (dry basis). Compute the moisture content
on a wet basis (mass water / total mass) and the percent wet-basis moisture. Also, for a 2 kg dry sample, find the
total wet mass at equilibrium.
Given:
EMC (dry basis) = 0.15 kg_water/kg_dry
Dry mass mdry = 2.00 kg

Required:
(a) Moisture fraction wet-basis wwet (kgwater/kgtotal) and percent (% wb).
(b) Total wet mass of 2 kg dry sample.
(b)
Solution:
wwet = mdb/(1+mdb) = 0.13043 => 13.043 % (wet basis).
Total wet mass = (1+mdb) *mdry = 2.3 kg.

Problem 5
 305

A batch of corn with an initial moisture content of 30% (wet basis) is dried under conditions where the
equilibrium moisture content (EMC) is 12% (wet basis). If the drying process stops when the moisture content
reaches 15%, determine the ratio of moisture removed to the total removable moisture.
(Adapted from Mujumdar, 2014).

Given:
Initial moisture content, M_i = 30% (wb)
Final moisture content, M_f = 15% (wb)
Equilibrium moisture content, M_e = 12% (wb)

Required:
Fraction of moisture removed

Solution:
Moisture removed fraction = (M_i - M_f) / (M_i - M_e) = (30 - 15) / (30 - 12) = 0.83

Final Answer:
Fraction of moisture removed = 0.83 or 83%

Problem 6
A wooden sample is exposed to air at 30°C and 60% relative humidity. If the empirical relation for wood
is M = 0.18RH/ (1 - RH), estimate the equilibrium moisture content.
 306

(Based on Brooker et al., 1992).

Given:
Temperature = 30°C
Relative humidity, RH = 0.60

Required:
Equilibrium moisture content, M

Solution:
M = 0.18RH/ (1 - RH) = 0.18(0.6)/ (1 - 0.6) = 0.27 or 27% (dry basis)

Final Answer:
Equilibrium moisture content = 27% (dry basis)

Problem 7
A sample grain will reach equilibrium with air at a temperature of 35 ℃ with relative humidity (RH) of
70%. Find its EMC (%).
Given:
 307

TEMPERATURE: T = 35 ℃
RELATIVE HUMIDITY: RH = 70%

Required:
1. Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
2. Relative humidity at 90% EMC
Solution:
1. Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)

EMC = 0.012 × RH

EMC = 0.012 × 70

EMC = 0.84 ≈ 84%

2. Relative humidity at 90% EMC

EMC 0.012× RH
=
0.012 0.012
EMC
RH =
0.012
0.90
RH =
0.012
RH = 75%

Problem 8
Find the equilibrium moisture content of three type of grains with different temperature and relative humidity.
 308

Given:
Grain Temperature Relative Humidity
1 30 ℃ 80%
2 35 ℃ 70%
3 40 ℃ 60%

Required:
Equilibrium Moisture Content for each grain.
Solution:
1. First grain

EMC = 0.012 × RH

EMC = 0.012 × 80

EMC = 0.96 ≈ 96%

2. Second grain

EMC = 0.012 × RH

EMC = 0.012 × 70

EMC = 0.84 ≈ 84%

3. Third grain

EMC = 0.012 × RH

EMC = 0.012 × 60

EMC = 0.72 ≈ 72%

Problem 9
 309

You have 1,500 kg of maize with an initial moisture content (wet basis) of 22%. You plan to dry
it to a final moisture content (wet basis) of 14%. Determine:
a.) The amount of water (in kg) to be removed.
b.) The final weight of the maize after drying.

Given:
mwb,i = 22% (initial moisture content, wet basis)
mwb,f =14% (final moisture content, wet basis)
mt = 1,500 kg (total mass initially)

Required:
Water to be removed, Wrm (kg)
Final weight of maize, mf (kg)

Solution:
Step 2: Final water mass at 14% wet basis:
Step 1: Compute initial water mass
Mwf = (mwbf/100) x (md + mwf)
mw,1 = ( mwb,I /100) (mt)
Mwf = (14/100) x (1,170 + mwf)
mw,1 = (22/100) (1500)
100 mwf = 14(1170 + mwf)
mw,1 = 330kg
100 mwf = 16,380 + 14 mwf
86 mwf = 16,380
Dry matter
mwf = 190.47 kg
md = mt - mw,1
md = 1,500 – 330 Water to be removed:
md = 1,170kg Wrm = mwi − mwf = 330 − 190.47 = 139.53kg
Final total mass:
mf = md + mwf = 1,170 + 190.47 = 1,360.47kg

Final answer: Wrm = 139.5kg & mf = 1,360.5kg

Problem 10
 310

A sample of wheat has an initial moisture content of 16% (wet basis). It is stored in an environment
where the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) for wheat is 12% (wet basis). Determine the amount of water
(kg) that will be lost per 100 kg of wheat until equilibrium is reached.

Given:
mwbi = 16%
mwb,EMC = 12%
mt = 100kg

Required:
Water lost to reach EMC, Wlost (kg)

Solution:

Step 1: Compute initial water content

mwi = (mwbi / 100) (mt)

mwi = (16/100) (100)
mwi = 16kg

Step 2: Compute dry matter

md = mtotal - mw
md = 100 -16

Step 3: Compute final water content at EMC

mwf = (12/100) (md +mwf)

100 mwf = 12 (84 + mwf)
100 mwf = 1,008 + 12mwf
88mwf = 1,008
mwf = 11.45kg

Step 4: water lost

wlost = mwi - mwf

wlost = 16 – 11.45
wlost = 4.55kg
Final Answer: 4.55 kg per 100kg of wheat

Problem 11
 311

A thin-slice dried fruit sample in a chamber at 40°C and 40% relative humidity (RH) reaches
equilibrium. Laboratory sorption data for the product near this RH give a linear fit: M eq, d.b. =0.03+0.11⋅RH
(RH as decimal).
Given:
Temperature = 40°C
Relative Humidity (RH) = 40% = 0.40
Sorption equation: M d . b .=0.03+0.11(RH)

Required:
(a) EMC in dry-basis (kg water/kg dry solids).
(b) EMC in wet-basis (kg water/kg wet product and % w.b.).

Solution:
M d . b .=0.03+0.11(0.40)=0.03+0.044
M d . b .=0.074 kg water/kg dry solids

M d .b . 0.074
M w .b . = = =0.0689 kg/kg
1+ M d .b . 1.074
M w .b . =6.89 % w.b.
 312

Problem 12
A powdered food has measured equilibrium moisture 0.12 (d.b.) at a given temperature. Packaging calculations
require the moisture on a wet basis.

Given:
M d . b .=0.12

Required:
EMC in wet-basis and as percent moisture (w.b.%).

Solution:
0.12 0.12
M w .b . = = =0.10714
1+ 0.12 1.12
M w .b . =10.71 %
 313

Problem 13
An abrasive material is being dried in an industrial dryer at a temperature of 60°C. The air relative humidity is
40%. The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of the material can be estimated using the Modified Henderson
Equation for EMC: M e =M s [−ln ⁡(1−RH )] 1/ n

Where:
M e= equilibrium moisture content (dry basis)
M s=0.25(Saturation moisture content for this material, dry basis)
RH = relative humidity (decimal)
n=1.5(Material constant)
Calculate the EMC of the material.
Given:
Temperature: 60°C (used to select constants)
Relative humidity: RH =40 %=0.4
Material constants: M s=0.25, n=1.5
Required:
Equilibrium moisture content, M e(dry basis)
Solution:
Compute 1−RH :
1−RH =1−0.4=0.6
Compute the natural logarithm:
−ln ⁡(0.6)=−(−0.5108)=0.5108
Apply the power 1/n:
¿
Multiply by M s :
1/ n
M e =M s [−ln ⁡(1−RH )]

M e =0.25 ×0.634 ≈ 0.1585M e ≈ 0.159 dry basis

The abrasive material will reach an equilibrium moisture content of about 15.9% dry basis under these drying
conditions.
 314

Problem 14
A batch of abrasive material is dried at 50°C. The air relative humidity varies from 20% to 60%. Using the
same Modified Henderson Equation, calculate the EMC at 20%, 40%, and 60% relative humidity. The material
constants are: M s=0.28and n=1.4.
Given:
Temperature: 50°C
Relative humidity: 20%, 40%, 60% → RH =0.2 , 0.4 , 0.6
Material constants: M s=0.28, n=1.4
Required:
EMC for each RH, M e(dry basis)
Formula:
1/ n
M e =M s [−ln ⁡(1−RH )] Solution:

For RH = 20% ( RH =0.2)

1−RH =1−0.2=0.8 −ln ⁡(0.8)=0.2231¿ M e =0.28 ×0.360 ≈ 0.101

For RH = 40% ( RH =0.4 )

1−RH =0.6 ,−ln ⁡(0.6)=0.51080.5108 0.7143 ≈ 0.612 M e =0.28 ×0.612 ≈ 0.171

For RH = 60% ( RH =0.6 )

1−RH =0.4 ,−ln ⁡(0.4 )=0.91630.9163 0.7143 ≈ 0.949 M e =0.28 ×0.949 ≈ 0.266

Problem 15
The equilibrium moisture content increases with relative humidity, showing that the abrasive material retains
more moisture in humid air.
A drying experiment at 40°C and 40% relative humidity (RH) gave a moisture ratio at equilibrium of 0.12 (dry
basis).

Required:
 315

Find the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) on a wet basis.

Solution:

𝐸𝑀𝐶 = (𝑀_𝑑𝑟𝑦 × 𝑀𝑅_𝑒𝑞) / (1 + 𝑀_𝑑𝑟𝑦 × 𝑀𝑅_𝑒𝑞)

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑀_𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 1 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠), 𝑀𝑅_𝑒𝑞 = 0.12 → 𝐸𝑀𝐶 = (1 × 0.12)/(1 + 0.12) = 0.107 ≈
10.7% (𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠)

Problem 16

Sample of maize has initial dry-basis moisture 0.25 and reaches 0.08 after long exposure to air at 30°C, 60%
RH.

Required:
Calculate EMC (wet basis).
 316

Solution:

𝐸𝑀𝐶 = 𝑀_𝑑𝑟𝑦 / (1 + 𝑀_𝑑𝑟𝑦) = 0.08 / (1 + 0.08) = 0.074 = 7.4% (𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠)

Problem 17

A batch of coffee beans is stored in a warehouse where the air has a temperature of 30°C and a relative
humidity (RH) of 70%. Determine the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of the beans using the general
drying equilibrium principle.
 317

Given:
Air temperature = 30°C
Relative Humidity = 70%
Required:
1. Equilibrium moisture content (EMC)
Solution:
Using Henderson-type relationship:
1 – ERH = exp[–c·T·EMC·h]
Assume typical constants:
c = 1.2×10⁻⁴; h = 1.1; T = 303 K
1 – 0.70 = 0.30
ln (0.30) = –(1.2×10⁻⁴) (303) (1.1) (EMC)
EMC ≈ 8.2% wb
Answer:

8.2% wb.

Problem 18

A grain storage room maintains a temperature of 25°C with ERH of 60%. Estimate the EMC of the stored
paddy.
 318

Given:
Air Temperature = 25°C
ERH = 60%
Required:
1. EMC of paddy
Solution:
1 – ERH = 0.40
ln (0.40) = –(1.0×10⁻⁴) (298) (1.2) (EMC)
EMC ≈ 11.2% wb
Answer:

11.2% wb.

Problem 19
 319

A grain dryer is used to dry wheat from an initial moisture content of 25% to a final moisture content of 12%. If
the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of the wheat at the drying temperature of 35°C is 8%, determine the
amount of moisture removed.
Required: Moisture removed during drying.
Solution:
The moisture removed is the difference between the initial moisture content and the final moisture content.

Initial moisture content = 25%

Final moisture content = 12%
Moisture removed = Initial moisture content - Final moisture content

Moisture removed=25%−12%= 13%

Problem 20
 320

A batch drying process reduces the moisture content of a food product from 50% to 20%. The equilibrium
moisture content at the drying temperature is 15%. What is the total moisture removed from the product during
the drying process?
Required: Total moisture removed.
Solution:
To calculate the total moisture removed, we need to find the difference between the initial moisture content and
the final moisture content.

Initial moisture content = 50%

Final moisture content = 20%

Moisture removed = Initial moisture content − Final moisture content

Moisture removed = 50% − 20% = 30%

 321

Problem 21
A sample of dried mango equilibrates with air at 30°C and 60% relative humidity (RH). If the module's
empirical chart indicates that mango at 30°C and 60% RH has an equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of 0.18
kg water per kg dry solids, determine the EMC in percentage wet basis (% wb) assuming dry solids basis refers
to dry mass only.

Given:
EMC = 0.18 kg water / kg dry solids

Required:
EMC in % wet basis

Solution:
For a sample with dry mass = 1 kg (by definition for dry basis)
water mass = 0.18 kg.
Wet mass = dry mass + water mass
= 1 + 0.18
= 1.18 kg.
EMC (wet basis) = water mass / wet mass
= 0.18 / 1.18
= 0.1525 = 15.25%

Answer: EMC = 15.3% (wet basis)

 322

Problem 22
A sample of grain is reported to have an equilibrium moisture content of 12% wet basis at 25°C. Express this
EMC as kg water per kg dry solids (dry basis).

Given:
EMC = 12% wb

Required:
EMC in dry basis (kg water / kg dry solids)

Solution:
Let wet basis 12% means water mass / wet mass = 0.12.
Assume wet mass = 1 kg
water = 0.12 kg
dry solids = 0.88 kg.
Dry basis EMC = water / dry
= 0.12 / 0.88
= 0.13636 kg water per kg dry solids.

Answer: EMC = 0.136 kg water / kg dry solids

 323

Problem 23
A sample of corn kernels is dried at 40 °C until it reaches an equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) of 60%.
Using the modified Henderson equation, determine the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) on a dry basis.
The equation is:
B
1−RH =exp ⁡[− A(T +C) M ]
where for corn: A = 1.22×10⁻³, B = 1.45, and C = 46.
Given:
T = 40 °C
RH = 0.60
A = 1.22×10⁻³
B = 1.45
C = 46
Required:
EMC (M, % dry basis)
Solution:
Rearrange the equation:
1/B 1 /1.45 0.6897
−ln ⁡(1−RH ) −ln ⁡(1−0.60) 0.9163
M =[ ] M =[ ] M =[ ] =¿
A (T +C ) 1.22 ×10−3 (40+ 46) −3
1.22 ×10 ×86

Final Answer:
EMC = 4.73 % (dry basis)
 324

Problem 24
A batch of coffee beans is dried at 35∘ Cuntil it reaches equilibrium with surrounding air having a relative
humidity (RH) of 55%.
Using the Modified Henderson Equation, determine the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of the beans on a
dry basis.
Given
Symbol Description Value
∘
T Temperature 35 C
RH Relative Humidity 0.55
−3
A Constant 1.50 ×10
B Constant 1.35

C Constant 48

Required
M =? (Equilibrium Moisture Content, dry basis)
Solution
Rearrange the equation to solve for M :
B
1−RH =exp ⁡[−( A /T +C )M ]
Take the natural logarithm of both sides:
1/B
B −ln ⁡(1−RH )
ln ⁡(1−RH )=−( A /T +C )M M =[ ]
A /T +C
Substitute the given values:
−3
1.50 ×10 −5
1−RH =1−0.55=0.45−ln ⁡(1−RH )=−ln ⁡(0.45)=0.7981 A /T = =4.2857 ×10
35
B 0.7981
A /T +C=48.000043 M = =0.01663
48.000043
Solve for M :

M =¿M =¿

✅ EMC (dry-basis) = 0.0536 kg water / kg dry solid

(Optional) Convert to wet-basis:

M 0.0536
M wb = = =0.0509=5.09 %
1+ M 1.0536
 325

Final Answer
Type Symbol Result

Dry-basis EMC M 0.0536 kg water/kg dry solid

Wet-basis EMC M wb 5.09% moisture

 326

Problem 25
Whole-grain corn initially has moisture Mi = 0.18 kg water per kg dry solids (dry-basis). The sample contains
2.00 kg of dry solids. After conditioning at the storage RH, the final total mass measured is 2.36 kg. Determine
Mf (kg water/kg dry solids) and the equilibrium moisture as percent (wet basis).

Given: (Perry and Green, 2008)

Mi = 0.18 kg water/kg dry solids (dry-basis)
mass of dry solids = 2.00 kg
final total mass = 2.36 kg.
Required:
Determine Mf (kg water/kg dry solids) and the equilibrium moisture as percent (wet basis).
Solution:
mi water
Midb =
mass dry
mf water
Mfdb =
mass dry
mwater
Wet-basis % = x 100
total mass
Miwater = Mi x massdry
= 0.18 x 2.00
Miwater = 0.36 kg.
Mftotal = massdry + Mfwater
= 2.36 - 2.00
Mftotal = 0.36 kg
Mf water
Mf =
mass dry
0.36
=
2.00
Mf = 0.18 kg/kg (dry-basis)
Mfwater
Moisture (wet basis) ¿ x 100
massdry + Mfwater
0.36
Moisture (wet basis) ¿ x 100
2.36
Moisture (wet basis) ¿ 15.254 %
 327

Problem 26
Dried herb initially has Mi = 0.10 kg water/kg dry solids (dry-basis). The sample contains 1.50 kg dry solids.
After exposure to humid air, it gains 0.09 kg water. Determine Mf (dry-basis) and the percent change relative to
Mi.
Given: (Perry and Green, 2008)
Mi = 0.10 kg/kg
massdry = 1.50 kg
additional water gained = 0.09 kg
Required:
Determine Mf (dry-basis) and the percent change relative to Mi
Solution:
Miwater = Mi * massdry
= 0.10 * 1.50
Miwater = 0.15 kg
Mfwater= 0.15 + 0.09
Mfwater = 0.24 kg
mfwater
Mf (dry-basis) =
mass dry
0.24
=
1.50
Mf (dry-basis) = 0.16 kg/kg
Mf −Mi
Percent change = x 100
Mi
0.16−0.10
= x 100
0.10
Percent change = 60 %
 328

Problem 27
Dried mango slices are stored in a warehouse at 30∘ Cwith 60% relative humidity. From the mango EMC chart,
the equilibrium moisture content under these conditions is approximately 18% (wet basis). The mango slices
currently have a moisture content of 25% (wet basis). Determine the moisture content reduction (percentage
points) needed to reach EMC and mass of water (kg) removed if 500 kg of mango slices are dried to reach
equilibrium.
Given: Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS). (2005)
 Air temperature: T =30∘ C

 Relative humidity: 60%

 EMC of mango slices: 18% (wet basis)
 Initial moisture content: 25% (wet basis)
 Mass of mango slices: 500 kg (wet basis)
Required:
1. Moisture content reduction (percentage points)
2. Mass of water removed (kg)
Solution:
Δ MC=Initial MC−EMC=25 %−18 %=7 %
Water initial=500 × 0.25=125 kg

Waterfinal =500× 0.18=90 kg

Water removed=125−90=35 kg
 329

Problem 28
Soybeans are stored after harvest at an ambient condition where the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) is
10% (wet basis). A farmer has a 20,000-kg batch of soybeans at an initial moisture content of 14% (wet basis).
Assuming drying occurs only by moisture loss (no dry-matter loss) until the soybeans reach EMC, determine:
Given: (Corrêa et. al., 2008)
 Initial total mass minitial =20,000 kg(wet basis)

 Initial moisture content M i=14 %(wet basis)

 Equilibrium moisture content M EMC =10 %(wet basis)

 Dry solids mass remains constant during moisture loss

Required:
1. Mass of water removed (kg) to reach EMC.
2. Final total mass of the soybeans after drying (kg).
3. Initial and final moisture contents on a dry-basis (kg water per kg dry solids).
4. Percentage reduction in total mass due to drying (%).
Solution:
mdry =minitial ×(1−M i )=20,000 ×(1−0.14)=20,000 ×0.86=17,200 kg .
mdry 17,200 17,200
mfinal= = = =19,111.11 kg .mw ,i =minitial −mdry=20,000−17,200=2,800 kg .
1−M EMC 1−0.10 0.90
mw , f =mfinal −mdry=19,111.11−17,200=1,911.11 kg .

Δ mw =mw ,i−mw , f =2,800−1,911.11=888.89 kg

Mi 0.14
X db, i= = =0.16279 kg water/kg dry solids.
1−M i 0.86
M EMC 0.10
X db, f = = =0.11111 kg water/kg dry solids.
1−M EMC 0.90
minitial−mfinal 20,000−19,111.11
% mass loss= ×100 %= ×100 % ≈ 4.444 % .
minitial 20,000
 330

Problem 29
Using the GAB sorption isotherm, estimate the equilibrium moisture content (EMC)
of dried apple slices (dry-basis, kg water/kg dry solids) when the product is stored at
water activity aw = 0.60. Use the following GAB parameters measured for this
product: monolayer moisture m0 = 0.085 kg water/kg dry, C = 10, and K = 0.90.
Given: Required:
m0 = 0.085 kg/kg (db) EMC (kg water / kg dry solids) — dry
C = 10 basis.
K = 0.90 Convert EMC to wet basis (mass fraction
aw = 0.60 of water in the moist product, kg water /
kg total).
Solution:

m o CK aw
m ( aw ) =
( 1−K aw ) ( 1−K aw +CK aw )

0.085 × 10× 0.90 ×0.60

m ( aw ) =
( 1−0.90 ( 0.60 )) ( 1−0.90 ( 0.60 ) +10 ( 0.90 ) ( 0.60 ) )

m ( aw ) =0.1703 kg water /kg dry solids

m 0.1703
X= = =0.1456
1+ m 1+0.1703
 331

Problem 30
A cereal product was measured to have EMC (dry basis) = 0.08 kg/kg (db) at a w =
0.30 and EMC = 0.20 kg/kg (db) at a w = 0.70. Estimate the EMC (dry basis) at a w =
0.50 by linear interpolation. Then, for a 100-kg batch of dry cereal solids, compute the
mass of water present at that EMC (kg).
Given: Required:
aw1 = 0.30, m1 = 0.08 kg/kg db EMC at aw = 0.50(dry basis).
aw2 = 0.70, m2 = 0.20 kg/kg db Mass of water in 100 kg dry solids at that
Target aw = 0.50 EMC (kg).
Dry solids mass Mds = 100 kg
Solution:

aw −aw 1
m=m1 + ( m2−m1 )
aw 2−a w 1

0.50−0.30
m=0.08 + ( 0.20−0.08 ) =0.14 kg water /kg dry solids
0.70−0.30

water mass=m × M ds=0.14 ×100 kg=14 kg

 332

Problem 31
A tamarind slice is dried in air at 40°C and 60% relative humidity (RH). At this condition, the equilibrium
moisture content (Mₑ) can be estimated using the simplified Oswin-type correlation:
Assumed that at 40°C the experimental constant for tamarind is A= 0.18 and B=1.2

Given:
RH = 60% = 0.60
A,B (40°C) = 0.18, 1.2
Me = ?

Solution:
Me= A ¿

Me=0.18 ¿

Me=0.18 ¿

Me=0.30 kg water /kg dry solid ≈ 30 %

at 60 % relative humidity , the tamarind reaches about 30 % equilibrium moisture content .

Problem 32
 333

A batch of dried banana chips was stored in a warehouse at 35°[Link] testing shows that the equilibrium
moisture content (Mₑ) of the product is 0.12 kg water/kg dry solid. The moisture sorption characteristics of dried
bananas at 35°C are described by the Oswin equation:

Given:
A,B (35°C) = 0.25, 1.3
Me = 0.12 kg water/kg dry solid
RH = ?

Solution:
Me= A ¿ (Oswin Equation)
0.12
0.12=0.25 ¿ =0.25 ¿ ¿
0.25
1
0.12 1.3
( ) =¿
0.25
1
0.12 1.3 RH
( ) =( )
0.25 1−RH
RH
0.57=( )0.57 (1−RH )=RH 0.57−0.57 RH =RH
1−RH

0.57=0.57 RH + RH

0.57=1.57 RH

0.57 1.57 RH
= RH =0. 36 ≈ 36 % relative humidity
1.57 1.57

Problem 33
An AB material at 30°C exhibits an equilibrium moisture content that follows the Henderson equation:
Ln(1 – RH) = -A * (T + C) * M^B
Given: A = 0.0009, B = 1.4, C = 20, RH = 0.60, T = 30°C
Required: Determine EMC (dry basis).
Solution:
Using Henderson equation:
 334

Ln(1 – 0.60) = -0.0009 * (30 + 20) * M^1.4

Ln(0.4) = -0.0009 * 50 * M^1.4
-0.91629 = -0.045 * M^1.4
M^1.4 = 20.361
M = 8.607 (dry basis)
 335

Problem 34
A dehydrated food product is analyzed to determine its equilibrium moisture content (EMC) at different storage
humidities. The product follows the GAB (Guggenheim–Anderson–de Boer) sorption isotherm, given by:
Using GAB isotherm:
M = (Mo * C * K * aw) / ((1 – K*aw)(1 – K*aw + C*K*aw))
Given: Mo = 0.09, C = 12, K = 0.88
Required:
Calculate the equilibrium moisture content (EMC), dry basis, at:
1. aw =0.50
2. aw=0.80

Solution:
For aw=0.50
 336

Problem 35

A food sample with a dry mass of 100 g is exposed to air with 60% relative humidity at 30°C. The moisture
content at equilibrium is found to be 20 g of water.

Required:
Determine the equilibrium moisture content on a dry basis (Xe).

Solution:

Xe = (mass of water) / (dry mass)

Xe = 20 / 100

Xe = 0.2 g water/g dry solid

 337

Problem 36
A material initially contains 50 g of water per 200 g of dry solid and reaches equilibrium when the water
content decreases to 30 g.

Required:
Find the equilibrium moisture content (dry basis).

Solution:

Xe = (30) / (200)

= 0.15 g water/g dry solid

 338

Problem 37
The Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) of a certain grain at 30°C is known to be 13.0% d.b. at 60% Relative
Humidity (RH) and 15.0% d.b. at 70% RH. Assuming a linear relationship over this narrow range, determine
the EMC of the grain if the drying air is at 30°C and 65% RH.

Given:
ø1 = 60% RH
EMC1 = 13.0% d.b.
ø2 = 70% RH,
EMC2 = 15.0% d.b.
Required RH, ø3 = 65% RH.

Required:
Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC3) in % dry basis (d.b.)

Solutions:
EMC 3 = EMC1 + (ø 3 - ø1) × [(EMC2 - EMC1) / (ø2 - ø1)]
EMC3 = 13.0% + (65% - 60%) × [(15.0% - 13.0%) / (70% - 60%)]
EMC3 = 13.0% + (5%) × (2.0% / 10%)
EMC3 = 13.0% + 1.0%
EMC3= 14.0% d.b.
 339

Problem 38
Dried mango slices have an Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) of 15% d.b. when stored at 25°C in an
atmosphere with a water activity (a w) of 0.70. If the product is moved to a new storage condition at the same
temperature, but with a 40% higher water activity, what would be the new relative humidity (ø) of the storage
air?

Given:
Initial Water Activity, aw1 = 0.70.
Final Water Activity, aw2 = aw1 + 0.40 × aw1
At equilibrium, Relative Humidity (ø) is equal to Water Activity (aw).

Required:
New relative humidity (ø2) in %.

Solutions:
Calculate the new water activity:
(aw2): aw2 = 0.70 + (0.40 × 0.70) = 0.70 + 0.28 = 0.98
New Relative Humidity (ø2) is equal to aw2:
ø2 = aw2 × 100%
ø2 = 0.98 × 100% = 98%
 340

Problem 39
A smart hydrogel composite (AB Material) is being dried for biomedical applications. The material's
equilibrium moisture content follows the relationship: EMC = 0.18 × ln(1 + 5RH), where RH is relative
humidity as a decimal. If the drying environment is maintained at 60% relative humidity, determine the
equilibrium moisture content and calculate how much water will be retained in 2 kg of dry solid material.

Givens:
 EMC relationship: EMC = 0.18 × ln (1 + 5RH)
 Relative humidity (RH) = 60% = 0.60
 Dry solid mass = 2 kg
 EMC is expressed as kg water/kg dry solid

Required: Equilibrium moisture content (EMC) and Total water retained in the material at equilibrium

Solution:
Calculate EMC
EMC = 0.18 × ln (1 + 5 × 0.60)
EMC = 0.18 × ln (1 + 3.0)
EMC = 0.18 × ln (4.0)
EMC = 0.18 × 1.3863 = 0.2495

Calculate Total Water

Retained
Water mass = EMC × Dry solid
mass
Water mass = 0.2495 × 2 0.499 kg

EMC = 0.250 kg water/ kg dry solid

Water retained = 0.499 kg
 341

Problem 40
A ceramic composite material is being dried in a controlled environment. The material's equilibrium moisture
content (EMC) follows the relationship: EMC = 0.25 × (RH)^(1/2), where RH is the relative humidity as a
decimal. If the drying chamber maintains 40% relative humidity, calculate the equilibrium moisture
content the material will reach.

Given:
 EMC relationship: EMC = 0.25 × (RH)1/2
 Relative humidity (RH) = 40% = 0.40
 EMC is expressed as kg water/kg dry solid

Required: Equilibrium moisture content (EMC) 41.

 342

Problem 41

500 kg of mango slices at 40% wet basis are placed in a controlled environment where EMC is 20% (wet

basis). Assuming the dry solids do not change, how much water (kg) mush be removed and what is the final

mass?

Given:

mi = 500 kg

MCi = 40%

MCf = 20 %

Required:

Water removed and final mass

Solution:

Initial water = mi x MCi = 500 kg x 0.40 = 200 kg

Dry solids = mi x (1 - MCi) = 500 kg (1 – 0.40) = 300 kg

MC f 0.20
M f −db= = =0.25
1−MC f 1−0.20

Final water mass db=dry solids x M f −db=300 kg x 0.25=75 kg

MR = initial water – final water mass = 200 kg – 75 kg

MR = 125 kg

M f −wb=dry solids +final water =300 kg+75 kg

M f −wb=375 kg
 343

Problem 42

A food product is stored in a room with a relative humidity of 60% and a temperature of 20 oC. The EMC for

this product at these conditions is 8%. If the product currently has a moisture content of 12%, will it be gain or

lose moisture? By how much?

Given:

RH = 60%

T = 20 oC

EMC = 8 % (wet basis)

MC = 12%

Required:

Will the product gain or lose moisture? By how much?

Solution:

Moisture change = EMC – MC = 0.12 – 0.08

Moisture change = 4%

The food product will Lose moisture at 4%.

 344

Problem 43
A batch of corn kernels is dried in a tray dryer to reduce its moisture content. Initially, the corn contains 35%
moisture (wet basis). After several hours of drying under constant conditions, the corn reaches an equilibrium
with the surrounding air at 30°C and 60% relative humidity (RH). Experimental data indicate that at these
conditions, the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of corn is 12% (dry basis). Determine the final moisture
content on a wet basis, and the total mass of water removed if the initial mass of the corn (wet basis) is 50 kg.
Given:
Initial moisture content, M i=35 % (wet basis)

Equilibrium moisture content, M e =12 %(dry basis)

Total initial mass of material, W i =50 kg

Temperature, t=30 ℃
Relative Humidity, RH =60 %
Required:
Final moisture content on wet basis, M f

Mass of water removed,W removed

Solution:
Convert EMC from dry to wet basis: Determine dry solids in the initial corn:

M dry
M wet = × 100 W s=W i (1−M i)
1+ M dry
W s=(50)(1−0.35)
0.12
Mf = ×100
1+ 0.12 W s=32.5 kg
M =9.23 % (wet basis)
M f =9.23 %f (wet basis)
Compute the final total mass: Calculate the mass of water removed:

Ws W removed =W i−W f
W f=
1+ M f
W removed =50−35.8
32.5
W f=
1+0.0923 W removed =14.2 kg

W f =35.8 kg
 345

Problem 44
A batch of dried tea leaves is stored in a warehouse where the air temperature is 25°C. Initially, the surrounding
air has a relative humidity (RH) of 40%, at which the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of the tea leaves is
5% (dry basis). Later, due to seasonal changes, the relative humidity of the air increases to 70%, and the
corresponding EMC of tea at that condition becomes 11% (dry basis).
If the dry solids in the batch weigh 10 kg, determine:
1. The initial mass of the tea leaves (before humidity rise)
2. The final mass of the tea leaves after moisture adsorption
3. The mass of water absorbed due to the increase in humidity.
Given:
Mass of dry solids, W s=10 kg
Temperature ¿ 25 ℃
RH 1=40 % , EMC 1=5 % (dry basis)

RH 2=70 % , EMC 1=11% (dry basis)

Required:
W initial −mass of tea before moisture gain

W final−mass of tea after moisture gain

W absorbed−mass of water absorbed

 346

Problem 45
A sample of wet grain with a total mass of 100 g is placed in a humidity chamber. After a very long time, the
sample's mass stabilizes at 85 g. The initial dry solid content of the sample was 75 g. Calculate the Equilibrium
Moisture Content (X*) of the grain on a dry basis for the conditions in the chamber.

Given
 Initial dry solid mass (ms): 75g
 Final stable total mass (mfinal): 85g

Required
 Equilibrium Moisture Content (X*) on a dry basis.

Solution
¿
mw =mfinal −ms
¿
mw =85 g−75 g
¿
mw =10 g

¿ Mass of water at equilibrium

X=
Mass of dry solid
¿
m ¿
X= w
ms

¿ 10
X=
75
¿
X =0.1333 kg water / kg dry solid
 347

Problem 46
In a drying experiment, a food product is exposed to air with a relative humidity of 50%. It is determined that
the Equilibrium Moisture Content (X*) under these conditions is 0.08 kg water/ kg dry solid. If the total mass of
the dried product is 550 kg, calculate the mass of dry solids (ms) contained within the product.

Given
 Equilibrium Moisture Content (X*): 0.08 kg water/ kg dry solid
 Total final mass (mfinal): 550 kg

Required
 Mass of dry solids (ms).

Solution
¿
mfinal =ms+ mw
¿
mfinal=ms+ X ms
¿
mfinal=ms (1+ X )
mfinal
ms =
1+ X ¿
550 kg
ms =¿
1+ 0.08
ms =509.26 kg
 348

Sorption Isotherms

Problem 1

At 25°C, a sample of dried mango follows the Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) model with parameters:
m₀ = 0.045 kg H₂O/kg dry solid, C = 9.8, K = 0.88. Determine the equilibrium moisture content when water
activity (a_w) = 0.6.

Given:

m₀ = 0.045

C = 9.8

K = 0.88

a_w = 0.6

Required:

Equilibrium Moisture Content (m)

Solution:

Use GAB model: m = (m₀ * C * K * a_w) / [(1 - K * a_w) (1 - K * a_w + C * K * a_w)]

Substitute: m = (0.045 × 9.8 × 0.88 × 0.6) / [(1 - 0.528) (1 - 0.528 + 9.8 × 0.88 × 0.6)]

m ≈ 0.121 kg water/kg dry solid.

 349

Problem 2

A dehydrated apple has the following BET constants at 20°C: m₀ = 0.032 kg/kg, C = 12. Calculate the
equilibrium moisture content at water activity (a_w) = 0.4.

Given:

m₀ = 0.032

C = 12

a_w = 0.4

Required:

Equilibrium Moisture Content (m)

Solution:

Use BET equation: m = (m₀ * C * a_w) / [(1 - a_w) (1 + (C - 1) * a_w)]

Substitute: m = (0.032 × 12 × 0.4) / [(0.6) (1 + 11 × 0.4)]

m ≈ 0.029 kg water/kg dry solid.

 350

Problem 3
Two empirical isotherm relations approximate adsorption and desorption for a material at 25 °C:
Adsorption: ma = 0.05 * (aw / (1 - aw))
Desorption: m_d = 0.045 * (aw / (1 - aw))

Compute and compare adsorption and desorption EMC at a_w = 0.4 and comment on hysteresis.
Given:
ma = 0.05*(aw/(1-aw)), md = 0.045*(aw/(1-aw))
aw = 0.4
Required:
Find ma and md (kg/kg dry) and percent difference.
Solution:
m_a = 0.033333 kg/kg dry, md = 0.03 kg/kg dry.
Adsorption is higher by 11.111 % showing hysteresis (adsorption > desorption at same aw).
 351

Problem 4
A food product has GAB m0 = 0.10 kg/kgdry and K ≈ 0.90 at 25 °C. At 45 °C the C parameter drops from 12 to
6 (due to temperature effect). Using aw = 0.5 compute EMC at both temperatures (assume K unchanged) and
comment on effect of temperature.
Given:
m0 = 0.10, K = 0.90
C25 = 12, C45 = 6
aw = 0.5
Required:
Compute m25 and m45 (kg/kg dry) using GAB and comment.
Solution:
EMC at 25 °C: m25 = 0.16501 kg/kg dry. At 45 °C: m45 = 0.15105 kg/kg dry.

EMC decreases by 8.4615 % when C drops (higher T typically reduces sorption capacity).
 352

Problem 5
A food product follows the BET isotherm model, where the equilibrium moisture content is related to water
activity (a_w) as: M = (M₀C a_w) / ((1 - a_w) (1 + (C - 1) a_w)). Given M₀ = 0.05 kg water/kg dry solid and C
= 10, calculate the moisture content at a_w = 0.4.
(Adapted from Rahman, 2009).

Given:
M₀ = 0.05 kg/kg dry solid
C = 10, a_w = 0.4

Required:
Moisture content, M

Solution:
M = (M₀C a_w) / ((1 - a_w) (1 + (C - 1) a_w)) = (0.05×10×0.4)/ ((0.6) (1 + 9×0.4)) = 0.093 kg/kg dry solid

Final Answer:
Moisture content = 0.093 kg water/kg dry solid

Problem 6
 353

Using the GAB isotherm model, M = (M₀CKa_w) / ((1 - Ka_w)(1 - Ka_w + CKa_w)), find the equilibrium
moisture content at a_w = 0.6 for M₀ = 0.04 kg/kg, C = 8, and K = 0.9.
(Based on van den Berg & Bruin, 1981).

Given:
M₀ = 0.04 kg/kg, C = 8, K = 0.9, a_w = 0.6

Required:
Equilibrium moisture content, M

Solution:
M = (0.04×8×0.9×0.6)/ ((1 - 0.9×0.6) (1 - 0.9×0.6 + 8×0.9×0.6)) = 0.108 kg/kg dry solid

Final Answer:
Equilibrium moisture content = 0.108 kg water/kg dry solid

Problem 7
A lab sample has a simplified isotherm approximation at 25 ℃ , M 0 is equal to 0.9 (g/100g). The value of C is
equal to relative humidity is 0.80. Find the moisture content (M) in g water per 100 g dry solid.
 354

Given:
TEMPERATURE: T = 25 ℃ M 0 = 0.9 (g/100g)
WATER ACTIVITY: a w = 0.80 C=6

Required:
Moisture Content in g water per 100 (g/100g)

Solution:
M 0 C aw
M=
( 1−a w ) ¿ ¿

(0.9)(6)(0.80)
M=
( 1−0.80 ) ¿ ¿

M = 4.32 g water per 100 g dry solid

Problem 8
 355

Find the moisture content in g water per 100 (g/100g) dry solid sample using the given data below.
Given:
TEMPERATURE: T = 30 ℃ M 0 = 0.6 (g/100g)
WATER ACTIVITY: a w = 0.50 C=4

Required:
Moisture Content in g water per 100 (g/100g)

Solution:
M 0 C aw
M=
( 1−a w ) ¿ ¿

(0.6)(4)(0.50)
M=
( 1−0.50 ) ¿ ¿

M = 0.96 g water per 100 g dry solid

 356

Problem 9
A dried cereal snack has an equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of 10% (wet basis) at water activity aw=0.55
and 25∘C. If you store 200 kg of this cereal at the same temperature and aw=0.55, determine the mass of water
(kg) that the cereal will, at equilibrium, contain.

Given:
EMC = 10% (wet basis)
aw = 0.55
T = 25oC
mtotal = 200kg

Required:

Mass of water in cereal at equilibrium, mw (kg)

Solution:

EMC
mw = 10 x mtotal
0
10
mw = 10 x 200
0

mw = 20kg

Final answer: mw = 20kg

 357

Problem 10
A powdered food product has the following moisture sorption isotherm data at 30∘C: at aw = 0.50, EMC = 5%
(wet basis); at aw=0.75, EMC = 12% (wet basis).
If you have 600 kg of this powder initially dried to 8% moisture (wet basis) and then it is placed in a storage
environment at aw = 0.75 and 30∘C, determine:
a.) The expected equilibrium moisture content.
b.) The change in water mass (kg) that will be absorbed until equilibrium is reached

Given:
aw = 0.75
EMC = 12%
minitial = 600kg
mwbi = 8%

Required:
mwbf (wet basis)
water mass change, Δmw (kg)

Solution:
Step 1: Initial water mass Step 3: water absorbed
mwi = (mwbi /100) (minitial)
mwi = (8/100) (600) = 48kg Δmw = mwf – mwi
mwi = 48 kg Δmw = 75.27 – 48
dry matter: Δmw = 27.27kg
md = minitial - mwi
md = 600 -48
md = 552kg
Step 2: final moisture content = 12%
mwf = (mwbf / 100) x minitial
mwf = (12/100) (552 +mwf)
100mwf = 12(552 + mwf)
100mwf =6,634 +12mwf
88mwf = 6,624
mwf = 75.27 kg
Final total mass
mfinal = md + mwf
mfinal = 552 + 75.27 = 627kg

Final Answer: mwbf = 12% & Δmw = 27.3kg

 358

Problem 11
An empirical relation near 25°C is ln ⁡(1/a w )=2.5−12.0 M d . b .. For water activity a w =0.6 , find the
corresponding dry-basis moisture.
Given:

Water activity: a w =0.6

ln ⁡(1/a w )=2.5−12.0 M d . b .

Required:
M d . b .(kg water/kg dry solids).

Solution:
ln ⁡(1/a w )=ln ⁡(1/0.6)=ln ⁡( 1.6667)=0.5108 .
2.5−0.5108 1.9892
M d . b .= =
12.0 12
M d . b .=0.16577 kg/kg
 359

Problem 12
At 30°C, a food’s adsorption isotherm is approximated by M d . b .=K aw with K=0.28. For storage RH = 30%
(i.e., a w =0.30 ), estimate EMC in d.b. and convert to w.b.%.
Given:
Sorption constant: K=0.28
Water activity: a w =0.30

Relation: M d . b .=K aw

Required:
EMC in d.b. and % w.b.

Solution:
M d . b .=0.28 ×0.30

M d . b .=0.084 kg/kg

0.084
M w .b . = =0.0775
1+ 0.084
M w .b . =7.75 %
 360

Problem 13
An abrasive material is being dried at 50°C. Its sorption behavior can be described by the Guggenheim–
Anderson–de Boer (GAB) model:
M 0 CK aw
M=
(1−K aw )(1−K a w +CK a w )

Where:
M = moisture content (dry basis)
M 0=0.15 = monolayer moisture content (dry basis)

C=5.0, K=0.8= GAB constants

a w= water activity (decimal)

If the material is exposed to air with water activity a w =0.6 , calculate the equilibrium moisture content M .
Given:
M 0=0.15 , C=5.0, K=0.8

Water activity: a w =0.6

Required:
Moisture content M (dry basis)
Formula:
M 0 CK aw
M= Solution:
(1−K aw )(1−K a w +CK a w )

Compute K a w
K a w =0.8 ×0.6=0.48

Compute the numerato

M 0 CK a w =0.15 ×5 × 0.48=0.15 × 2.4=0.36

Compute the denominator

(1−K aw )(1−K aw +CK aw )

First term: 1−K a w =1−0.48=0.52

Second term: 1−K a w + CK a w =0.52+2.4=2.92

Multiply: 0.52 ×2.92 ≈ 1.518
Compute M
 361

0.36
M= ≈ 0.237
1.518

M ≈ 0.237 dry basis

The abrasive material has a moisture content of about 23.7% at water activity 0.6.
 362

Problem 14
An abrasive powder exhibits sorption behavior described by the BET model:
M 0 C aw
M=
(1−a w )(1+(C−1)aw )

Where:
M 0=0.12 = monolayer moisture content (dry basis)

C=4.0
a w= water activity

Calculate the equilibrium moisture content for a w =0.3and a w =0.7 .

Given:
M 0=0.12 , C=4.0
a w =0.3 and 0.7
Required:
Moisture content M for each a w
Formula:
M 0 C aw
M= Solution:
(1−a w )(1+(C−1)aw )

For a w =0.3 :

Numerator: M 0 C a w =0.12× 4 × 0.3=0.144

Denominator: (1−aw )(1+(C−1)aw )=0.7 ×(1+3 ×0.3)=0.7 ×(1+ 0.9)=0.7 ×1.9=1.33

Moisture content: M =0.144 /1.33 ≈ 0.108
For a w =0.7 :
Numerator: 0.12 × 4 ×0.7=0.336
Denominator: (1−0.7)(1+3× 0.7)=0.3×(1+2.1)=0.3 × 3.1=0.93
Moisture content: M =0.336 /0.93 ≈ 0.361
Water Activity (a_w) Moisture Content (M) (dry basis)

0.3 0.108

0.7 0.361
The moisture content increases significantly as water activity rises, showing how the sorption isotherm
predicts moisture uptake in AB materials

Problem 15
 363

For a food product at 25°C, the Henderson equation is (1 - RH) = exp (-a (M)^b). Given constants a = 0.0008, b
= 1.5, and RH = 0.6.

Required:
Find equilibrium moisture content M (dry basis).

Solution:

1 − 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (−𝑎 𝑀^𝑏) → 1 − 0.6 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (−0.0008 𝑀^1.5)

𝑙𝑛 (0.4) = −0.0008 𝑀^1.5 → 𝑀^1.5 = −𝑙𝑛 (0.4)/0.0008 = 1146.8

𝑀 = (1146.8) ^ (1/1.5) = 101.2 → 𝑀 ≈ 0.101 (𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 = 10.1%)

Problem 16
 364

Using the BET equation: aw / [(1 - aw) M] = (1 / (M0 C)) + ((C - 1) aw) / (M0 C). For a sample, aw = 0.5, M0
= 0.05, C = 12.

Required:
Find equilibrium moisture content M.

Solution:

𝑎𝑤 / ((1 − 𝑎𝑤) 𝑀) = (1 / (𝑀0 𝐶)) + ((𝐶 − 1) 𝑎𝑤) / (𝑀0 𝐶)

0.5 / ((1 − 0.5) 𝑀) = (1 / (0.05 × 12)) + (11 × 0.5)/(0.05 × 12)

1 / 𝑀 = 1.667 + 9.167 = 10.834 → 𝑀 = 0.0923 (𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 = 9.23%)

Problem 17
 365

A sample of sliced mango is exposed to air at ERH 50%. If the current MC is 20% wb, determine if the product
will gain or lose moisture.

Given:
ERH = 50%
Current MC = 20% wb
Required:
1. Moisture gain or loss determination
Solution:
Typical EMC for fruits at 50% ERH ≈ 16% wb.
Since 20% > 16%, product loses moisture.
Answer: Product will lose moisture.

Problem 18
 366

A paddy sample at MC 12% wb is placed in air of ERH 70%. Predict whether moisture will be absorbed or
desorbed.

Given:
Sample MC = 12% wb
ERH = 70%
Required:
1. Moisture direction
Solution:
EMC at 70% ERH ≈ 14% wb.
Since 12% < 14%, product will absorb moisture.

Answer: Moisture will be absorbed.

Problem 19
 367

A food material is dried to a moisture content of 25%. The sorption isotherm for this material at 30°C is given
as: At 25% moisture content, the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) is 50%. Calculate the ERH when the
moisture content is reduced to 15%.
Required: ERH at 15% moisture content.
Solution:
The sorption isotherm represents the relationship between moisture content and equilibrium relative humidity
(ERH) at a given temperature. Based on the sorption isotherm data provided

25% moisture content, the ERH is 50%.

We are tasked with finding the ERH at 15% moisture content.

From the sorption isotherm behavior, we know that as the moisture content decreases, the ERH generally
increases. This means, as the moisture content drops from 25% to 15%, the ERH is expected to rise.
Using empirical data or the sorption isotherm curve for this material, we can estimate the ERH at 15% moisture
content. Based on typical isotherm behavior:

Final Answer
The ERH at 15% moisture content is 70%.

Problem 20
 368

During a drying process, the equilibrium moisture content of a sample at 40°C is 10%. The material is at 85%
relative humidity. Using the sorption isotherm data, estimate the moisture content of the material.
Required: Moisture content at 85% relative humidity.
Solution:

The sorption isotherm describes the relationship between the moisture content of a material and the equilibrium
relative humidity (ERH) at a specific temperature. Given the following:
The equilibrium moisture content at 40°C is 10% when the relative humidity is 100%.
The material is at 85% relative humidity.
From the sorption isotherm data, we typically expect the moisture content to be higher at lower relative
humidity (as the material adsorbs more moisture to reach equilibrium). Using the isotherm curve for this
material at 40°C, we find that:
At 85% relative humidity, the moisture content is approximately 12%.
This estimation comes from the sorption isotherm data for the material, where we correlate the 85% RH with
the moisture content at that RH.

Final Answer
The moisture content of the material at 85% relative humidity is approximately 12%.

Problem 21
 369

A fruit slice has a moisture content of 20% wb at 25°C. On a desorption isotherm chart at 25°C, this
corresponds to an equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) of 50%. If the surrounding air RH is 30% at the same
temperature, will the fruit gain or lose moisture? Briefly explain and calculate the driving potential (difference
in ERH).
Given:
 Product ERH at 20%
 wb = 50%
 Air RH = 30%

Required:
Direction of moisture transfer and ERH difference
Solution:
If product ERH (50%) > air RH (30%), the product has higher moisture potential and will lose moisture
to the air.
Driving potential = ERH_product - RH_air
= 50% - 30%
= 20%

Answer: The fruit will lose moisture (desorb)

Driving potential = 20% points.
 370

Problem 22
A dried corn sample has a moisture content of 15% (wet basis) when stored at 30°C. If the corresponding
equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) from a sorption isotherm chart is 55%, what will happen to the corn if the
storage room air has a relative humidity of 70%?
Given:
 Moisture content of corn = 15% wb
 Product ERH = 55%
 Air RH = 70%

Required:
Determine whether the corn will gain or lose moisture.
Find the difference in relative humidity (driving potential)
Solution:
If air RH (70%) > product ERH (55%), the air has higher moisture potential. Therefore, moisture will move
from the air to the product — the corn will gain moisture (adsorption).
Driving potential = RHair – ERHproduct
= 70% – 55%
= 15 percentage points

Answer: The corn will gain moisture from the air (adsorption).
Driving potential = 15% RH difference.
 371

Problem 23
A metal plate 5 mm thick is exposed on both sides to air at 25 °C with a convective heat transfer coefficient of
30 W/m²·K. The inner surfaces of the plate are maintained at 150 °C. Determine the steady-state heat transfer
rate per square meter of surface.
Given:
Tₛ = 150 °C
T∞ = 25 °C
h = 30 W/m²·K
Two sides exposed
Required:
Total heat transfer rate, q (W/m²)
Solution:
For convection on both sides:

q=2 h(T s −T ∞ )q=2(30)(150−25)=60(125)=7,500 W/m²

Final Answer:
q = 7.5 × 10³ W/m²

Problem 24
 372

A hot gas stream at 200 °C flows over a wet surface at 25 °C with a convective mass transfer coefficient of
0.015 m/s. The partial pressure of vapor at the surface is 3.17 kPa and in the bulk gas 1.2 kPa. Determine the
mass flux of water vapor from the surface.
Given:
Tg = 200 °C
Tₛ = 25 °C
hm = 0.015 m/s
pvₛ = 3.17 kPa
pv∞ = 1.2 kPa
R = 8.314 J/mol·K
Mw = 18 g/mol = 0.018 kg/mol
P = 101.3 kPa
Required:
Mass flux, Ṅ (kg/m²·s)
Solution:
Assume ideal gas:
3
P 101.3× 10
C= = =40.9 mol/m³
RT 8.314(298)
Mole-fraction difference:
p v ,s −p v ,∞ 3.17−1.2
Δ y= = =0.0194
P 101.3
Molar flux:
N=hm Δ yC=0.015 (0.0194)(40.9)=0.0119 mol/m²-s

Mass flux:
'' −4
ṁ =N × M w =0.0119 × 0.018=2.14 ×10 kg/m²-s

Final Answer:
ṁ″ = 2.14 × 10⁻⁴ kg/m²·s

Problem 25

At 25°C, a powder shows m₀ = 0.10 kg/kg and C = 7. Compute the equilibrium moisture content when a w =
0.40 using the BET equation.
 373

Given: (Gichau et al., 2019)

m₀ = 0.10 kg/kg
C=7
aw = 0.40
Required:
Compute the equilibrium moisture
Solution:
m = (kg/kg, dry basis)
0.10 x 7 x 0.40
m=
( 1−0.40 )(1+ (7−1 ) x 0.40)
m = 0.1373
 374

Problem 26
Estimate equilibrium moisture for m₀ = 0.09 kg/kg, C = 5, K = 0.85, and aw = 0.50.
Given: (Gichau et al., 2019)
m₀ = 0.09 kg/kg
C=5
K = 0.85
aw = 0.50
Required:
Estimate equilibrium moisture
Solution:
m = (kg/kg, dry basis)
0. .9 x 5 x 0.85 x 0.50
m=
( 1−0.425 ) (1−0.425+2.125)
m = 0.123
 375

Problem 27
A batch of dried banana chips is stored at 25°C and 60% relative humidity.
From the sorption isotherm data, the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of banana chips at these conditions is
10% (dry basis). If the banana chips are later stored in an environment with 80% relative humidity at the same
temperature, estimate the new equilibrium moisture content, assuming a linear relationship between relative
humidity and moisture content in this range.
Given: (Kumar and Karim 2008)
∘
 T =25 C
 RH 1=60 % , EMC1=10 % (dry basis)

 RH 2=80 %

 Assume linear relation between RH and EMC in this small range

Required:
1. Equilibrium moisture content at 80% RH (EMC2)

2. Change in moisture content (ΔEMC)

Solution:

EMC2 RH2 RH 2
= EMC2=EMC1 ×
EMC1 RH1 RH 1

80
EMC2=10 % × =10 ×1.333=13.33 %
60
Δ EMC=13.33 %−10 %=3.33 %
 376

Problem 28
Corn kernels are stored at 30°C and 70% relative humidity (RH).
From experimental sorption isotherm data, the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) at these conditions is 12%
(dry basis). When the kernels are transferred to a drying chamber with 40% relative humidity at the same
temperature, they begin losing moisture.
Given: (Gabas et. al., 1999)
 Product: Corn kernels

 Temperature, T =30∘ C

 RH 1=70 % , EMC1=12 %

 RH 2=40 %

 Assume linear relationship between RH and EMC

Required:
1. The new equilibrium moisture content (EMC₂) at 40% RH
2. The percentage of moisture removed from the kernels
Solution:

EMC2 RH2 RH 2
= EMC2=EMC1 ×
EMC1 RH1 RH 1

40
EMC2=12 × =12 ×0.571=6.85 %
70
5.15
Moisture removed=EMC1−EMC2=12−6.85=5.15 %Percentage removed= × 100=42.9 %
12
 377

Problem 29
Using the GAB sorption isotherm, estimate the equilibrium moisture content (EMC)
of a dried fruit product (dry-basis, kg water / kg dry solids) when stored at water
activity aw = 0.75. Use the GAB parameters: monolayer moisture m 0 =
0.085 kg/kg (db), C =10, and K = 0.90.
Given: Required:
m0 = 0.085 kg/kg (db) EMC (kg water / kg dry solids) — dry
C = 10 basis.
K = 0.90 Convert EMC to wet basis (kg water / kg
aw = 0.75 total, % w.b.).
Solution:

m o CK aw
m ( aw ) =
( 1−K aw ) ( 1−K aw +CK aw )

0.085 × 10× 0.90 ×0.75

m ( aw ) =
( 1−0.90 ( 0.75 ) ) ( 1−0.90 ( 0.75 ) +10 ( 0.90 ) ( 0.75 ) )

m ( aw ) =0.2496 kg water /kg dry solids

m 0.2496
X= = =0.2000
1+ m 1+0.2496

X =0.200 kg water /kg total=20 % w . b

 378

Problem 30
Using the BET sorption isotherm, estimate the equilibrium moisture content (EMC)
of a powdered ingredient at water activity a w = 0.20. Use BET parameters: monolayer
moisture mm = 0.080 kg/kg (db) and constant C = 15.
Given: Required:
mm = 0.080 kg/kg (db) EMC (kg water / kg dry solids) — dry
C = 15 basis.
aw = 0.20 Convert EMC to wet basis (% w.b.).
Solution:

mo C a w
m ( aw ) =
( 1−a w ) ( 1+ ( C−1 ) aw )

0.08 ×15 ×0.20

m ( aw ) =
(1−0.20 ) ( 1+ ( 15−1 ) (0.2) )

m ( aw ) =0.07895 kg water /kg dry solids

m 0.07895
X= = =0.0732
1+ m 1+0.07895

¿ 0.0732 kg water /kg total=7.32 %

 379

Problem 31
At 30°C, a sample of dried tamarind follows the Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) model with
parameters: M₀ = 0.052 kg H₂O/kg dry solid, C = 10.5, K = 0.86. Determine the equilibrium moisture content
when water activity aw= 0.65

Given:
MO = 0.052
C = 10.5
K = 0.86
aw = 0.65
M=?

Solution:
❑
M o C K aw (GAB Equation)
M=
(1−K aw )(1−K aw + CK aw )

Substitute:
❑
(0.052 x 10.5 x 0.86 x 0.65)
M=
(1−0.86 x 0.65)[1−(0.86 x 0.65)+(10.5 x 0.86)]

M =0.110 kg water /kg dry solid

Problem 32
 380

A dried banana chip has the following BET constants at 25°C: Mo= O.O41 Kg H2O / kg dry solid, C=10.5.
Determine the equilibrium moisture content when the water activity (aₐ) is 0.35.

Given:
MO = 0.041
C = 10.5
aw = 0.35
M=?

Solution:
❑ (BET Equation)
M o Caw
M=
(1−aw)[1+(C−1)aw]

Solution the known values:

❑
(0.041)(10.5)(0.35)
M=
(1−0.35)[1+(10.5−1) 0.35]

❑
0.151
M=
(0.65)[4.325]
M =0.056 kg water /kg dry solid
 381

Problem 33
Using BET isotherm:
M = (M0 * C * aw) / ((1 – aw)(1 – aw + C*aw))
Given: M0 = 0.06, C = 18, aw = 0.35
Required: Determine monolayer moisture content and sorption region.
Solution:
M = 0.0837 dry basis
Since M > M0, sample is in multimolecular region.
 382

Problem 34
Data were collected at 25°C: Ce (mg/L): 10, 20, 40, 60, 100, Qe (mg/g): 4.0, 6.8, 10.5, 12.5, 14.0
Required :
(a) Using the linearized forms, determine the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm parameters.
(b) Identify which isotherm best fits the data and justify numerically.
(c)
Using the best-fit isotherm, predict qe when Ce = 30 mg/L.
(d) Compute the separation factor RL for an initial concentration Ci = 50 mg/L and interpret if adsorption is
avorable.
Solution:
Langmuir Isotherm:
Regression of Ce/qe vs Ce yields:
Qmax ≈ 19.42 mg/g
B ≈ 0.02752 L/mg
Freundlich Isotherm:
Regression of ln(qe) vs ln(Ce) yields:
Kf ≈ 1.216
N ≈ 1.797
Model Fit Comparison:
SSE(Langmuir) ≈ 0.3723
SSE(Freundlich) ≈ 4.8595als.
→ Langmuir fits significantly better.
Prediction at Ce = 30 mg/L:
Qe ≈ 8.78 mg/g using Langmuir equation.
Separation Factor:
RL = 1 / (1 + b * Ci)
RL ≈ 0.421 → Favorable adsorption.
 383

Problem 35
For a food material, the relationship between equilibrium moisture content (X e) and water activity (aw) follows:
Xe = 0.1 * aw / (1 – aw). If aw = 0.6, compute Xe.

Required:
Find the equilibrium moisture content Xe.

Solution:

Xe = 0.1 * 0.6 / (1 - 0.6)

= 0.06 / 0.4
= 0.15 g water/g dry solid
 384

Problem 36
A product follows the model Xe = 0.2 * aw / (1 – aw). Find the moisture content at aw = 0.5.

Required:
Determine Xe.

Solution:

Xe = 0.2 * 0.5 / (1 - 0.5)

= 0.1 / 0.5

= 0.2 g water/g dry solid

 385

Problem 37
M o C K aw
The Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) model is: EMC = . For a food powder,
( 1−K a w ) (1 K a w +C K aw )
the GAB parameters are Mo = 0.05 kg water/kg d.m., C = 15.0, and K = 0.90. Calculate the Equilibrium
Moisture Content (EMC) in % d.b. when the water activity (aw) is 0.55.

Given:
Mo = 0.05
C = 15.0
K = 0.90
aw = 0.55

Required:
Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) in % d.b.

Solutions:
M o C K aw
EMC =
( 1−K a w ) (1 K a w +C K aw )

(0.05)(15.0)(0.90)(0.55)
EMC =
[ 1−( 0.90 ) ( 0.55 ) ] ¿
EMC = 0.0928 × 100%

EMC = 9.28%
 386

Problem 38
Find the moisture content (MC) in g water per 100 g dry solid sample, using the given data below.

Given:
Temp, T = 40 °C
Monolayer Moisture Content: Mo = 0.8 (g/100g)
Water Activity: aw = 0.60
GAB Constant: C = 6
GAB Constant (related to multilayer): K = 0.95

Required:
Moisture Content in g water per 100 g dry solid (MC)

Solutions:
M o C K aw
M C=
( 1−K a w ) (1 K aw +C K a w )

(0.8)(6)(0.95)(0.6)
M C=
( 1−( 0.95 )( 0.60 ) ) (1(0.95)(0.60)+ ( 6 ) (0.95)(0.60))
M C =1.59 g water per 100 g dry solids
 387

Problem 39
A batch of AB material is being dried in an environment with a relative humidity of 30% at 25°C. The sorption
isotherm for AB material follows the Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) model with parameters: m0 =
0.05 kg water/kg dry solid, C=10, and k=0.7. Calculate the equilibrium moisture content of the material.

Given:
 Relative humidity, h = 0.30
 Temperature, T = 25°C (implied in parameters)
 GAB parameters:
o m0 = 0.05 kg water/kg dry
o C=10
o k=0.7

Required: Equilibrium moisture content, me in kg water/kg dry solid.

Solution:
The GAB equation is:

𝑚0𝐶𝑘ℎ
𝑚𝑒 =
(1 − 𝑘ℎ)(1 − 𝑘ℎ + 𝐶𝑘ℎ)
Substitute the given values:

kh = 0.7 × 0.30 = 0.21

1 – kh = 1 − 0.21 = 0.79
Ckh = 10 × 0.21 = 2.1
0.05 𝑥 2.1 0.105
𝑚𝑒 = =
(0.79)(0.70 + 2.1) (0.79)(2.89)
Calculate the denominator:

0.79 × 2.89 = 2.2831

𝑚𝑒 = = 0.04598 𝑘𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦

0.105

2.2831 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑

𝒎𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟗𝟖 𝒌𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓/𝒌𝒈 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅

 388

Problem 40
AB material with an initial moisture content of 0.25 kg water/kg dry solid is dried in an air stream with a
relative humidity of 20% at 40°C. The equilibrium moisture content at these conditions is 0.04 kg water/kg
dry solid. The drying rate in the constant rate period is 0.01 kg water/(kg dry solid·min). If the critical
moisture content is 0.15 kg water/kg dry solid, calculate the time required to dry the material from initial
moisture content to a final moisture content of 0.06 kg water/kg dry solid. Assume that the falling rate
period is linear from critical to equilibrium moisture content.
Given:
 Initial moisture content, mi = 0.25 kg water/kg dry solid
 Final moisture content, mf = 0.06 kg water/kg dry solid
 Critical moisture content, mc = 0.15 kg water/kg dry solid
 Equilibrium moisture content, me = 0.04 kg water/kg dry solid
 Drying rate in constant rate period

Required: Drying time, t in minutes.

Solution:
The drying process consists of two periods: constant rate period and falling rate period.
1. Constant rate period (from mi to mc):

t = t1 + t2 = 10 + 18.7517 = 28.7517 mins

t = 28.75 minutes
Problem 41

A batch of 200 kg dried fruit has 25% wat basis moisture. The storage EMC is 15%. How much water (kg) will

it lose to reach equilibrium.

 389

Given:

m = 200 kg

MCwb = 25%

EMC = 15%

Required:

Water lost (kg)

Solution:

Dry solids = m (1 – MC) = 200 kg (1 – 0.25) = 150 kg

final water mass=dry solids x

EMC
1−EMC
=( 150 kg ) (0.15
1−0.15 )
=26.47 kg

Initial water = m x MC = 200 kg x 0.25 = 50 kg

Water lost = initial water – final water = 50 kg – 26.47 kg

Water lost = 23.53 kg

Problem 42

A snack powder at equilibrium with aw = 25% has a GAB-predicted dry-basis EMC = 0.14 kg water/ kg dry

solids. If you have 200 kg of the product at that EMC, what is the wet-basis moisture and the actual mass of

water and dry solids in the 200 kg lot?

Given:
 390

aw = 25%

EMCdb = 0.14 kg water/ kg dry solids (dry basis)

MT = 200 kg (wet)

Required:

Wet basis moisture (kg water/kg wet), and mass of water (mw) and dry solids (mds).

Solution:

EMC db 0.14
EMC wb = x 100= x 100
1+ EMC db 1+ 0.14

EMC wb =12.28 %

MT 200
mds= =
1+ EMC db 1+0.14

mds=175.44 kg

mw =M T −mds=2 OO kg−175.44 kg

mw =24.56 kg
 391

Problem 43
A food technologist is studying the moisture sorption behavior of powdered milk at 30°C. The experimental
data show the following relationship between equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) and equilibrium moisture
content (EMC) (dry basis):
ERH (%) 20 40 60 80

EMC (% db) 2.1 4.6 9.8 18.5

Using this data, estimate the equilibrium moisture content at 50% ERH using interpolation.
Given:
Temperature=30 %

ERH (%) 20 40 60 80

EMC (% db) 2.1 4.6 9.8 18.5

Required:
Find EMC at 50% ERH
Solution:
For linear interpolation between two known points:

(ERH x −ERH 1)(EMC 2−EMC 2)

EMC x =EMC 1 +
(ERH 2−ERH 1 )

Interpolation between ERH = 40% and 60%:

(50−40)(9.8−4.6)
EMC 50=4.6+
(60−40)

10(5.2)
EMC 50=4.6+
20

EMC 50=7.2 %(dry basis)

Problem 44
 392

At 25°C, a sample of dried banana powder follows the Guggenheim–Anderson–de Boer (GAB) model with
parameters: M 0=0.045 kg H 2 O/kg dry solid , C=11.2, and K=0.84.

Determine the equilibrium moisture content when the water activity a ω=0.60 .

Given:
M 0=0.045 kg H 2 O/kg dry solid

C=11.2
K=0.84
a ω=0.60

Required:
Find equilibrium moisture content, M

Solution:
The GAB Equation is:

M 0 CK aω
M=
(1−K aω )(1−K a ω+CK a ω)

(0.045)(11.2)(0.84)(0.60)
M=
( 1−0.84 ×0.60 ) [1− ( 0.84 ×0.60 )+ ( 11.2×0.84 × 0.60 ) ]

0.254
M=
(0.496)(6.1408)​

0.254
M=
3.046

M =0.083 kg water /kg dry solid

 393

Problem 45
The moisture content (X) of a starch product at a specific temperature (T) can be modeled using the GAB
equation. Given the following parameters: Xm = 0.06 (kg water/ kg dry solid), C = 15, K = 0.85. Calculate the
moisture content (X) of the starch when the water activity (aw) is 0.60.
Note: The GAB equation is:

X m CK aw
X=
(1−K a w )(1−K aw +CK aw )

Given
 Xm: 0.06
 C: 15
 K: 0.85
 Water activity (aw): 0.60

Required
 Moisture content (X).
Solution
X m CK aw
X=
(1−K a w )(1−K aw +CK aw )

(0.06)(15)(0.85)(0.60)
X=
(1−0.85)(0.60)¿ ¿
0.06 x 15 x 0.85 x 0.60 = 0.459
Kaw: 0.85 X 0.60 = 0.51
CKaw: 15 x 0.51 = 7.65
Denominator = (1- 0.51) (1- 0.51 + 7.65)
Denominator = (0.49) (8.14)
Denominator = 3.9886
0.459
X=
3.9886
X =0.1151 kg water /kg dry solid X =0.1151kg water /kg dry solid
Problem 46
The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) equation is used to model water vapor adsorption for a food material. At a
temperature of 30∘ C, the monolayer moisture content (Xm) is 0.05 kg/kg dry solid, and the BET constant (C) is
12. Calculate the water activity (aw) that corresponds to a moisture content (X) of 0.15 kg/kg dry solid
 394

Note: The BET equation is:

X m C aw
X=
(1−aw )(1+(C−1)aw )

Given
 X: 0.15
 Xm: 0.05
 C: 12

Required
 Water activity (aw).

Solution
2
11a w −6 a w −1=0

6+ √ 80
a w=
22
a w ≈a0.6793
≈ 0.6793
w
 395

Heat and Mass Transfer

Problem 1

Sweet potato slices are dried in hot air at 60°C. The air velocity is 2 m/s, and the convective heat transfer
coefficient is 15 W/m²·K. If the surface temperature of the slices is 45°C, find the heat flux.

Given:

h = 15 W/m²·K

T_air = 60°C

T_surface = 45°C

Required:

Heat flux (q)

Solution:

q = h (T_air - T_surface) = 15(60 - 45) = 225 W/m².

 396

Problem 2

In a drying chamber, the mass transfer coefficient is 0.02 m/s. The vapor pressure of water at the surface is 2.5
kPa, and in the air it is 1.5 kPa. Calculate the mass flux.

Given:

k_y = 0.02 m/s

P_surface = 2.5 kPa

P_air = 1.5 kPa

T = 350 K

R = 8.314 J/mol·K

Required:

Mass flux (N)

Solution:

N = k_y × (P_surface - P_air) / (R × T)

N = 0.02 × (1000) / (8.314 × 350) = 0.0069 mol/m²·s.

 397

Problem 3
A moist slab has exposed surface area A = 0.5 m². Air flowing over the slab provides a mass transfer coefficient
kc = 0.0020 m/s for water vapor. The surface is saturated at the slab temperature and has concentration C s =
0.025 kg/m³ while bulk air has C∞ = 0.010 kg/m³. Assuming constant k c, estimate the drying mass flux and how
long it will take to remove 0.15 kg of water from the slab.
Given:
A = 0.5 m², k_c = 0.0020 m/s
Cs = 0.025 kg/m³, C∞ = 0.010 kg/m³
Amount to remove m = 0.15 kg
Required:
Compute mass flux (kg/m²·s), drying rate (kg/s), and drying time (s and minutes).
Solution:
Mass flux j = kc (Cs - C∞) = 3.0000e-05 kg/m²·s.
Drying rate dm/dt = j·A = 1.5000e-05 kg/s => time = m/(dm/dt) = 10000 s = 166.67 min.
 398

Problem 4
During drying, evaporation of water from a product requires latent heat. A sample loses water at the constant
mass flux found in Problem 7. If the latent heat of vaporization is 2.45×10^6 J/kg, estimate the cooling power
(W) required to supply this evaporation heat. If convective heat transfer supplies the energy with h = 25
W/m²·K and effective area 0.5 m² and (Tsurface - Tair) = 15 K, check if convective heat can supply required energy.
Given:
Use dm/dt from previous problem: dm/dt = j·A (use j from Problem 7)
Lv = 2.45e6 J/kg
h = 25 W/m²·K, A = 0.5 m², ΔT = 15 K
Required:
Compute evaporation power Pevap and convective power Pconv; comment if convection suffices.
Solution:
Evaporation power required Pevap = dm/dt * L_v = 36.75 W.
Convective heat available Pconv = h A ΔT = 187.5 W.
Comparison: convection suffices to supply evaporation heat.
 399

Problem 5
Air at 50°C and 10% relative humidity passes over a wet surface at 30°C. The convective mass transfer
coefficient is 0.02 kg/m²·s, and the surface area is 2 m². Find the rate of moisture evaporation if the humidity
ratio difference between air and surface is 0.01 kg/kg dry air.
(Adapted from Geankoplis, 2018).

Given:
Mass transfer coefficient, h_m = 0.02 kg/m²·s
Area = 2 m², ΔY = 0.01 kg/kg

Required:
Rate of evaporation, N

Solution:
N = h_m × A × ΔY = 0.02 × 2 × 0.01 = 0.0004 kg/s

Final Answer:
Rate of evaporation = 0.0004 kg/s

Problem 6
 400

During drying, air at 60°C and 40% relative humidity flows over a wet slab. The heat transfer coefficient is 15
W/m²·K, and the latent heat of vaporization is 2400 kJ/kg. If the surface temperature is 40°C and the air
temperature is 60°C, estimate the mass flux of moisture.
(Based on Mujumdar, 2014).

Given:
h = 15 W/m²·K, ΔT = 20°C, λ = 2400 kJ/kg = 2.4×10⁶ J/kg

Required:
Mass flux, N

Solution:
N = (h × ΔT) / λ = (15 × 20) / (2.4×10⁶) = 1.25×10⁻⁴ kg/m²·s

Final Answer:
Mass flux of moisture = 1.25×10⁻⁴ kg/m²·s

Problem 7
The wet product on the flat plate has an area of 0.7 m2 is dried by air. The surface moisture concentration has a
value of 0.02 kg water/ m3, while the bulk air MC is C ∞ = 0.0055 kg/ m3. The coefficient convective mass
 401

transfer is equal to 0.03 kg/ (m3.s). Assume steady convective mass transfer. Find the mass removal rate (kg/s)
from the surface.
Given:
AREA: A = 0.7 m2
CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT: h m = 0.03 kg/ (m 3.s)
SURFACE MOISTURE CONCENTRATION: C s = 0.02 kg water/ m 3
BULK MOISTURE CONTENT: C ∞ = 0.0055 kg/ m3.

Required:
Find the mass removal rate (kg/s) from the surface

Solution:
1. Find first the value of C s - C ∞.

m = h m × A × (C s - C ∞)
C s - C ∞ = 0.02 – 0.0055

C s - C ∞ = 0.0145 kg water/ m3

2. Find mass flux.

m = h m × A × (C s - C ∞)
m = 0.03 × 0.7 × 0.0145
m = 3.045 ×10−4 ≈ 0.0003045

Problem 8
Find the area of a metal plate where the wet product is. The surface moisture concentration has a value of 0.04
kg water/ m3, while the bulk air MC is C ∞ = 0.006 kg/ m3. The coefficient convective mass transfer is equal to
 402

0.05 kg/ (m3.s). Mass flux is equal to 0.00050. Assume steady convective mass transfer. Find the mass removal
rate (kg/s) from the surface.
Given:
Mass flux: m = 0.00050
Convective mass transfer coefficient: h m = 0.05 kg/ (m 3.s)
Surface moisture concentration: C s = 0.04 kg water/ m 3
Bulk moisture content: C ∞ = 0.006 kg/ m3.

Required:
Find the area of metal plate.
Solution:
1. Find first the value of C s - C ∞.

m = h m × A × (C s - C ∞)
C s - C ∞ = 0.04 – 0.006

C s - C ∞ = 0.034 kg water/ m3

2. Find mass flux.

m = h m × A × (C s - C ∞)
m hm × A ×(C s−C ∞ )
=
hm ×(C s−C ∞) hm ×(C s−C ∞)

m
A=
hm ×(C s−C ∞)
0.00050
A=
0.05 ×(0.034)

A = 0.29 ≈ 0.30 m2

Problem 9
 403

A long pipe of 0.6 m outside diameter is buried in earth with axis at a depth of 1.8 m. the surface temperature
of pipe and earth are 950 C and 250 C respectively. Calculate the heat loss from the pipe per unit length. The
conductivity of earth is 0.51W/mK.

Given:
d = 0.6
L = 1m
Tp = 95oC
Te = 25oC
D = 1.8m
k = 0.51 W/mK

Required:

Heat loss from the pipe (Q/L)

Solution:

r=d/2
r = 0.6/2
r = 0.3m

Q/L = kS (Tp-Te)

where S = conduction shape factor

2πL
S=
ln (2D/r)

2π(1)
S=
ln (2(1.8) /0.3)

S = 2.528m
Q/L = 0.51 x 2.528 (95-25)
Q/L = 90.25W/m
Final Answer = Q/L = 90.25 W/m
 404

Problem 10
The temperature at the inner and outer surfaces of a boiler wall made of 25 mm thick steel and covered with an
insulating material of 8 mm thickness are 250°C and 80°C respectively. If the thermal conductivities of steel
and insulating material are 50 W/m°C and 0.15 W/m°C, determine the rate of heat flow through the boiler
wall per unit area.

Given:
Ls = 25mm
Li = 8mm
ks = 50 W/moC
ki = 0.15 W/moC
Tinner = 250oC
Touter = 80oC

Required:
Rate of heat flow per unit area, Q (W/m2)

Solution:

Step 1: Thermal resistances Step 3: Heat flux per unit area

Steel layer: Q = (Tinner – Touter) / Rtotal

Rs = Ls/ks Q = (250 -80) / 0.0583
Rs = 0.025/50
Rs = 0.0005 m2 oC/W Q = 3,160 W/m2

Insulation Layer
Ri = Li/ki
Ri = 0.008/0.15
Ri = 0.0533m2 oC/W

Step 2: Total Resistance

Rtotal = Rs + Ri
Rtotal = 0.0005 + 0.05333
Rtotal = 0.0538 m2 oC/W

Final Answer: Q = 3,160

W/m2

Problem 11
 405

A thin-layer dryer processes 200 kg of fruit (wet basis) per hour. Initial moisture = 60% w.b. (i.e., 0.60). Final
moisture = 15% w.b. Latent heat Lv =2257 kJ/kg . Neglect sensible heating and heat losses; steady operation.
Given:
Feed = 200 kg/h, X i =0.60
X f =0.15
Lv =2257 kJ/kg

Required:
(a) Mass of water removed (kg/h).
(b) Thermal power required (kW) for evaporation (ideal).

Solution:
ms =200(1−0.60)=80 kg/h .
m m 80
∏ ¿=1− sX =
0.85
=94.1176 kg/h .¿
f

Water in product = 94.1176−80=14.1176 kg/h .

Water removed = feed water − product water = (200−80)−14.1176=120−14.1176
Water removed =105.8824 kg/h
Convert to kg/s: 0.0294129 kg/s.
Q= ṁwater L v =0.0294129 ×2,257,000=66,375 W=66.38 kW .

Q=66,375 W=66.38 kW

Problem 12
 406

Air-side mass transfer controls drying. For a tray dryer, mass-transfer coefficient
−4
k c =2.0 ×10 kg/ (m²∙s∙(kg water/kg dry air)) . Driving concentration difference Δ C=0.005 kg water/kg dry air
. Exposed area A=10 m² . Steady conditions.
Given:
−4
k c =2.0 ×10 kg/(m²∙s∙(kg/kg))
Δ C=0.005 kg/kg
A=10 m²

Required:
Drying rate (kg/s) and water removed per hour (kg/h).

Solution:
'' −4 −6
ṁ =k c Δ C=2.0 ×10 ×0.005=1.0× 10 kg/(m²∙s) .

Total ṁ= ṁ' ' ⋅ A=1.0 ×10−6 ×10=1.0 ×10−5 kg/s

Per hour: 1.0 ×10−5 × 3600=0.036 kg/h

Problem 13
 407

A thin layer of abrasive material with an initial moisture content of 0.35 kg water/kg dry solid is dried in a hot
air stream at 60°C and 40% relative humidity. The mass transfer coefficient for water vapor from the material
surface to air is k c =0.002 m/s, and the surface area of the material is 1 m². The air density is ρair =1.2 kg/m³ .
Assuming the air behaves ideally and the drying occurs under steady-state conditions, calculate the rate of
moisture removal (kg/s) from the material.
Given:
Initial moisture content: M i=0.35 kg water/kg dry solid
Air temperature: 60°C
Air relative humidity: 40% → RH =0.4
Mass transfer coefficient: k c =0.002 m/s
Surface area: A=1 m²
Air density: ρair =1.2 kg/m³
Required:
Rate of moisture removal ṁw (kg/s)
Formulas:
For mass transfer under steady-state:
ṁw =k c A (C s−C ∞)

Where:
C s= concentration of water vapor at the material surface (kg/m³)

C ∞= concentration of water vapor in bulk air (kg/m³)

Using ideal gas approximation for water vapor:

Pv M w
C=
RT
Where Pv is partial pressure, M w is molar mass of water, R is universal gas constant.
Solution:
Assume saturation pressure of water at 60°C: Psat ≈ 19.9 kPa

Surface vapor pressure: Ps =Psat=19.9 kPa

Air vapor pressure: P∞ =RH ⋅ Psat =0.4 ×19.9=7.96 kPa

Convert to concentration (ideal gas, R=8.314 J/mol\cdotpK , T =333 K )
3
(19.9−7.96)×10 11,940
C s−C ∞= ≈ ≈ 4.31 mol/m³
8.314 ×333 2767.3
Convert moles to kg: 4.31 ×18 kg/mol ≈ 77.6 kg/m³(note: simplified estimate)
Compute rate of moisture removal:
 408

ṁw =k c A (C s−C ∞)=0.002× 1× 77.6 ≈ 0.155 kg/s

ṁw ≈ 0.155 kg/s

Approximately 0.155 kg of water per second is removed from the AB material by the hot air.

Problem 14
A layer of abrasive material is being dried by hot air at 70°C and 30% relative humidity. The convective heat
transfer coefficient is h=50 W/m² ⋅ K, and the mass transfer coefficient is k c =0.003 m/s . The latent heat of
 409

vaporization of water is Lv =2257 kJ/kg . The material surface area is 1.5 m². Assuming steady-state drying,
calculate the heat flux required to evaporate water from the material.
Given:
Air temperature: 70°C
Relative humidity: 30% → RH =0.3
Convective heat transfer coefficient: h=50 W/m² ⋅ K
Mass transfer coefficient: k c =0.003 m/s
Latent heat: Lv =2257 kJ/kg
Surface area: A=1.5 m²
Required:
Heat flux Q (W) for evaporation
Formulas:
Mass transfer rate:
ṁw =k c A (C s−C ∞)
Heat required for evaporation:
Q= ṁw ⋅ Lv Solution:

Assume water vapor concentration difference: C s−C ∞ ≈ 0.05 kg/m³ (typical for hot air drying at moderate RH)
Compute mass transfer rate:
ṁw =k c A (C s−C ∞)=0.003 ×1.5 ×0.05=0.000225 kg/s
Convert Lv to W: Lv =2257 kJ/kg=2,257,000 J/kg
Compute heat flux:
Q= ṁw ⋅ Lv =0.000225× 2,257,000 ≈ 508 W Q ≈ 508 W

Problem 15

Air velocity v = 2.0 m/s, area A = 0.05 m², convective coefficient h = 20 W·m ⁻²·K ⁻¹, T_air = 60°C, T_surface
= 40°C.
 410

Required:
Calculate the convective heat transfer rate Q̇ .

Solution:

𝑄̇ = ℎ 𝐴 (𝑇_𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑇_𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒) = 20 × 0.05 × (60 − 40) = 20 𝑊

Problem 16
Mass transfer coefficient k_y = 0.010 m/s, surface humidity Y_s = 0.025 kg H₂O/kg dry air, bulk humidity Y =
0.010.

Required:
 411

Find mass flux N_A (kg H₂O·m⁻²·s⁻¹).

Solution:

𝑁_𝐴 = 𝑘_𝑦 (𝑌_𝑠 − 𝑌) = 0.010 × (0.025 − 0.010) = 1.5 × 10⁻⁴ 𝑘𝑔 · 𝑚⁻² · 𝑠⁻¹

Problem 17

In a cabinet dryer, warm air at 55°C flows over slices of sweet potato. The convective heat transfer coefficient
is measured at 18 W/m²·K, and the surface temperature of the slices is 42°C. Calculate the convective heat flux
from the air to the product surface.
 412

Given:
h = 18 W/m²·K
T_air = 55°C
T_surface = 42°C
Required:
Convective heat flux q'' (W/m²)
Solution:
Use Newton’s law of cooling:

q'' = h (T_air − T_surface)

q'' = 18 × (55 − 42)
q'' = 18 × 13
q'' = 234 W/m²
Answer:

q'' = 234 W/m²

Problem 18

Air enters a tray dryer at 35°C and 70 kJ/kgda and exits at 85 kJ/kgda. Determine heat absorbed.
 413

Given:
Inlet enthalpy = 70 kJ/kgda
Outlet enthalpy = 85 kJ/kgda
Required:
1. Heat absorbed per kg dry air
Solution:
Δh = 85 – 70 = 15 kJ/kgda

Answer: 15 kJ/kgda absorbed.

Problem 19
 414

In a drying system, 1000 kg of wet material is to be dried by hot air at 80°C. The heat transfer coefficient is 10
W/m²·K, and the material has a heat capacity of 2.5 kJ/kg·K. Determine the amount of heat required to dry the
material.
Required: Heat required to dry the material.
Solution:
The amount of heat required can be calculated using

Q = m × C × ΔT

Where:

Q : The heat energy (in joules, J)

m : The mass of the substance (in kilograms, kg)
C : The specific heat capacity of the substance (in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius, J/kg·°C)
Δ T : The change in temperature (in degrees Celsius, °C)

Q = m × C × ΔT

Q = (1000 kg) (2.5 kJ/kg·K) (80°C - 25°C) = 1000

Q = 1000(2.5) (55) =137,500 kJ

Problem 20
 415

A continuous drying system operates with air at a temperature of 70°C and relative humidity of 50%. The
drying rate is measured at 0.15 kg/s. Determine the mass of moisture removed per hour.
Required: Mass of moisture removed per hour.
Solution:
The mass of moisture removed per hour can be calculated as:

Mass removed=Drying rate×Time

Where:
Mass removed is the amount of moisture removed (in kilograms, kg).
Drying rate is the rate at which moisture is removed (in kilograms per second, kg/s).
Time is the time over which the drying process occurs (in seconds, s).

Mass removed=Drying rate×Time

Mass removed = (0.15 kg/s) (3600 s) = 540 kg.

Problem 21
 416

In a tray dryer, air at 45°C and 15% RH passes over wet grain. If the convective heat transfer coefficient is 20
W/m²·K and the grain surface temperature is 35°C, calculate the convective heat flux (W/m²) from the air to the
grain surface (use Tair = 45°C).

Given:
 h = 20 W/m²·K
 Tair = 45°C
 Tsurface = 35°C

Required:
Convective heat flux q'' (W/m²)

Solution:
Newton's law: q'' = h (Tair - Tsurface)
= 20 × (45 - 35)
= 20 × 10
= 200 W/m².

Answer: q'' = 200 W/m²

 417

Problem 22
A thin layer of sliced vegetable evaporates moisture at a rate of 0.002 kg/m²·s under given drying conditions. If
the latent heat of vaporization is 2260 kJ/kg, compute the evaporative heat flux in W/m².

Given:
Mass flux m'' = 0.002 kg/m²·s
Lv = 2260 kJ/kg = 2,260,000 J/kg

Required:
Evaporative heat flux q'' (W/m²)

Solution:
q'' = (m'') (Lv)
= (0.002) (2,260,000)
= 4,520 W/m².

Answer: q'' = 4,520 W/m²

 418

Problem 23
A tray dryer removes moisture from 100 kg of sliced mangoes (initial moisture = 80% wb) to a final moisture
of 15% wb. Determine the mass of water removed and the final dry solid weight.
Given:
mi = 100 kg
Xi = 0.80 (wb)
Xf = 0.15 (wb)
Required:
1. Water removed (kg)
2. Final dry solids (kg)
Solution:
Dry solid basis:
ms =mi (1−X i )=100(1−0.80)=20 kg

Final product weight:

ms 20
mf = = =23.53 kg
1−X f 1−0.15

Water removed:
mw =mi−mf =100−23.53=76.47 kg

Final Answer:
Water removed = 76.47 kg
Dry solids = 20 kg
 419

Problem 24
Air at 60 °C with a humidity ratio of 0.02 kg H₂O/kg dry air is used to dry a product until its outlet humidity
ratio is 0.08 kg H₂O/kg dry air. If 200 kg of dry air per hour is supplied, calculate the moisture removed per
hour.
Given:
ṁair = 200 kg dry air/h
Win = 0.02 kg H₂O/kg dry air
Wout = 0.08 kg H₂O/kg dry air
Required:
Moisture removed per hour (kg H₂O/h)
Solution:

ṁw = ṁair (W out −W ¿ )ṁw =200 (0.08−0.02)=200(0.06)=12 kg H₂O/h

Final Answer:
Moisture removed = 12 kg H₂O per hour

Problem 25
 420

A thin material (2 mm thick) has a thermal diffusivity of 1×10 ⁻⁷ m²/s. Determine the characteristic heating
time.

Given: (Ratti, 2001)

Thickness = 0.002 m
α = 1×10⁻⁷ m²/s
L = 0.001 m
L² = 1×10⁻⁶
Required:
Determine the characteristic heating time.
Solution:
t₍char₎
(1 ×10 ⁻⁶)
t₍char₎ =
(1 ×10 ⁻ ⁷)
t₍char₎ = 10 s
 421

Problem 26
A wet sphere (d = 0.01 m) is exposed to air with Re = 120, Sc = 0.7, and D_AB = 2.5×10⁻⁵ m²/s. Determine kc.
Given: (Ratti, 2001)
d = 0.01 m
Re = 120
Sc = 0.7
DAB = 2.5×10⁻⁵ m²/s
Required:
Determine kc
Solution:
kc (m/s)
Sh = 2 + 0.6×1200.5×0.71/3
Sh = 7.83
−5
7.83 x 2.5 x 10
kc =
(0.01)
kc = 0.0196 m/s
 422

Problem 27
During the drying of green coffee beans, hot air at 60°C and 20% relative humidity passes over the beans in a
drying chamber. Each bean initially contains 55% moisture (wet basis), and the drying process continues until
the bean moisture reaches 12% (wet basis). Assume that during drying, the convective heat transfer coefficient
(h) between air and bean surface is 35 W/m²·K, and the average temperature difference between the air and
bean surface is 20°C. The total surface area of beans in the dryer is 2.5 m², and drying takes 3 hours.
Given: (Sukchai, S., & Kerdpiboon, S. 2012)
 h=35 W/m² K
 A=2.5 m²
 Δ T =20 ° C
 t=3 hours=3 ×3600=10800 s
 Moisture reduction: 55% → 12% (wet basis)
Required:
1. Total heat transferred to the beans during drying.
2. Mass of water evaporated if the total bean mass is 5 kg (wet basis).
Solution:

Q̇=hA Δ T Q̇=35 (2.5)(20)=1750 W

Q=Q̇ × t=1750 × 10800=18,900,000 J=18.9 MJ

Initial water mass=5× 0.55=2.75 kgFinal water mass=5 × 0.12=0.60 kg
Water evaporated=2.75−0.60=2.15 kg
 423

Problem 28
In a small grain dryer, warm air at 50°C passes over corn kernels at 25°C.
The convective heat transfer coefficient between the air and the kernel surface is 28 W/m²·K, and the total
surface area of the kernels is 1.8 m². The heating process lasts for 2 hours.
Given: (Chong et. al., 2008)
 h=28 W/m² K
 A=1.8 m²
 Δ T =50−25=25° C
 t=2 hours=7200 s
Required:
1. The rate of heat transfer (Q̇ ) between the air and corn.
2. The total heat energy (Q) transferred during the process.
Solution:
1. Calculate the rate of heat transfer (Q̇ ):

Q̇=hA Δ T Q̇=(28)(1.8)(25)=1260 W

2. Calculate total heat transferred over 2 hours:

Q=Q̇ × t Q=1260 × 7200=9,072,000 J=9.07 MJ

 424

Problem 29
An infrared emitter behaves approximately like a hot gray surface at 500 K and
irradA wet food product (tray area A = 0.40 m2) is exposed to hot drying air. The

120∘C. The convective heat-transfer coefficient is h = 25 W/(m2⋅K). Assume all

product surface temperature is Ts = 60∘C and the drying air temperature is T∞ =

convective heat transferred to the product surface is used to evaporate water (i.e.,
negligible sensible heating of the product and no conduction limitations). Latent heat
of vaporization at the operating condition may be taken as Lv = 2400 kJ/kg.
Given: Required:
A = 0.40 m2 Evaporation rate m(kg/s)
Ts = 60∘C Time to remove 3.0 kg water (min)
T∞ = 120∘C
h = 25 W/(m2⋅K)
Lv = 2400 kJ/kg = 2,400,000 J/kg
Solution:
Qconv =hA ( T ∞−T s )
Qconv =25(0.40) ( 120−60 )
Qconv =600 W =600 J /s
Qconv 600 J /s −4
m= = =2.50 ×10 kg /s
Lv 2,400,000 J /kg
mreq 3.0
t= = =12,000 s
m 2.50 ×10−4
1min
t=12,000 s × =200 min
60 s
 425

Problem 30
In a drying tunnel grapes are exposed on trays with total exposed area A = 0.60 m2.
The air stream has vapor concentration C∞ = 8.0 g/m3 and the product surface is
approximately saturated at the product temperature; the saturated vapor concentration
at the surface is Cs = 25.0 g/m3. The convective mass-transfer coefficient is k c =
0.020 m/s (relates mass flux to concentration difference: m˙′′= kc (Cs−C∞) with m˙′′ in
kg/(m²·s) when concentrations are in kg/m³). Latent heat of vaporization Lv =
2,430 kJ/kg.
Given: Required:
A = 0.60 m2 Mass flux m˙′′(kg/(m²·s)) and total mass
C∞ = 8.0 g/m3 = 0.0080 kg/m3 rate m˙(kg/s)
Cs = 25.0 g/m3 = 0.0250 kg/m3 Power required Q˙=m˙ Lv (kW)
kc = 0.020 m/s Compare with available heater 1.2 kW
Lv = 2,430 kJ/kg = 2,430,000 J/kg
Solution:
m = {k} rsub {c} left ({C} rsub {s} - {C} rsub {∞} right ) = 0.020 (0.0250 - 0.0080) = 3.40 × {10} ^ {-4} kg/ {m
m=m A = 3.40 × {10} ^ {-4} × 0.60 = 2.04 × {10} ^ {-4} kg/
−4 6
Q=m Lv =2.04 ×10 × 2.43 ×10 =495.7 W ∨0.496 kW
Comparison: available heater power = 1.20 kW; required ≈ 0.496 kW. Therefore the
heater is sufficient to sustain this evaporation rate (it supplies more than needed).
There is surplus power 1.20−0.496 = 0.704 kW available for sensible heating, heat
losses, or to increase drying rate.
 426

Problem 31
Cassava chips are dried in hot air at 55°C. The air moves at a velocity of 1.8 m/s, and the convective heat
transfer coefficient is 12 W/m²·K. If the surface temperature of the chips is 40°C, determine the heat flux.

Given:
h = 12 W/m²·K
Tair = 55°C
Tsurface = 40°C
q=?

Solution:
(Convetion heat transfer
q=h (T air −T surfaceEquation)
)

q=12(55−40)

q=12(15)
q=180 W /m ²

Problem 32
 427

During the drying of banana slices, the mass transfer coefficient is 0.018 m/s. The vapor pressure of water at
the surface of the slices is 2.8 kPa, while the vapor pressure of water in the surrounding air is 1.6 kPa.
Determine the mass flux.

Given:
Ky = 0.018 m/s
Pvs = 2.8 kPa
Pv∞ = 1.6 kPa
NA = ?

Solution:
(Mass transfer Equation)
N A =k y (P vs−P v ∞)

N A =0.018(2.8−1.6)

N A =0.018(1.2)

N A =0.0216 kPa ∙ m/s

 428

Problem 33
Air at 60°C flows over a wet surface with a mass transfer coefficient k y = 0.02 kg/m²·s. The vapor pressure
difference between surface and air is Δp = 1000 Pa. Using gas constant R = 287 J/kg·K and temperature T = 333
K.

Required:
Find the mass flux N (kg/m²·s).

Solution:

N = ky * (Δp / (R * T))

= 0.02 * (1000 / (287 * 333))

= 0.02 * 0.0105

= 2.1×10⁻⁴ kg/m²·s
 429

Problem 34
During drying, the heat transfer coefficient is h = 30 W/m²·K, surface area A = 0.5 m², temperature difference
ΔT = 40°C.

Required:
Compute the rate of heat transfer.

Solution:

Q = hAΔT

= (30) (0.5) (40)

= 600 W
 430

Problem 35
A food product is being freeze-dried on a tray with a surface area of 1.2 m². The product is exposed to a
vacuum environment. The convective mass transfer coefficient (hm) is measured to be 0.05 kg/(m³·s). The
moisture concentration right at the product surface (Cs) is 0.015 kg water/m³, while the bulk air moisture
concentration (C∞) far from the surface is 0.002 kg/m³. Assuming steady convective mass transfer, find the
mass removal rate (kg/s) of moisture from the product surface.

Given:
Area: A = 1.2 m²
Convective mass transfer coefficient: hm = 0.05 kg/(m³·s)
Surface moisture concentration: Cs = 0.015 kg water/m³
Bulk moisture concentration: C∞ = 0.002 kg/m³

Required:
Find the mass removal rate (kg/s) from the surface (ṁ)

Solutions:
ṁ = hm × A × (Cs - C∞)
ṁ = 0.05 kg/(m³·s) × 1.2 m² × (0.015 kg water/m³ - 0.002 kg/m³ )
ṁ = 0.00078 kg /s
 431

Problem 36
A water surface in an industrial humidifier tank is exposed to air flow. The system has a circular area of
evaporation with a diameter of 0.5 m. The convective mass transfer coefficient is estimated to be 0.08 kg/(m³·s).
The moisture concentration at the water surface is 0.035 kg water/m³, and the moisture concentration in the bulk
air is 0.009 kg/m³.

Assuming steady convective mass transfer, calculate the mass removal rate (rate of humidification) in kg/s from
the water surface.

Given:
Diameter: D = 0.5 m ; A = (π * D²) / 4 = 0.1963 m2
Convective Mass Transfer Coefficient: Hm = 0.08 kg/(m³·s)
Surface Moisture Concentration: Cs = 0.035 kg water/m³
Bulk Moisture Concentration: C∞ = 0.009 kg/m³

Required:
Find the mass removal rate (kg/s) from the surface (ṁ).

Solutions:
ṁ = hm × A × (Cs - C∞)
ṁ = 0.08 kg/(m³·s) × 0.1963 m2 × (0.035 kg water/m³ - 0.009 kg/m³)
ṁ ≈ 0.0004083 kg/s
 432

Problem 37
A porous ceramic composite (AB Material) slab of thickness 2 cm is being dried with hot air at 80°C flowing
over both surfaces. The initial moisture content is 0.25 kg water/kg dry solid, and the equilibrium moisture
content is 0.02 kg water/kg dry solid. The thermal conductivity of the wet composite is 1.8 W/m·K, and the
effective moisture diffusivity is 3.5 × 10⁻⁸ m²/s. Calculate the drying time required to reach a moisture
content of 0.05 kg water/kg dry solid.
Given:
 Slab thickness (L) = 2 cm = 0.02 m
 Initial moisture content (Xᵢ) = 0.25 kg water/kg dry solid
 Final moisture content (Xf) = 0.05 kg water/kg dry solid
 Equilibrium moisture content (Xₑ) = 0.02 kg water/kg dry solid
 Thermal conductivity (k) = 1.8 W/m·K
 Moisture diffusivity (D) = 3.5 × 10⁻⁸ m²/s
 Drying air temperature = 80°C

Required: Drying time (t) to reach Xf = 0.05 kg water/kg dry solid

Solution:
Calculate the Dimensionless Moisture Content

Apply Solution for Infinite Slab

For symmetrical drying of an infinite slab:

𝜋2𝐷𝑡
∅=
8

𝜋2 𝐿2
exp (− )

8
Solve for Time

0.1304 = 0.8106 exp (−8.636 ×𝜋10−4 t)

0.1304 = 2 exp (−

exp (−8.636 × 10−4 t) = 0.1304 = 0.1609

0.8106
−8.636 × 10−4 t = ln(0.1609) = −1.826

𝑡= = 2,114 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 ≈ 35.2 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡es

8.636 𝑥 10−4
1.826

t = 35.2 minutes
 433

Problem 38
A polymer composite film of thickness 1 mm is dried using infrared radiation. The radiation provides a
constant heat flux of 5000 W/m² to the surface. The latent heat of vaporization of water is 2257 kJ/kg, and
the initial moisture content is 0.40 kg water/kg dry solid. The dry solid density is 1200 kg/m³. Calculate the
drying rate during the constant rate period and estimate the time to reach the critical moisture content of
0.15 kg water/kg dry solid.

Given:
 Film thickness (δ) = 1 mm = 0.001 m
 Heat flux (q) = 5000 W/m²
 Latent heat of vaporization (λ) = 2257 kJ/kg = 2.257 × 10⁶ J/kg
 Initial moisture content (Xᵢ) = 0.40 kg water/kg dry solid
 Critical moisture content (Xc) = 0.15 kg water/kg dry solid
 Dry solid density (ρs) = 1200 kg/m³

Required: Drying rate during constant rate period (N) and Time to reach critical moisture content (tc)

Solution:

𝑞 5000
Calculate Drying Rate. During constant rate period, all heat goes to vaporize water:

𝑁= =
= 2.215 𝑥 10−3𝑘𝑔/𝑚2𝑠
λ 2.257 𝑥 106
Calculate Mass of Water to be
Removed. Mass of dry solid per
unit area:
ms = ρsδ = 1200 × 0.001 = 1.2 kg/m2

Water to be removed per unit area:

Δmw = ms (Xi − Xc) = 1.2 × (0.40 − 0.15) = 1.2 × 0.25 = 0.3 kg/m2

Calculate Time to Critical Moisture Content

 434

Problem 39

A 1 L glass bottle of milk (ρ = 1030 kg/m³, Cp = 3.9 kJ/kg·K) initially at 35 °C is placed in a 5

°C refrigerator. The overall heat transfer coefficient between the bottle and air is 10 W/m²·K, and

the surface area of the bottle is 0.05 m². How long will it take for the milk temperature to drop to

10 °C?

Given:

T i=35 C
o
W
U =10 2
m ∗K
o
T ∞=5 C
kg
o
ρ=1030 3
T f =10 C m

A=0.05 m
2 3 J
C p=3.9 x 10
kg∗K
3
V =1 L=0.001m

Required:

Cooling time (t)

Solution:

−ρV C p T f −T ∞
t= ln
UA T i −T ∞

t=
(
− 1030
kg
m
3 ) (
( 0.001 m3 ) 3.9 x 103 J
kg∗K ) ln 10 C−5 C
o o

( )
o o
W 35 C−5 C
10 2
( 0.05 m2 )
m ∗K
 435

4,017 5
t= ln
0.5 30

t=14,392 s ≈ 4 h

Problem 40

Apple slices (2 mm thick, half-thickness L= 0.001 m) are dried at 60 °C. The diffusion

coefficient of water in apple tissue is D = 2 × 10 −10 m2/s. If initial moisture ratio MR=1, find MR

after 3 hours assuming first-term approximation:

8 −4πLDt
MR= 2
2

Given:

D = 2 × 10−10 m2/s.

L= 0.001 m

T = 3 h = 10,800 s

Required:

Moisture ratio (MR)

Solution:

( )
−10 2
2 2 x 10 m
2
π ( 10,800 s )
π Dt s
=
4L
2
4¿¿

8 − π Dt 8 −5.33
MR= 2 4 L =¿ 2
2

π π

MR=3. 06 %
 436

Problem 41
During the drying of wet wood chips, hot air at 80°C and 30% relative humidity flows over the
surface. The air velocity is sufficient to maintain a constant surface temperature of 45°C during
drying. The mass transfer coefficient is k y =0.02 kg H 2 O/(m2 ⋅ s ⋅ ΔY )and h=35 W /(m2 ⋅ K ). The
latent heat of vaporization at the surface temperature is λ=2400 kJ /kg . If the temperature
difference between the air and the surface is T a−T s=35 ℃ ,determine the rate of water
evaporation per square meter of drying surface.
Given:
T a=80 ° C

T s=3 0 ° C
2
h=35 W /(m ⋅ K )
2
k y =0.02 kg H 2 O/(m ⋅ s ⋅ ΔY )
6
λ=2400 kJ /kg=2.4 ×10 J /kg
Required:
Rate of evaporation per unit area, N A (kg H ₂O /m ² · s)
Solution:
For simultaneous heat and mass transfer (assuming energy for vaporization = heat supplied):

h(T a −T s)=N A λ

h ( T a −T s )
N A=
λ

(35) ( 80 ​−30 )
N A= 6
2.4 ×10

1225
N A= 6
2.4 ×10
 437

−4 2
N A =5.1× 10 kg water /m ⋅s

Problem 42
A thin layer of water is placed in an open pan and exposed to air at 60°C.
The surface temperature of the water is 30°C, and the heat transfer coefficient between air and
the water surface is h=25 W /(m2 ⋅ K ) The latent heat of vaporization of water at this temperature
is λ=2400 kJ /kg . Assuming that all the heat supplied is used for evaporation, determine the rate
of evaporation per unit area of the water surface.
Given:
T a=60 ° C

T s=3 0 ° C
2
h=25 W /( m ⋅ K )
6
λ=2400 kJ /kg=2.4 ×10 J /kg

Required:
Rate of evaporation per unit area, N A (kg H ₂O /m ² · s)
Solution:
For simultaneous heat and mass transfer (assuming energy for vaporization = heat supplied):

h(T a −T s)=N A λ

h ( T a −T s )
N A=
λ

(25) ( 60 ​−30 )
N A=
2.4 ×106

750
N A= 6
2.4 ×10

−4 2
N A =3.13 ×10 kg water /m ⋅ s
 438

Problem 43
During the constant-rate drying period of a food product, the rate of moisture removal ( ṁw ) is
governed by heat transfer to the wet surface. If the drying air temperature is 60∘ C and the wet-
bulb (drying surface) temperature is 35∘ C, calculate the constant drying rate (N) in kg water/

vaporization ( 𝜆) of water is 2420 kJ/kg at the wet-bulb temperature.

(m2.s) if the convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is 15 W/ (m2 . s) and the latent heat of

Given
 Air temperature (TA): 60∘ C

 Surface temperature (Ts): 35∘ C

 Convective heat transfer coefficient (h): 15W / (m2 . K)

 Latent heat of vaporization (𝜆): 2,420 kJ/ kg (2420000 J/kg)

Required
 Constant drying rate (N) in kg water/(m2.s)

Solution
q̇ convection= q̇ vaporization

h(T A −T s)=N ⋅ λ

h (T A −T s )
N=
λ
2 ∘ ∘
(15 W/(m ⋅K))⋅(60 C−35 C)
N=
2,420,000 J/kg
15⋅ 25
N=
2,420,000
hh 2
N=0.0001550 kg water/(m ⋅s)
 439

Problem 44
A material is dried in a steady flow of air. The mass transfer coefficient (kG) for water vapor is
2
0.05 kg water/(m ⋅s ⋅ ΔH ¿, where ΔH is the humidity difference. If the absolute humidity of the
air (Hs) is 0.035 kg water/ kg dry air and the absolute humidity at the product surface (Hs) is
0.035 kg water/ kg dry air, calculate the rate of moisture transfer (N) in kg water/ (m 2.s)

Given
 Mass transfer coefficient (kG): 0.05 kg water/(m 2 ⋅s ⋅ ΔH ¿,

 Air absolute humidity (HA): 0.01 kg water/ kg dry air

 Surface absolute humidity (Hs): 0.035 kg water/ kg dry air

Required
 Rate of moisture transfer (N).

Solution
N=k G (H s−H A )
2
N=(0.05 kg water/(m ⋅s ⋅ ΔH ) ¿⋅(0.035−0.01) kg water/kg dry air
N=0.05⋅ 0.025
2
N=0.00125 kg water/(m ⋅s)
 440

Moisture Removal

Problem 1

A batch of banana chips (100 kg wet basis) with 70% moisture is dried to 10% moisture.
Determine the amount of water removed.

Given:

Initial mass = 100 kg

Initial moisture = 70%

Final moisture = 10%

Required:

Mass of water removed

Solution:

Dry solids = 100(1 - 0.70) = 30 kg

Final total mass = 30 / (1 - 0.10) = 33.33 kg

Water removed = 100 - 33.33 = 66.67 kg.

 441

Problem 2

Potato slices weighing 50 kg (wet basis) contain 80% moisture. They are dried to 12% moisture.
Find the percentage of water removed.

Given:

Initial mass = 50 kg

Initial moisture = 80%

Final moisture = 12%

Required:

Percentage of water removed

Solution:

Dry solids = 50(1 - 0.80) = 10 kg

Final total mass = 10 / (1 - 0.12) = 11.36 kg

Water removed = 50 - 11.36 = 38.64 kg

Percentage removed = (38.64 / 50) × 100 = 77.28%.

 442

Problem 3
A batch of agricultural product contains 50 kg dry solids and initial moisture content (dry basis)
of 0.50 kgwater/kgdry. The target is 0.10 kg/kgdry. Assume drying occurs at a constant-rate period
with drying rate equal to 0.002 kgwater/m²·s over exposed area of 20 m². Estimate drying time
required to reach target moisture.
Given:
Dry solids = 50 kgdry
Initial m_i = 0.50 kg/kgdry, final m_f = 0.10 kg/kgdry
Drying rate j = 0.002 kg/m²·s, Area = 20 m²
Required:
Compute mass of water to remove and time required (hours).
Solution:
Initial water = 25 kg, final water = 5 kg => remove 20 kg.
Drying rate = j A = 0.04 kg/s => time = 500 s = 0.13889 hours.
 443

Problem 4
A thin slab of product initially at uniform moisture content starts drying. After the constant-rate
period, drying enters falling-rate controlled by internal diffusion. Assume the drying rate (surface
flux) decreases exponentially: j(t) = j0 * exp(-t/τ) where j0 = 0.005 kg/m²·s and τ = 2 hours. If
surface area is 5 m², how much water is removed in the first 4 hours of falling-rate period?
(Integrate j(t) over time.)
Given:
j(t)=j0 exp(-t/τ), j0=0.005 kg/m²·s, τ=2 hours (convert to seconds), A=5 m², time interval 0–4 h
Required:
Compute mass removed in first 4 hours (kg).
Solution:
Mass removed = A * j0 * τ * (1 - e^(-Δt/τ)) = 155.64 kg in first 4 hours.
 444

Problem 5
A material with an initial moisture content of 50% (wet basis) is dried to 10% under constant
drying rate conditions. If the constant drying rate is 1.5×10 ⁻³ kg/m²·s and the exposed area is 1.2
m², determine the drying time.
(Adapted from Keey, 2012).

Given:
M_i = 50%, M_f = 10%, drying rate = 1.5×10⁻³ kg/m²·s, A = 1.2 m², mass of dry solid = 10 kg

Required:
Drying time, t

Solution:
Moisture removed = 0.5×10/ (1-0.5) - 0.1×10/ (1-0.1) = 9.89 - 1.11 = 8.78 kg water
t = (Moisture removed) / (drying rate × A) = 8.78 / (1.5×10⁻³ × 1.2) = 4,878 s = 81.3 min

Final Answer:
Drying time = 81.3 minutes
 445

Problem 6
A food material enters the falling rate period with an initial moisture content of 0.3 kg water/kg
dry solid. If the rate of drying decreases linearly to zero when the moisture content reaches 0.1
kg/kg, estimate the average drying rate and time required to remove 0.2 kg water/kg dry solid,
given that the time at the beginning of the falling rate is 20 minutes.
(Based on Mujumdar, 2014).

Given:
M₁ = 0.3, M₂ = 0.1, time at M₁ = 20 min

Required:
Average drying rate and total drying time

Solution:
Average rate = (0 + R_c)/2, assuming R_c = (0.2 kg/kg) / (20 min) = 0.01 kg/kg·min → R_avg =
0.005 kg/kg·min
Time for falling rate = (0.2) / (0.005) = 40 min → total time = 20 + 40 = 60 min

Final Answer:
Total drying time = 60 minutes
 446

Problem 7
The initial moisture content of wet product is 45% wet basis has a weight 7 kg. The product
must be dried to 14% wet basis. The drying rate is equal to 0.035 kg water/minute.
Given:
Initial moisture content: MC i = 45%
Final moisture content: MC f = 14%
Drying rate: Rate = 0.035 kg
water/minute
Required:
a. Mass of water to be removed.
b. Time required to dry the product.
Solution:
a. Mass of water to be removed.

Initial mass of water:

mwi = 7 × 0.45
mwi = 3.15 kg

Final mass of water:

mwf = 7 × 0.14
mwf = 0.98 kg

Mass of water to be remove = mwi - mwf

Mass of water to be remove = 3.15 – 0.98
Mass of water to be remove = 2.17 kg

b. Time required to dry the product.

¿
Time Required = Mass of water ¿ be remove Drying rate

2.17 kg
Time Required =
0.035 kg /min

Time Required = 62 minutes ≈ 1.03 h

Approximately 1 hour.
 447

Problem 8
If the drying rate is equal to 0.05 kg water/minute. The initial moisture content of wet product is
70% wet basis has a weight 15 kg. The product must be dried to 10% wet basis. Find the time in
seconds and hour.
Given:
Initial moisture content: MC i = 70%
Final moisture content: MC f = 10%
Drying rate: Rate = 0.05 kg water/minute
Required:
c. Mass of water to be removed.
d. Time required to dry the product.
Solution:
c. Mass of water to be removed.

Initial mass of water:

mwi = 15 × 0.70
mwi = 10.5 kg

Final mass of water:

mwf = 15 × 0.10
mwf = 1.5 kg
Mass of water to be remove = mwi - mwf
Mass of water to be remove = 10.5 – 1.5
Mass of water to be remove = 9 kg

d. Time required to dry the product in seconds and in hour.

¿
Time Required = Mass of water ¿ be remove Drying rate
9 kg
Time Required =
0.05 kg /min
3600 seconds
Time Required = 180 minutes ×
1 minutes
Time Required = 648,000 seconds
1 hour
Time Required = 180 minutes ×
60 minutes
Time Required = 3 hours
 448

Problem 9
A tray dryer is used for the removal of moisture from 100 kg of wheat. The wheat initially has
a moisture content of 20% (wet basis) and must be dried to 12% (wet basis). The drying rate is
constant at 2 kg of water per hour. Calculate:
a.) The total time required for the moisture removal process.
b.) The final mass of wheat after moisture removal.

Given:
minitial = 100kg
xi = 20%
xf = 12%
Drying rate, mw = 2kg/h

Required:
Drying time, t (h)
Final mass, mfinal (kg)

Solution:

xi = 20% / 100% = 0.2

xf = 12% /100% = 0.12

Step 1: Initial water mass Step 4: Drying time for moisture removal
mwi = xi x minitial t = (mwi – mwf) / mw
mwi = 0.2 x 100 t = (20-10.91 / 2)
mwi = 20kg t = 4.545 h

Step 2: Dry matter

md = minitial – mwi
md = 100 -20
md = 80kg

Step 3: Final total mass

mfinal = md + mwf mwf=0.12 final
mfinal = 80 + 0.12mfinal
0.88 mfinal = 80
mfinal = 90.91kg
mwf = 10.91kg
Final Answer: t = 4.545h & mfinal = 90.91kg
 449

Problem 10
A batch of sliced carrots weighs 5 kg and contains 85% moisture (wet basis). If the goal is
removal of moisture to reduce it to 10%, calculate the final mass of the dried carrots.

Given:
minitial = 5kg
xi = 85%
xf = 10%

Required:

Final mass after moisture removal

Solution:

xi = 85% x 100% = 0.85

xf = 10% x 100% = 0.1

Step 1: Dry matter

md = minitial (1-xi)
md = 5 x (1 - 0.85)
md = 0.75kg

Step 2: Final mass after moisture removal

md
mfinal = 1 - xf

0.75
mfinal =
1 – 0.1

mfinal = 0.833kg

Final Answer: mfinal = 0.833 kg

 450

Problem 11
A batch dryer contains 50 kg wet grain at 20% moisture (w.b.). Target = 12% w.b. Constant
drying rate (initial period) is r =0.012 kg water/kg dry solids∙h . Assume drying remains in the
constant-rate regime.
Given:
Total mass = 50 kg
X i =0.20

X f =0.12
Drying rate per dry solids = r =0.012 kg/kg∙h

Required:
Time (hours) needed in constant-rate period to reach target.

Solution:
ms =50(1−0.20)=40 kg d.s.

Initial water = 50 − 40 = 10 kg. Final product mass = ms /(1−X f )=40 /0.88=45.4545 kg

Final water = 45.4545−40=5.4545 kg
Water to remove = 10−5.4545=4.5455 kg
Total removal rate = r ×ms =0.012 ×40=0.48 kg/h
Time t=4.5455/0.48=9.469 h
 451

Problem 12
A continuous belt dryer processes 250 kg/h wet product at 50% w.b. Dryer removes water at 120
kg/h. Find outlet moisture and percentage moisture removed.
Given:
Feed F = 250 kg/h, X feed =0.50
Water removed W = 120 kg/h

Required:
Outlet moisture (w.b.) and % moisture removed.

Solution:
ms =F (1−X feed )=250(0.50)=125 kg/h

Product mass: P=F−W =250−120=130 kg/h .

Product water = P−ms=130−125=5 kg/h .

Outlet moisture X out =5/130=0.03846=3.846 % w.b..

Initial water = feed water = 125 kg/h. % removal = 100 ×120 /125=96.0 % .
 452

Problem 13
A 2 kg batch of abrasive material with an initial moisture content of 0.4 kg water/kg dry solid is
dried in a tray dryer to a final moisture content of 0.1 kg water/kg dry solid. The drying occurs
under steady-state conditions, and the mass transfer rate is assumed uniform. Calculate the total
mass of water removed during drying and the mass of dry solid remaining.
Given:
Initial mass of material: mtotal =2 kg

Initial moisture content: M i=0.4 kg water/kg dry solid

Final moisture content: M f =0.1 kg water/kg dry solid

Required:
Total mass of water removed, mw (kg)

Mass of dry solid, mdry (kg)

Formulas:
Mass of dry solid (remains constant during drying):
m total
mdry =
1+ M i

Mass of water removed:

mw =mdry (M i−M f )Solution:

Compute mass of dry solid:

2 2
mdry = = ≈ 1.429 kg
1+0.4 1.4
Compute mass of water removed:
mw =1.429 ×(0.4−0.1)=1.429 × 0.3≈ 0.429 kg

Mass of dry solid: 1.429 kg

Mass of water removed: 0.429 kg
During drying, approximately 0.429 kg of water is removed, leaving 1.429 kg of dry solid.
 453

Problem 14
A continuous abrasive material dryer processes 500 kg/h of wet material with an initial moisture
content of 0.35 kg water/kg dry solid. The dryer reduces the moisture content to 0.08 kg water/kg
dry solid. Calculate the moisture removal rate in kg/h and the dry solid throughput.
Given:
Feed rate: ṁtotal =500 kg/h

Initial moisture content: M i=0.35 kg/kg dry solid

Final moisture content: M f =0.08 kg/kg dry solid

Required:
Moisture removal rate ṁw (kg/h)

Dry solid throughput ṁdry (kg/h)

Formulas:
Dry solid throughput (constant):
ṁ total
ṁdry =
1+ M i

Moisture removal rate:

ṁw = ṁdry (M i−M f )Solution:

Compute dry solid throughput:

500 500
ṁdry = = ≈370.37 kg/h
1+0.35 1.35
Compute moisture removal rate:
ṁw =370.37 ×(0.35−0.08)=370.37 × 0.27 ≈ 100 kg/h

Dry solid throughput = 370.37 kg/h

Moisture removal rate = 100 kg/h
The dryer removes approximately 100 kg of water per hour, while 370.4 kg/h of dry solid is
processed.
 454

Problem 15

Tray dryer processes 2 kg of wet solids containing 60% moisture (wet basis). Constant drying
rate N = 1.5×10⁻⁴ kg H₂O·m⁻²·s⁻¹, drying area A = 0.25 m².

Required:
Calculate drying time to remove moisture until 30% (wet basis).

Solution:

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.60 × 2 = 1.20 𝑘𝑔, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.30 × 2 = 0.60 𝑘𝑔

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 1.20 − 0.60 = 0.60 𝑘𝑔

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑) / (𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) = 0.60 / (1.5 × 10⁻⁴ × 0.25) = 1.6 × 10⁴ 𝑠 ≈
4.44 ℎ
 455

Problem 16

For a material, drying rate is given by N = 1.5×10 ⁻⁴ (M − 0.05), where M is moisture (dry basis).
Initial M_i = 0.30, final M_f = 0.10, area = 0.20 m², dry mass = 1.0 kg.

Required:
Compute drying time t.

Solution:

𝑡 = (𝑚_𝑑 / (𝐴 × 1.5 × 10⁻⁴)) ∫ (𝑑𝑀 / (𝑀 − 0.05)) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0.30 𝑡𝑜 0.10

𝑡 = (1 / (0.20 × 1.5 × 10⁻⁴)) × 𝑙𝑛 ((0.30 − 0.05)/(0.10 − 0.05))

𝑡 = (1 / 3 × 10⁻⁵) × 𝑙𝑛 (5) = 3.33 × 10⁴ × 1.609 = 5.36 × 10⁴ 𝑠 ≈ 14.9 ℎ

 456

Problem 17

A tray dryer removes moisture from 6 kg pineapple slices from 82% MC to 12%. Determine
water removed.

Given:
Wi = 6 kg
MCi = 82%
MCf = 12%
Required:
1. Water removed
Solution:
Wf = Wi(1–MCi)/(1–MCf)
Wf = 6(0.18)/0.88 = 1.23 kg
Water removed = 6 – 1.23 = 4.77 kg

Answer:

4.77 kg removed.
 457

Problem 18

A batch of 10 kg chilies at 70% MC is dried to 15%. Compute final weight.

Given:
Wi = 10 kg
MCi = 70%
MCf = 15%
Required:
1. Final weight
Solution:
Wf = 10(0.30)/0.85 = 3.53 kg
Answer:

3.53 kg final weight.

 458

Problem 19
A food product with an initial moisture content of 40% is dried to 20% moisture. The drying rate
is measured at 0.25 kg/s. Calculate the total moisture removed after 10 hours of drying.
Required: Total moisture removed.
Solution:

Total moisture removed=Drying rate×Time

Where:
Total moisture removed is the total mass of moisture removed (in kilograms, kg).
Drying rate is the rate at which moisture is being removed (in kilograms per second,
kg/s).
Time is the duration of the drying process (in seconds, s, or hours if converted).

Total moisture removed=Drying rate×Time

Total moisture removed = (0.25 kg/s) (10) = 2.5

Total moisture removed =2.5 (3600) = 900 kg of moisture removed.
 459

Problem 20
During a drying process, the moisture content of a material decreases from 60% to 25%. The
drying rate is constant and measured at 0.1 kg/s. Determine the total moisture removed after 8
hours.
Required: Total moisture removed.
Solution:
Total moisture removed=Drying rate×Time

Where:
Total moisture removed is the total mass of moisture removed (in kilograms, kg).
Drying rate is the rate at which moisture is being removed (in kilograms per second,
kg/s).
Time is the duration of the drying process (in seconds, s, or hours if converted).

Total moisture removed=Drying rate×Time

Total moisture removed = (0.1kg/s) (8) = 0.8

Total moisture removed =0.8 (3600) = 288 kg of moisture removed.

460
 461

Problem 21
A farmer needs to dry 2 tons (2000 kg) of paddy from 24% wb to 14% wb. Calculate the mass of
moisture removed (kg) and the final wet weight remaining. Use wet-basis percentages.

Given:
 Initial weight Wi = 2000 kg
 MCi = 24% wb
 MCf = 14% wb

Required:
Moisture removed (kg) and final weight Wf (kg)
Solution:
Dry mass = Wi (1 - MCi)
= 2000 (1 - 0.24)
= (2000) (0.76)
= 1520 kg (dry solids).
Final wet weight Wf = dry mass / (1 - MCf)
= 1520 / (1 - 0.14)
= 1520 / 0.86
= 1767.44 kg.
Moisture removed = Wi - Wf
= 2000 - 1767.44
= 232.56 kg.

Answer: Moisture removed = 232.56 kg

Final weight = 1767.44 kg
 462

Problem 22
A solar dryer reduces the moisture content of 500 kg of mango slices from 60% wb to 20% wb.
Determine the weight of mango after drying and the moisture removed (kg).

Given:
 Wi = 500 kg
 MCi = 60% wb
 MCf = 20% wb

Required:
Final weight Wf and moisture removed (kg)
Solution:
Dry mass = Wi (1 - MCi)
= 500 (1 - 0.60)
= (500) (0.40)
= 200 kg dry solids.
Final wet weight Wf = dry mass / (1 - MCf)
= 200 / (1 - 0.20)
= 200 / 0.80
= 250 kg.
Moisture removed = Wi - Wf
= 500 - 250
= 250 kg.

Answer: Final weight = 250 kg

Moisture removed = 250 kg
 463

Problem 23
The equilibrium moisture data for wheat at 30 °C follows the Guggenheim–Anderson–de Boer
(GAB) isotherm:
M 0 CK aw
M=
(1−K aw )(1−K a w +CK a w )

Given M 0=5.2 % , C = 8.5, K = 0.85, and water activity a w =0.6 , find the equilibrium moisture
content (M).
Given:
M₀ = 5.2 %
C = 8.5
K = 0.85
aw = 0.6
Required:
Equilibrium moisture content (M %)
Solution:
5.2(8.5)(0.85)(0.6 )
M=
(1−0.85 ×0.6)[1−0.85 × 0.6+8.5 × 0.85× 0.6]
22.41 22.41 22.41
M= = = =9.48 %
(1−0.51)(1−0.51+ 4.335) ( 0.49)(4.825) 2.364
Final Answer:
M = 9.48 % (dry basis)

Problem 24
 464

For a dehydrated fruit at 25 °C, sorption follows a BET isotherm:

M 0 C aw
M=
(1−a w )(1−aw +C aw )

If M₀ = 4.0 %, C = 6.0, and aw = 0.4, calculate the equilibrium moisture content.

Given:
M₀ = 4.0 %
C = 6.0
aw = 0.4
Required:
M (%)
Solution:

4.0(6.0)(0.4 ) 9.6 9.6 9.6

M= M= = = =4.71 %
(1−0.4)(1−0.4+6.0 × 0.4) (0.6)(1.0+2.4) (0.6)(3.4 ) 2.04

Final Answer:
M = 4.71 % (dry basis)
 465

Problem 25

During drying, a material follows first-order kinetics with k = 0.003 s⁻¹, Mi = 0.60, and

M eq = 0.05. Find m after t = 600 s.

Given: (Mujundar, 2015)
k = 0.003 s⁻¹
Mi = 0.60
Meq = 0.05
t = 600 s
Required:
Find m after t
Solution:
m = (kg/kg)
(−0.003 ×600)
0.05+ ( 0.55 ) e
m=
( 0.141)
m = 0.141 kg/kg
 466

Problem 26
Apple slices (L = 0.002 m) have Deff = 1×10⁻¹⁰ m²/s. Find drying time when m = 0.25, given m₀
= 0.60 and meq = 0.05.
Given: (Mujundar, 2015)
L = 0.002 m
Deff = 1×10⁻¹⁰ m²/s
m₀ = 0.60
m = 0.25
meq = 0.05
Required:
Find drying time
Solution:
t (s)
(0.25−0.05)
MR =
(0.60−0.05)
MR = 0.364
2
−(4−0.002 )
t=
( 1 x 10−10 π 2 ) ln (0.364)
t = 1.64×10⁴ s
t = 4.56 h
 467

Problem 27
Freshly harvested paddy rice contains 30% moisture (wet basis).
The rice is dried in a mechanical dryer until its moisture content is reduced to 14% (wet basis). If
the initial mass of the wet paddy is 100 kg, determine:
Given: (Kumar et. al., 2014)
 Initial mass, M i=100 kg

 Initial moisture content, M C i=30 % (wet basis)

 Final moisture content, M C f =14 % (wet basis)

Required:
1. The final dry mass of rice after drying.
2. The mass of water removed during drying.
Solution:

M dry =M i (1−M C i)M dry =100(1−0.30)=70 kg

M dry 70 70
Mf = Mf = = =81.4 kg
1−M C f 1−0.14 0.86

M water removed =M i−M f M water removed =100−81.4=18.6 kg

 468

Problem 28
Fresh cassava chips are dried in a tray dryer to reduce their moisture content from 65% (wet
basis) to 15% (wet basis). If the initial mass of the cassava is 50 kg, determine:
Given: (Omodara, M. A., & Akinoso, R., 2019)
 Initial mass, M i=50 kg

 Initial moisture content, M C i=65 % (wet basis)

 Final moisture content, M C f =15 % (wet basis)

Required:
1. The mass of dry solids in the cassava.
2. The percentage of total mass lost during drying.
Solution:

M dry =M i (1−M C i)M dry =50(1−0.65)=50(0.35)=17.5 kg

M dry 17.5 17.5

Mf = Mf = = =20.6 kg
1−M C f 1−0.15 0.85

M i−M f 50−20.6
% Mass lost= ×100% Mass lost= × 100=58.8 %
Mi 50
 469

Problem 29
A tray of wet product (exposed area A = 0.50 m2) is being dried in a tunnel. The vapor
concentration at the product surface is approximately C s = 30.0 g/m3. The drying air
far from the surface has vapor concentration C∞ = 5.0 g/m3. The convective mass-
transfer coefficient is kc = 0.015 m/s. Assume the drying flux follows m˙′′ = k c
(Cs−C∞) (with concentrations in kg/m³), and the latent heat of evaporation is Lv =
2450 kJ/kg.
Given: Required:
A = 0.50 m2 Heat loss Q˙(W)
C∞ = 30.0 g/m3 = 0.030 kg/m3 Outer surface temperature Ts (°C)
Cs = 5.0 g/m3 = 0.050 kg/m3 Temperature drop across film ΔTfilm (K)
kc = 0.0150 m/s
Lv = 2,450 kJ/kg = 2,450,000 J/kg
Solution:

m = {k} rsub {c} left ({C} rsub {s} - {C} rsub {∞} right ) = 0.0150 (0.030 - 0.0050) = 0.000375 kg/ {m} ^
mhr=m A = 0.000375 × 0.50 = 0.0001875 kg/
6
Q=m Lv =0.0001875× 2.45 ×10 =459.375 W ∨0.459 kW
mreq 5.0
t= = =26,666.67 s∨7.407 hr
m 0.0001875
 470

Problem 30
A small drying unit must remove 1000 kg of water per day from a food concentrate.
The latent heat of vaporization at the operating condition is L v = 2256 kJ/kg. The
dryer overall thermal efficiency (useful latent heat delivered to evaporate water
divided by fuel energy input) is estimated at 60%. Using natural gas with a lower
heating value (LHV) of 50.0 MJ/kg
Given: Required:
Water to remove per day Mw = Energy input/day (kJ/day, kWh/day)
1000 kg/day Average power (kW)
Lv = 2256 kJ/kg = 2,256 kJ/kg Gas mass/day (kg/day)
Dryer thermal efficiency η = 0.60
Natural gas LHV = 50.0 MJ/kg =
50,000 kJ/kg
Solution:

Quseful =M w × L v =1000 ×2256=2,256,000 kJ /day

Quseful 2,256,000
Q input = = =3,760,000 kJ /day
η 0.60
3,760,000 kJ /day
Qinput = =1,044.44 kWh /day
3,600
1,044.44 kWh
Pavg = =43.52 kW
24 h
Qinput 3,760,000 kJ /day
gas mass= = =75.2 kg /day
LHV 50,000 kJ /kg
 471

Problem 31
A batch of sweet potato slices weighing 120 kg (wet basis) contains 65% moisture and is dried
to a final moisture content of 12%. Determine the amount of water removed during drying.

Given:
Initial mass = 120 kg
Initial moisture = 65 %
Finals moisture = 12 %

Solution:
42 42
Dry solids=120(1−0.65)=120(0.35)=42 kg Final mass= = =47.73 kg
(1−0.12) 0.88

Water removed =120−47.73=72.27 kg Water removed =72.27 kg

Problem 32
A batch of apple slices weighing 60 kg (wet basis) contains 75% moisture and is dried to a final
moisture content of 15%. Determine the percentage of water removed during the drying process.
 472

Given:
Initial mass = 60 kg
Initial moisture = 75 %
Finals moisture = 15 %

Solution:
15 15
Dry solids=60(1−0.75)=60(0.25)=15 kg Final mass= = =17.65 kg
(1−0.15) 0.85

42.35
Water removed =60−17.65=42.35 kg Percentage removed= x 100=70.58 %
60

Percentage removed =70.58 %

 473

Problem 33
An AB material weighing 12 kg (wet) contains 65% moisture (wb).
It is dried in three stages:
Given:
Stage Moisture Removed (%) Based On
1 40% of total moisture initial moisture
2 30% of remaining moisture from stage 1
3 Dry until 15% moisture (wb) final target

Wet mass = 12 kg, initial moisture content

After stage 1, 40% of water removed
After stage 2, 30% of remaining water removed
Required: Final moisture content after both stages.
Solution:
Initial water = 7.8 kg
After stage 1 removed: 3.12 kg → remaining 4.68 kg
After stage 2 removed: 1.404 kg → remaining 3.276 kg
Dry matter = 4.2 kg
Final MC = 3.276 / (3.276 + 4.2) = 43.8% wb
 474

Problem 34
A microwave dryer operates at 2450 MHz and supplies 900 W to an AB sample.
The dielectric loss factor of the material is ε″ = 12 and density is 650 kg/m³.

Assume uniform heating and use:

Given:
a) Mass of sample, 𝑚= kgm=500g=0.5kg
b) Energy absorbed, Q=300kJ in 5 minutes
c) Latent heat of vaporization of water, =2257kJ/kg

Required: If all absorbed energy is used to evaporate water, compute kg of water removed
(latent heat = 2257 kJ/kg).
Solution:
Mass of water evaporated
Q = mwater⋅Lv
m = Q / Lv = 300 / 2257 = 0.133 k
 475

Problem 35
A wet solid with initial moisture content X₁ = 0.5 and final X₂ = 0.1 (dry basis) is dried at a
constant drying rate N = 5×10⁻⁵ kg/m²·s. The drying surface area is 1 m², and dry mass is 2 kg.

Required:
Determine the drying time (t).
Solution:

t = (md/A) * (X₁ - X₂) / N

= (2/1) * (0.5 - 0.1) / (5×10⁻⁵)

= 0.8 / (5×10⁻⁵)

= 16,000

s = 4.44 hours
 476

Problem 36
A drying process removes 0.3 kg of moisture in 2 hours from a 5 kg dry solid. The surface area
is 1.5 m².

Required:
Find the average drying rate.

Solution:

N = (mass removed) / (A × time)

= 0.3 / (1.5 × 7200)

= 0.3 / 10800

= 2.78×10⁻⁵ kg/m²·s.
 477

Problem 37
An orange pulp product, with an initial weight of 10 kg, needs to be dried. The initial moisture
content (MCi) is 75% wet basis. The product must be dried to a final moisture content (MC f) of
15% wet basis. The drying process occurs at a constant drying rate of 0.02 kg water/minute.

Given:
Initial Total Weight: Wi = 10 kg
Initial Moisture Content: Mci = 75% Or 0.75 (wet basis)
Final Moisture Content: Mcf = 15% Or 0.15 (wet basis)
Drying Rate: DR = 0.02 kg water/minute

Required:
a. Mass of water to be removed (kg). MR
b. Time required to dry the product (minutes).

Solutions:
Mass of water to be removed (kg).
mwi = 10 × 0.75
mwi = 7.5 kg

mwf = 10 × 0.15
mwf = 1.5 kg

MR = Mwi − Mwf
MR = 7.5 kg −1.5 kg
MR = 6.0 kg

Time required to dry the product (minutes).

T = MR / DR
T = 6.0 kg / 0.02 kg
T = 300 mins
 478

Problem 38
A batch of grapes is being processed to make raisins. The initial total weight of the grapes is 50
kg, and the initial moisture content (MCi) is 80% wet basis. The process requires drying the
grapes to a final moisture content (MCf) of 25% wet basis. The drying equipment operates at a
constant drying rate of 0.15 kg water/minute.

Given:
Initial Total Weight: Wi = 50 kg
Initial Moisture Content: Mci = 80% or 0.80 (wet basis)
Final Moisture Content: Mcf = 25% or 0.25 (wet basis)
Drying Rate: DR = 0.15 kg water/minute

Required:
a. Mass of water to be removed (kg). MR
b. Time required to dry the product (minutes).

Solutions:
Mass of water to be removed (kg).
mwi = 50 × 0.80
mwi = 40 kg

mwf = 50 × 0.25
mwf = 12.5 kg

MR = Mwi − Mwf
MR = 40 kg −12.5 kg
MR = 27.5 kg

Time required to dry the product (minutes).

T = MR / DR
T = 27.5 kg / 0.15 kg
T = 183.333 mins
 479

Problem 39
A carbon-carbon composite sheet is dried from 0.25 to 0.08 kg water/kg dry solid in the falling
rate period. The drying rate follows: dX/dt = -0.15(X - 0.02), where 0.02 is the equilibrium
moisture content. Calculate the drying time.

Given:
 Initial moisture: Xᵢ = 0.25 kg water/kg dry solid
 Final moisture: Xf = 0.08 kg water/kg dry solid
 Equilibrium moisture: Xₑ = 0.02 kg water/kg dry solid
 Drying constant: k = 0.15 h⁻¹
 Drying equation: dX/dt = -k(X - Xₑ)

Required: Drying time,

t
 480

Problem 40
A batch dryer contains 50 kg of polymer composite (dry basis) with initial moisture of 0.40 kg
water/kg dry solid. The drying rate is constant at 2.5 kg water/h until reaching critical moisture
of 0.15 kg water/kg dry solid, then falls linearly to zero at equilibrium moisture of 0.03 kg
water/kg dry solid. Calculate total drying time to reach 0.08 kg water/kg dry solid.

Given:
 Dry mass of solid: 50 kg
 Initial moisture: Xᵢ = 0.40 kg water/kg dry solid
 Critical moisture: Xc = 0.15 kg water/kg dry solid
 Equilibrium moisture: Xₑ = 0.03 kg water/kg dry solid
 Constant drying rate: Nc = 2.5 kg water/h
 Final moisture: Xf = 0.08 kg water/kg dry solid

Required: Total drying time, ttotal

Solution:
Calculate constant rate period time
Water
to

remove in
constant rate
period
 481

Problem 41

Potato slices lose 0.6 kg of water in 2 hours of drying. If 5 kg of wet slices were used initially

(70% moisture wb), find the drying rate.

Given:

mi = 5 kg

WR = 0.6 kg

t=2h

MCi = 70%

Required:

Drying rate

Solution:

dry solids = mi (1 - MCi) = 5 (1 – 0.70) = 1.5 kg

WR 0.6 kg
drying rate= =
dry solids x t 1.5 kg x 2 h

kg water
drying rate=0.2
kg dry solid∗h
 482

Problem 42

A spray dryer evaporates water from a milk concentrate entering at 50% solids to produce

powder at 95% solids. If the feed flow rate is 200 kg/h, find the rate of water evaporated (kg/h).

Given:

Feed = 200 kg/h

Solids = 50%

Powder = 95%

Required:

Water evaporated per hour

Solution:

Feed x solids 200 kg/h(0.5)

Product= = =105.26 kg/h
Powder 0.95

Water evaporated = Feed – Product

Water evaporated = 200 kg/h – 105.26 kg/h

Water evaporated = 94.74 kg/h

 483

Problem 43
A batch of banana chips weighing 80 kg (wet basis) contains 55% moisture and is dried to a
final moisture content of 10%. Determine the amount of water removed during drying.
Given:
Initial mass = 80 kg
Initial moisture = 55%
Final moisture = 10%
Required:
W removed −mass of water removed

Solution:
Compute mass of dry solid:
W s=W i ( 1−M i )

W s=(80) ( 1−0.55 )
W s=36 kg
Compute final mass of dried solid:
Ws
W f=
1+ M f
36
W f=
1+0.10
W f =40 kg
Compute mass of water removed:
W removed =W i−W f

W removed =80−40

W removed =40 kg
 484

Problem 44
A wet solid initially contains 60% moisture (wet basis) and is dried to 10% moisture (wet basis).
If the initial weight of the wet solid is 5 kg, determine:
1. The weight of water removed, and
2. The final weight of the dried solid.
Assume no loss of dry solid during drying.
Given:
W i =5 kg(initial total mass)

M i=60 %=0.60 (initial moisture)

M f =10 %=0.10(final moisture)

Required:
W removed −mass of water removed

W final−final mass of dried solid

Solution:
Compute mass of dry solid:
W s=W i ( 1−M i )

W s=(5) ( 1−0.60 )
W s=2.0 kg
Compute final mass of dried solid:
Ws
W f=
1+ M f
2.0
W f=
1+0.10
W f =2.22 kg
Compute mass of water removed:
W removed =W i−W f

W removed =5.0−2.22

W removed =2.78 kg
 485

Problem 45
A batch of mango pulp initially weighing 500 kg has a moisture content of 70%(wet basis). The
pulp is dried until its moisture content is reduced to 15% (wet basis). Calculate the total mass of
water removed during the drying process.

Given
 Initial total mass (M1): 500 kg
 Initial moisture content (W1): 0.70 (wet basis)
 Final moisture content (W2): 0.15 (wet basis)

Required
 Mass of water removed ( Δ M w )

Solution
ms =M 1 (1−W 1 )

ms =500 kg ⋅(1−0.70)
ms =150 kg

ms
M 2=
1−W 2
150 kg
M 2=
1−0.15
M 2=176.47 kg
Δ M w =M 1−M 2

Δ M w =500 kg−176.47 kg

Δ M w =¿ 323.53 kg
 486

Problem 46
A tray dryer is loaded with 25 kg of grain, which has an initial moisture content of 0.25 kg
water/kg dry solid. If the drying operation removes 3.5 kg of water, calculate the final moisture
content (X2) of the grain on a dry basis.

Given
 Initial total mass (M1): 25 kg
 Initial moisture content (X1): 0.25 kg water/kg dry solid

 Mass of water removed ( Δ M w ¿: 3.5 kg

Required
 Final moisture content (X2) on a dry basis.

Solution
M 1=ms (1+ X 1)

M1
ms =
1+ X 1
25 kg
ms =
1+0.25
ms =20 kg

mw 2=mw 1−Δ M w

mw 2=¿ 5 kg – 3.5 kg

mw 2
mw 2=1.5 kg X 2 =
ms
1.5
X2=
20
X 2 =0.075 kg water /kgdry solid
X 2 =0.075 kg water /kgdry solid
487
 488

EVAPORATION OF AB MATERIALS

Definition:

Evaporation of Agricultural and Biosystems (AB) materials refers to the process of

removing moisture from biological products by converting liquid water into vapor using heat.

This process occurs below the boiling point and is commonly applied to liquids or semi-liquid

materials such as fruit juices, milk, plant extracts, and other agricultural solutions. It is a key unit

operation that helps reduce moisture content while preserving the essential qualities of the

material.

Importance:

Evaporation is important in AB materials because it concentrates products, making

them easier and more economical to store, transport, and utilize in further processing. By

reducing water activity, it enhances shelf life and slows down microbial growth,

contributing to safer and more stable products. Controlled evaporation also preserves

desirable components such as flavor, nutrients, and aroma, maintaining product quality.

Additionally, it supports subsequent operations like drying, crystallization, and

formulation of syrups, extracts, and concentrated ingredients widely used in the food and

agricultural industries.
 489

Heat Transfer Coefficient

Problem 1
Inside a stainless-steel evaporator, the rate of heat transfer is 60 kW. The wall area is 4 m2 and
the heat transfer coefficient is 650 W/ m2 .k . Find the change in temperature of the steam to the
AB solution.
Given:
HEAT TRANSFER RATE: Q = 60 kW
AREA: A = 4 m2
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT: U = 650 W/m2 .k .

Required:
The change in temperature of the steam to the AB solution.

Solution:
Q=UAΔT

Q
ΔT =
UA

Q = 60 kW = 60,000 W

60,000
ΔT =
(650)( 4)

ΔT = 23.076 ≈ 23.1 ℃
 490

Problem 2
Find the area of a thin film if the temperature difference between the heating surface is 95 ℃
and liquid film is 80 ℃ , this is maintained to be constant. The heat transfer coefficient over the
heating surface is 750 W/m2 .k . The heat transfer rate is 27.19 kW.
Given:
SURFACE TEMPERATURE: T S = 95 ℃
LIQUID TEMPERATURE: T l = 80 ℃
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT: U = 750 W/m2 .k
HEAT TRANSFER RATE: Q = 27.19 kW

Required:
The area of the thin film.

Solution:
Q=UAΔT

Q
A=
UΔT

Q = 27.19 kW = 27,190 W
ΔT = 95 – 80
ΔT = 15 ℃

27,190
A=
(750)(15)

A = 2.42 m2
 491

Problem 3

Given:
Steam condenses on an evaporator surface of area A = 1.0 m². Heat flow rate Q̇ = 30 kW,
temperature difference ΔT = 25 K.

Required:
Find the overall heat transfer coefficient h.

Solution:

ℎ = 𝑄̇ / (𝐴 𝛥𝑇) = 30,000 / (1.0 × 25) = 1,200 𝑊 · 𝑚⁻² · 𝐾⁻¹

 492

Problem 4

Given:
Measured heat transfer rate Q̇ = 18,000 W, area A = 0.9 m², temperature difference ΔT = 20 K.

Required:
Calculate h.

Solution:

ℎ = 𝑄̇ / (𝐴 𝛥𝑇) = 18,000 / (0.9 × 20) = 1,000 𝑊 · 𝑚⁻² · 𝐾⁻¹

 493

Problem 5

A thin layer of abrasive material containing water is placed on a heated plate at 80°C. The air
above is at 30°C. During steady-state drying, the rate of water evaporation is measured to be
ṁw =0.005 kg/s over an area of 0.5 m². The latent heat of vaporization is Lv =2257 kJ/kg .
Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient hbetween the plate and the evaporating surface.
Assume all heat supplied goes into evaporation.
Given:
Evaporation rate: ṁw =0.005 kg/s
Latent heat: Lv =2257 kJ/kg=2,257,000 J/kg
Surface area: A=0.5 m²
Surface temperature: T s=80 ∘ C
Air temperature: T ∞=30∘ C

Required:
Convective heat transfer coefficient h (W/m²·K)
Formula:
Q=hA(T s −T ∞)
The heat supplied is used entirely for evaporation:
Q= ṁw ⋅ Lv
Combine:
ṁw ⋅ Lv
h= Solution:
A (T s−T ∞ )
Compute total heat flux for evaporation
Q= ṁw ⋅ Lv =0.005× 2,257,000=11,285 W
Compute temperature difference
Δ T =T s −T ∞=80−30=50 K
Solve for h
Q 11,285 11,285
h= = = ≈ 451.4 W/m² ⋅K
A Δ T 0.5 ×50 25

h ≈ 451.4 W/m² ⋅ K
 494

Problem 6

A cylindrical rod of abrasive material with a diameter of 0.05 m and length 1 m is exposed to air
at 40°C. The surface of the rod is at 90°C. During steady-state evaporation, water is removed at a
rate of 0.01 kg/min. The latent heat of vaporization is Lv =2257 kJ/kg . Calculate the average heat
transfer coefficient h between the rod surface and air.
Given:
Rod diameter: D=0.05 m
Rod length: L=1 m
Surface temperature: T s=90∘ C
Air temperature: T ∞=40∘ C
Evaporation rate: ṁw =0.01 kg/min=1.667 ×10−4 kg/s
Latent heat: Lv =2,257,000 J/kg

Required:
Average heat transfer coefficient h (W/m²·K)
Formulas:
Surface area of cylinder:
A=πDL
Heat required for evaporation:
Q= ṁw ⋅ Lv
Convective heat transfer coefficient:
Q
h= Solution:
A (T s−T ∞ )
Compute surface area:
A=πDL=π ×0.05 ×1 ≈ 0.157 m²
Convert evaporation rate to W:
0.01 −4
ṁw =0.01 kg/min= ≈ 1.667 ×10 kg/sQ= ṁw ⋅ Lv =1.667 × 10−4 × 2,257,000 ≈376 W
60
Compute temperature difference:
Δ T =90−40=50 K

Solve for h :
Q 376 376
h= = = ≈ 47.9 W/m² ⋅ K
A Δ T 0.157 ×50 7.85

h ≈ 47.9 W/m² ⋅K
 495

Problem 7

A flat steel plate measuring 1.2 m × 1.0 m is exposed to air.

The surface of the plate is maintained at 120°C, while the surrounding air temperature is 35°C. If
the total heat loss by convection from the plate is 3,825 W, find:
 496

a.) The average heat transfer coefficient, and

b.) The rate of heat transfer per unit area.

Given:
Ts = 120oC
T∞ = 35oC
Q = 3825 W
A = 1.2 x 1= 1.2m2

Required:
Heat transfer coefficient (h)
Heat flux (q = Q/A)

Solution:
Step 1: Use convection formula Step 2: Find the heat flux (rate per unit area)
q = Q/A
Q = hA (Ts - T∞)
q = 3825/1.2
Q
h= q = 3187.5 W/m2
A (Ts - T∞)

3825
h=
1.2 (120-35)

3825
h= h = 37.5 W/m2oC & q = 3187.5 W/m2
102

h = 37.5 W/m2 oC
 497

Problem 8

Hot water at 80°C flows through a pipe. The outer surface of the pipe, having an area of 0.0215
m², is exposed to air at 86°F. The heat transfer coefficient between the pipe surface and air is 25
W/m²·°C. Find the rate of heat transfer from the pipe to the air, in kilocalories per hour (kcal/hr)

Given:
Ts = 80oC
T∞ = 86oC
h = 25 W/m2 oC
A = 0.0215 m2

Required:
Q ( in Kcal/hr)

Solution:

T∞ = (86 – 32) x 5/9

T∞ = 54 x 0.5556
T∞ = 30oC

Q = hA (Ts - T∞)
Q = 25 (0.0215)(80-30)
Q = 25 (0.0215)(50)
Q = 26.9 W

1W = 0.8599 kcal/hr
Q = 26 x 0.8598
Q = 23.1 kcal/hr

Q = 23.1 kcal/hr
 498

Problem 9

In an evaporator, hot steam condenses on one side of a stainless-steel wall (thickness 3 mm,
k =16 W/m∙K). The condensing steam provides a heat transfer coefficient of h steam=2500 W/m²∙K
. On the liquid food side, the convective heat transfer coefficient is hliquid =600 W/m²∙K .
Compute the overall heat transfer coefficient U .

Given:
h steam=2500 W/m²∙K
hliquid =600 W/m²∙K
k =16 W/m∙K
x=0.003 m

Required:
Overall heat transfer coefficient U (W/m²·K)

Solution:

1 1 x 1
= + +
U hsteam k hliquid

1
=0.0004
hsteam
x
=0.003/16=0.0001875
k
1
=0.001667
hliquid
1
=0.0004+ 0.0001875+0.001667=0.0022545
U
1
U= =443.55 W/m²∙K
0.0022545
 499

Problem 10

A heat exchanger wall is 2.5 mm thick (k = 45 W/m·K). The hot-side film coefficient is
h h=1800 W/m²\cdotpK . The cold-side film coefficient is unknown, but the overall coefficient is
measured as U =520 W/m²∙K . Solve for h c.

Given:
U =520 W/m²∙K
h h=1800 W/m²∙K
x=0.0025 m
k =45 W/m∙K

Required:
Cold-side coefficient h c

Solution:
1 1 x 1
= + +
U hh k hc

1
=0.001923
U
1
=0.000556
hh
x
=0.0025/45=0.0000556
k
1
0.001923=0.000556+0.0000556 +
hc
1
=0.001923−0.0006116=0.0013114
hc
h c=762.7 W/m²∙K
 500

Problem 11

Air at 25°C flows over a flat plate that is maintained at 75°C. The plate is 1.2 m long, and the air
velocity is 3 m/s. Determine the average heat transfer coefficient, assuming laminar flow.
(Adapted from Incropera et al., 2017).

Given:
T_air = 25°C, T_surface = 75°C, L = 1.2 m, V = 3 m/s, ν = 1.6×10⁻⁵ m²/s, k = 0.026 W/m·K, Pr
= 0.7

Required:
Average heat transfer coefficient, h

Solution:
Re_L = VL/ν = (3×1.2)/1.6×10⁻⁵ = 2.25×10⁵ → Laminar regime.
Nu_L = 0.664(Re_L) ^0.5(Pr)^0.33 = 0.664(2.25×10⁵) ^0.5(0.7) ^0.33 = 326.
h = (Nu_L × k)/L = (326×0.026)/1.2 = 7.06 W/m²·K.

Average heat transfer coefficient = 7.06 W/m²·K.

 501

Problem 12

Water flows inside a 2 cm diameter tube at 0.2 kg/s with a bulk temperature of 40°C. The wall
temperature is maintained at 70°C. Determine the convective heat transfer coefficient.
(Based on Çengel & Ghajar, 2020).

Given:
m = 0.2 kg/s, D = 0.02 m, T_b = 40°C, T_w = 70°C, k = 0.63 W/m·K, μ = 0.653×10⁻³ Pa·s, ρ =
992 kg/m³, Pr = 4.3

Required:
Heat transfer coefficient, h

Solution:
Re_D = ρVD/μ = (4m)/(πDμ) = (4×0.2)/(π×0.02×0.653×10⁻³) = 1.95×10⁴ → Turbulent flow.
Nu_D = 0.023Re_D^0.8Pr^0.3 = 0.023(1.95×10⁴) ^0.8(4.3) ^0.3 = 97.3.
h = (Nu_D × k)/D = (97.3×0.63)/0.02 = 3,066 W/m²·K.

Final Answer:
Convective heat transfer coefficient = 3,066 W/m²·K.
 502

Problem 13

Sliced cassava is being dried in a forced-air tunnel dryer. The slices are placed on a flat tray of
length 0.50 m exposed to a uniform air stream. The drying air temperature is 60 °C and the slice
surface temperature is maintained at about 40 °C during the experiment. The air velocity over the
tray is 2.0 m/s. Assume properties of air at the film temperature (50 °C) as follows: density =
1.093 kg/m³, dynamic viscosity = 1.96×10⁻⁵ Pa·s, thermal conductivity = 0.027 W/m·K, Prandtl
number = 0.70.

a) Determine the average convective heat transfer coefficient h (W/m²·K) between the air and the
cassava slices using the empirical correlation for a flat plate:

Nu_L = 0.037 · Re_L^(4/5) · Pr^(1/3)

where Re_L = U·L/ν and ν = μ/ρ.

b) Calculate the heat flux (W/m²) to the slice surface.

c) If 0.10 kg of water must be evaporated from a 1.0 m² tray, estimate the time required
(minutes). Use L_v = 2.43×10⁶ J/kg.

Given:
Tray length, L = 0.5 m
Air velocity, U = 2.0 m/s
Air temperature, T_a = 60.0 °C
Surface temperature, T_s = 40.0 °C
Film temperature = 50.0 °C
Air properties at film temperature (est.):
Density, ρ = 1.093 kg/m³
Dynamic viscosity, μ = 1.960e-05 Pa·s
Kinematic viscosity, ν = μ/ρ = 1.793e-05 m²/s
Thermal conductivity, k = 0.027 W/m·K
Prandtl number, Pr = 0.7
Mass of water to evaporate = 0.10 kg (on area A = 1.0 m²)
Latent heat of vaporization, L_v = 2.43×10⁶ J/kg
 503

Required:

Average convective heat transfer coefficient, h (W/m²·K)

Heat flux to the sample surface, q (W/m²)
Time to evaporate 0.10 kg water from 1.0 m² (minutes)

Solution:

Step 1 — Compute kinematic viscosity ν:

ν = μ/ρ = 1.960e-05 / 1.093 = 1.793e-05 m²/s

Step 2 — Reynolds number based on plate length, Re_L:

Re_L = U·L/ν = 2.0·0.5 / 1.793e-05 = 5.577e+04

Step 3 — Average Nusselt number using correlation (valid approx. for 5×10⁵ < Re < 1×10⁷):
Nu_L = 0.037·Re_L^(4/5)·Pr^(1/3)
= 0.037 · (5.577e+04)^(4/5) · (0.7)^(1/3) = 2.059e+02

Step 4 — Convective heat transfer coefficient, h:

h = Nu_L · k / L = 2.059e+02 · 0.027 / 0.5 = 11.12 W/m²·K

Step 5 — Heat flux to the surface, q:

q = h · (T_a − T_s) = 11.12 · (60.0 − 40.0) = 222.37 W/m²

Step 6 — Time to evaporate 0.10 kg water from area 1.0 m²:

Total heating rate Q̇ = q · A = 222.37 · 1.0 = 222.37 W
Energy required = m · L_v = 0.10 · 2.430e+06 = 243000.00 J
Time = Energy / Q̇ = 243000.00 / 222.37 = 1092.8 s = 18.2 minutes
 504

Problem 14

Small spherical food pellets (representative of diced fruit pieces) of diameter 10 mm are being
dried in a forced-air dryer. Air flows past the particles at a relative velocity of 1.5 m/s. The
drying air temperature is 70 °C and the particle surface temperature is maintained at about 45 °C.
Using the Ranz–Marshall correlation for external flow over spheres, determine the convective
heat transfer coefficient.

The Ranz–Marshall correlation is:

Nu_D = 2 + 0.6 · Re_D^(1/2) · Pr^(1/3)

where Re_D = U·D/ν and ν = μ/ρ.

a) Compute the kinematic viscosity, Reynolds number, Nusselt number and the convective heat
transfer coefficient h (W/m²·K).

b) Calculate the heat flux (W/m²) to the particle surface.

c) If a bed of particles has an exposed surface area of 0.50 m² and contains 0.05 kg of water to
evaporate, estimate the time required in minutes. Use L_v = 2.43×10⁶ J/kg.

Given:
Particle diameter, D = 0.01 m
Relative air velocity, U = 1.5 m/s
Air temperature, T_a = 70.0 °C
Particle surface temperature, T_s = 45.0 °C
Film temperature = 57.5 °C
Air properties at film temperature (approx.):
Density, ρ = 1.089 kg/m³
Dynamic viscosity, μ = 1.950e-05 Pa·s
Kinematic viscosity, ν = μ/ρ = 1.791e-05 m²/s
Thermal conductivity, k = 0.028 W/m·K
Prandtl number, Pr = 0.7
Exposed surface area = 0.50 m²
Mass of water to evaporate = 0.05 kg
 505

Latent heat of vaporization, L_v = 2.43×10⁶ J/kg

Required:

Kinematic viscosity ν, Reynolds number Re_D, Nusselt number Nu_D, and h (W/m²·K)
Heat flux q (W/m²)
Time to evaporate 0.05 kg water from area 0.50 m² (minutes)

Solution:

Step 1 — Compute kinematic viscosity ν:

ν = μ/ρ = 1.950e-05 / 1.089 = 1.791e-05 m²/s

Step 2 — Reynolds number based on particle diameter, Re_D:

Re_D = U·D/ν = 1.5·0.01 / 1.791e-05 = 8.377e+02

Step 3 — Nusselt number using Ranz–Marshall correlation (valid for small particles):
Nu_D = 2 + 0.6 · Re_D^(1/2) · Pr^(1/3)
= 2 + 0.6 · (8.377e+02)^(1/2) · (0.7)^(1/3) = 17.419

Step 4 — Convective heat transfer coefficient, h:

h = Nu_D · k / D = 17.419 · 0.028 / 0.01 = 48.77 W/m²·K

Step 5 — Heat flux to the surface, q:

q = h · (T_a − T_s) = 48.77 · (70.0 − 45.0) = 1219.34 W/m²

Step 6 — Time to evaporate 0.05 kg water from area 0.50 m²:

Total heating rate Q̇ = q · A = 1219.34 · 0.5 = 609.67 W
Energy required = m · L_v = 0.05 · 2.430e+06 = 121500.00 J
Time = Energy / Q̇ = 121500.00 / 609.67 = 199.3 s = 3.3 minutes
 506

Problem 15

A fruit puree is heated in a tubular evaporator. The evaporator must transfer 350,000 W of heat.
The effective temperature difference between steam and puree is 22°C. If the overall heat
transfer coefficient is
U = 950 W/m²·K, determine the required heating surface area.

Given:

Q = 350,000 W
U = 950 W/m²·K
ΔT = 22°C

Required:
Heating surface area (m²)

Solution:

A = Q / (U ΔT)
A = 350,000 / (950 × 22)
A = 16.76 m²

Final Answer:

Heating surface area = 16.76 m²

 507

Problem 16

A falling film evaporator operates with a heat duty of 420,000 W. The temperature difference is
18°C.
If the overall heat transfer coefficient is U = 1050 W/m²·K, calculate the heating area.

Given:

Q = 420,000 W
ΔT = 18°C
U = 1050 W/m²·K

Required:

Heating surface area (m²)

Solution:

A = Q / (U ΔT)
A = 420,000 / (1050 × 18)
A = 22.22 m²

Final Answer:

Heating surface area = 22.22 m²

 508

Problem 17

1000 kg of maize at 24% wb is dried to 14% wb in a flat-bed dryer (bed area A = 20 m²).
Dryer air temperature = 60°C; average grain temperature = 30°C.
Convective heat transfer coefficient h = 30 W/m²·K. Latent heat of vaporization h_fg =
2.40×10⁶ J/kg.
Neglect sensible heating of grain.

Given:

Initial wet mass = 1000 kg at 24% wb

Target moisture = 14% wb
Area A = 20 m²
T_air = 60°C T_grain
= 30°C h = 30
W/m²K h_fg =
2.40×10⁶ J/kg

Required:

1. Mass of water removed

2. Heat energy required (kJ)

3. Dryer heat input Q(kW)

4. Drying time (h)

Solution:

Dry solids mass: m_ds = 1000(1 − 0.24) = 760 kg

Final mass: m_final = 760 / 0.86 = 883.72 kg

Water removed: m_removed = 1000 − 883.72 = 116.28 kg
 509

Energy required: E = m_removed × h_fg = 279,072,000 J

ΔT = 60 − 30 = 30 K
Q = h A ΔT = (30)(20)(30) = 18,000 W = 18 kW

Drying mass flow rate:

m_dot = Q / h_fg = 7.5×10⁻³ kg/s

Time = m_removed / m_dot = 4.307 hours

Final Answer:

Water removed = 116.28 kg

Energy needed = 279,072 kJ

Dryer input = 18 kW

Drying time = 4.31 hours

 510

Problem 18
Evaporate 5.00 kg/h water. Feed enters at 25°C and boils at 100°C.
Steam at 120°C supplies heat. cp = 4.18 kJ/kg·K, h_fg = 2257 kJ/kg. U = 1000 W/m²K.

Given:

m_evap = 5 kg/h T_feed

= 25°C
T_boil = 100°C
T_steam = 120°C cp
= 4.18 kJ/kgK h_fg
= 2257 kJ/kg
U = 1000 W/m²K

Required:

1. Heat duty Q̇ (kW)

2. Heat-transfer area A (m²)

Solution: Sensible ΔT = 75 K q_sensible = cp

ΔT = 313.5 kJ/kg

Total heat per kg: q_total = 2570.5 kJ/kg

Q̇ = (5 × 2570.5) / 3600 = 3.57 kW

 511

ΔT = 120 − 100 = 20 K

Area = Q̇ / (U ΔT) = 0.1785 m²

Final Answer:

Heat duty = 3.57 kW

Area = 0.1785 m²
 512

Problem 19

Hot steel plate at 150 °C exposed to 20 °C ambient. Area = 0.8 m², emissivity = 0.88, convective
h = 25 W/m²·K. Determine total heat loss.

Given:

Ts = 150°C, Ta = 20°C, A = 0.8 m², ε = 0.88, h = 25 W/m²K

Required:

Total heat loss Q_total

Solution:

Q_conv = h A (Ts – Ta) = 2600 W

Q_rad = ε σ A (Ts⁴ – Ta⁴) = 985 W
Q_total = 3585 W

Final Answer:

Q_total = 3585 W
 513

Problem 20

Given:

m = 0.03 kg/s, D = 0.02 m, ρ = 983.2, μ = 4.67e-4, k = 0.653, Cp = 4182

Required:

Re, Pr, Nu, h

Solution:

Re = 4090
Pr = 2.991 Nu =
27.63 h = 902.1
W/m²K

Final Answer: h

= 902.1 W/m²K

Problem 21
 514

Air flows over a flat plate maintained at 80 °C. The free-stream air temperature is 20 °C, velocity
is 5 m/s, and the plate length is 0.5 m. Determine the average convective heat transfer coefficient
(h).
Given air properties at film temperature: k = 0.028 W/m·K, ν = 1.6×10⁻⁵ m²/s, Pr = 0.7.
Given:
T_s = 80 °C
T_∞ = 20 °C V = 5 m/s

L = 0.5 m k = 0.028

W/m·K ν

1.6×10⁻⁵ m²/s
Pr = 0.7

Required:

Average heat transfer coefficient h (W/m²·K)

Solution:

Re_L = V L / ν = 1.56×10⁵ (laminar flow)

Nu_L = 0.664 Re_L^0.5 Pr^1/3 = 232.6 h
= Nu_L k / L = 13.0 W/m²·K

Final Answer: h

= 13.0 W/m²·K

Problem 22
 515

Water at 40 °C flows inside a 25 mm pipe with velocity 0.8 m/s. Wall temperature is 60 °C.
Determine average h using Dittus–Boelter correlation.

Given:

D = 0.025 m
V = 0.8 m/s
Tf = 40 °C Tw = 60
°C k = 0.63 W/m·K ν
= 0.658×10⁻⁶ m²/s
Pr = 4.3

Required: Average heat transfer

coefficient h

Solution:

Re = 3.04×10⁴ → turbulent
Nu = 180.3 h = 4.54×10³
W/m²·K
Final Answer: h = 4.54 × 10³ W/m²·K

Problem 23
 516

Air at 20 °C flows over a large flat plate at free-stream velocity U∞ = 3.0 m/s. The plate length
in the flow direction is L = 0.5 m. Estimate the average convective heat transfer coefficient h
(W/m²·K) for laminar boundary-layer flow using the correlation:
NuL = 0.664 ReL^0.5 Pr^1/3.
Use air properties at film temperature: ν = 1.5×10⁻5 m²/s, Pr = 0.71, k = 0.026 W/m·K.

Given:

U∞ = 3.0 m/s, L = 0.5 m, ν = 1.5e-5 m²/s, Pr = 0.71, k = 0.026 W/m·K

Required:
Find ReL, NuL and average h.

Solution:

ReL = 1.0×10^5 (laminar)

NuL = 187.32 h = 9.7407
W/m²·K Answer:

h ≈ 9.74 W/m²·K

Problem 24
 517

Water at 60 °C flows through a circular pipe of diameter D = 0.02 m with mean

velocity 1.2 m/s. Determine the flow regime using Reynolds number.
If turbulent, estimate h using Dittus–Boelter: Nu = 0.023 Re^0.8 Pr^0.4.

Properties: ρ = 983 kg/m³, μ = 4.7×10⁻4 Pa·s, k = 0.655 W/m·K, Pr = 2.5.

Given:

D = 0.02 m, v = 1.2 m/s, ρ = 983 kg/m³, μ = 4.7e-4, Pr = 2.5, k = 0.655

Required: Re, regime,

Solution:

Re = 50196 → turbulent
Nu = 191.18 h = 6261.1
W/m²·K

Answer:

h ≈ 6261 W/m²·K

Problem 25
 518

A plate heat exchanger cools milk from 65°C to 20°C using cold water. The temperature
difference across the metal plate is 15°C, and the heat flux is measured at 12,000 W/m².

Given:
1. ΔT = 15°C

2. q/A = 12,000 W/m²

Required:

Overall heat transfer coefficient, U

Solution:

U = (q/A) / ΔT

U = 12,000 / 15 U = 800

W/m²·°C Answer:

800 W/m²·°C

Problem 26
 519

A steam jacket heats tomato puree. The inner wall temperature is 112°C, while the

puree surface is at 92°C. If the heat flux is 7,500 W/m², compute the heat transfer

coefficient.

Given:

1. Ts = 112°C

2. Tp = 92°C

3. q/A = 7,500 W/m²

Required:

heat transfer coefficient

Solution:

ΔT = 112 – 92 = 20°C
U = 7,500 / 20 U
= 375 W/m²·°C

Answer:

375 W/m²·°C

Phase Change
 520

Problem 1
Find the latent heat to evaporate a 30 kg of liquid at temperature of 86 ℃ . It is measured that the
heat input in process of evaporation is 27,300 kJ.
Given:
MASS: M = 30 kg
HEAT INPUT: Q = 27,300 kJ
TEMPERATURE: T = 86 ℃

Required:
The latent heat to evaporate a 30 kg of liquid.

Solution:
Q = m × Lv

Q
Lv =
m

27,300
Lv =
30

Lv = 910 kJ/kg
 521

Problem 2
What is the mass of the evaporated liquid in an AB solution with the total energy supplied was
40,000 kJ. The latent heat of vaporization in the solution has a value of 2,650 kJ/kg.
Given:
ENERGY SUPPLIED: Q = 40,000 kJ
LATENT HEAT OF Lv = 2,650 kJ/kg
VAPORIZATION:

Required:
The mass of the evaporated liquid in an AB solution.

Solution:
Q = m × Lv

Q
m=
Lv

40,000
m=
2,650

m = 15.09 kg
 522

Problem 3

Given:
Water mass m = 5 kg, initial T = 25 °C, final T = 100 °C. Specific heat c_p = 4.18 kJ·kg⁻¹·K⁻¹,
latent heat λ = 2257 kJ·kg⁻¹.

Required:
Find total heat Q.

Solution:

𝑄̇_𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝑚 𝑐_𝑝 (100 − 25) = 5 × 4.18 × 75 = 1,568 𝑘𝐽

𝑄̇_𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚 𝜆 = 5 × 2257 = 11,285 𝑘𝐽

𝑄̇_𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 1,568 + 11,285 = 12,853 𝑘𝐽

 523

Problem 4

Given:
Ethanol vapor condenses at 78 °C. Latent heat λ = 841 kJ·kg⁻¹, condensate mass m = 4.0 kg.

Required:
Find total released heat Q.

Solution:

𝑄̇ = 𝑚 𝜆 = 4.0 × 841 = 3,364 𝑘𝐽

 524

Problem 5

A layer of abrasive material containing ice is uniformly heated. The ice layer has a mass of 2 kg
and is initially at 0°C. The latent heat of fusion of ice is Lf =334 kJ/kg. Calculate the total heat
required to melt the ice completely. Assume the temperature remains at 0°C until all ice melts.

Given:
Mass of ice: m=2 kg
Latent heat of fusion: Lf =334 kJ/kg=334,000 J/kg

Required:
Total heat Q required to melt the ice (J)
Formula:
Q=m⋅ Lf Solution:
Substitute values
Q=2× 334,000=668,000 J
Convert to kJ
Q=668 kJ
Q=668 kJ
668 kJ of heat is required to melt 2 kg of ice in the AB material.

Problem 6

A tank containing 5 kg of water mixed with abrasive powder is heated from 90°C to 100°C and
then boiled completely at 100°C. The specific heat of water is c=4.18 kJ/kg ⋅K , and the latent
 525

heat of vaporization is Lv =2257 kJ/kg . Calculate the total heat required to raise the temperature
and then vaporize all the water.

Given:
Mass of water: m=5 kg
Initial temperature: T i=90∘ C
Boiling temperature: T b=100∘ C
Specific heat: c=4.18 kJ/kg ⋅K
Latent heat of vaporization: Lv =2257 kJ/kg

Required:
Total heat Qtotal (kJ)
Formulas:
Heat to raise temperature to boiling:
Q1=mc (T b−T i)
Heat for phase change (vaporization):
Q2=m Lv
Total heat:
Qtotal =Q1 +Q2
Solution:
Compute heat to raise temperature
Q1=5 × 4.18 ×(100−90)=5× 4.18 ×10=209 kJ
Compute heat for vaporization
Q2=5 ×2257=11,285 kJ
Compute total heat

Qtotal =209+11,285=11,494 kJ

Qtotal =11,494 kJ
Approximately 11,494 kJ of heat is required to heat 5 kg of water from 90°C to boiling and
vaporize it completely.

Problem 7

A beaker contains 0.5 kg of water initially at 25°C. Calculate the total energy required to heat all
the water to steam at 100°C, ignoring any energy absorbed by the container. The specific heat
capacity of water is 4186 J/kg\oC and the latent heat of vaporization is 2.26×106 J/kg.

Given:
m = 0.5kg
 526

Ti = 25oC
Tb = 100oC
C = 4186 J/kg/oC
Lv = 2.26 x 106 J/kg

Required:
total energy, Qtotal (J)

Solution:
Step 1: This water will go through one phase change. After it heats up to the boiling point
(100oC), the water will vaporize, turning to steam.

Q1 = mc∆T ∆T = (Tb - Ti)

Q1 = 0.5 (4186) (100−25)
Q1 = 156,975 J

Step 2: Vaporize the water at 100°C

Q2 = mLv
Q2 = 0.5 (2.26 x 106)
Q2 = 1,130,000 J

Step 3: Total energy required

Qtotal = Q1 + Q2
Qtotal = 156,975 J + 1,130,000 J
Qtotal = 1,286,975 J or 1.29 MJ

Final Answer: Qtotal = 1.29 MJ

Problem 8

How much energy would it take to cool 0.62 kg of water at 50 degrees C until it freezes solid?
Some facts about water:

Given:
Freezing point: 0 degrees C
Specific heat: 4180 J/kg/C
 527

Latent heat of fusion: 333,000 J/kg

Required:
total energy, Qtotal (J)

Solution:

Step 1: There is only one phase change from liquid to water in this transition.

Step 2: The energy lost by the water as it freezes to its cooling point is found using the equation:
Q1 = mc∆T
Q = (0.62kg) (4180 J/kg/C) (-50oC)
Q = - 129580 J

Step 3: Amount of heat lost to freeze the liquid into a solid

Q = -mLf
Q = (0.62kg) (333000 J/kg)
Q = 206460 J

Step 4: the total energy lost by the water as it freezes

Qtotal = -129580 - 206460 J
Qtotal = 3.4x105 L

Final Answer: Qtotal = 3.4x105 L

Problem 9

A liquid food at 25°C must be evaporated. Its boiling point at operating pressure is 92°C. The
heat capacity is c p=3.7 kJ/kg∙K . Latent heat at boiling is 2250 kJ/kg. Determine the total heat
required per kg to raise the temperature and evaporate the water.

Given:
Initial temperature = 25°C
 528

Boiling temperature = 92°C

Heat capacity = c p=3.7 kJ/kg∙K
Latent heat = 2250 kJ/kg

Required:
Total heat needed per kg (kJ/kg)

Solution:
Qs =c p (T b−T i)=3.7 (92−25)=3.7(67)=247.9 kJ/kg
Qv =2250 kJ/kg
Qtotal=247.9+ 2250=2497.9 kJ/kg

Problem 10

A dilute solution requires evaporation. The liquid enters at 35°C and boils at 85°C. Heat capacity
is c p=4.1 kJ/kg∙K , and latent heat is 2300 kJ/kg. Compute the fraction of total energy that goes
to sensible heating.

Given:
Initial temperature = 35°C
Boiling temperature = 85°C
 529

Heat capacity = 4.1 kJ/kg·K

Latent heat = 2300 kJ/kg

Required:
Fraction = Qs /(Qs +Q v )

Solution:
Qs =4.1(85−35)=4.1(50)=205 kJ/kg
Qtotal=205+ 2300=2505 kJ/kg
f =205 /2505=0.0818=8.18 %

Problem 11

Steam at 100°C condenses on a vertical plate that is maintained at 90°C. The plate is 0.5 m high.
Determine the average heat transfer coefficient using Nusselt’s theory for laminar film
condensation.
(Adapted from Holman, 2019).

Given:
 530

T_v = 100°C, T_w = 90°C, L = 0.5 m, ρ_l = 958 kg/m³, k = 0.68 W/m·K, μ = 0.28×10⁻³ Pa·s,
h_fg = 2257 kJ/kg, g = 9.81 m/s².

Required:
Average heat transfer coefficient, h_avg

Solution:
h_avg = 0.943[(ρ_l²gk³h_fg)/ (μL (T_v - T_w))] ^ (1/4) =
0.943[(958²×9.81×0.68³×2.257×10⁶)/(0.28×10⁻³×0.5×10)] ^ (1/4) = 6,470 W/m²·K.

Final Answer:
Average heat transfer coefficient = 6,470 W/m²·K.

Problem 12

Water boils at 100°C on a horizontal surface maintained at 108°C. Estimate the heat flux using
the Rohsenow correlation for nucleate boiling.
(Based on Rohsenow, 1952).

Given:
 531

ΔT = 8°C, μ = 0.28×10⁻³ Pa·s, g = 9.81 m/s², ρ_l = 958 kg/m³, ρ_v = 0.6 kg/m³, h_fg =
2.257×10⁶ J/kg, c_p = 4.2 kJ/kg·K, σ = 0.059 N/m, C_sf = 0.013.

Required:
Heat flux, q''

Solution:
q'' = μh_fg [g (ρ_l - ρ_v)/σ] ^0.5 [c_pΔT/ (C_sf h_fg Pr^0.33)]³ = 1.2×10⁵ W/m².

Final Answer:
Heat flux = 1.2×10⁵ W/m².

Problem 13

A food engineer dries 2.00 kg of fresh apple slices in a tray dryer. Initial moisture content =
80.0% (wet basis). Target moisture content = 10.0% (wet basis). Drying air temperature = 60.0
°C. Initial product temperature = 20.0 °C. Specific heat of the wet product c_p = 3.50 kJ/kg·K.
Latent heat of vaporization of water at 60 °C L_v = 2430 kJ/kg. Electric heater supplies a
 532

constant power of P = 500 W to the tray; assume all delivered heat goes into sensible heating of
the product and evaporation (no losses).

Given:
• Total wet mass m_total = 2.00 kg
• Initial moisture content (wet basis) MC_i = 0.800
• Final moisture content (wet basis) MC_f = 0.100
• Initial temperature T_i = 20.0 °C
• Drying temperature T_d = 60.0 °C
• Specific heat c_p = 3.50 kJ/kg·K
• Latent heat L_v = 2430 kJ/kg
• Power P = 500 W = 0.500 kJ/s

Required:
Drying time t (in seconds and converted to hours/minutes) to reach MC_f given the stated
assumptions.

Solution:

1) Compute initial and final masses of water

m_w,i = MC_i × m_total = 0.800 × 2.00 = 1.600 kg
m_w,f = MC_f × m_total = 0.100 × 2.00 = 0.200 kg
Δm_w = 1.600 - 0.200 = 1.400 kg

2) Compute sensible heat required to raise product temperature from T_i to T_d
Q_sensible = m_total × c_p × (T_d - T_i)
ΔT = 60 - 20 = 40 K
Q_sensible = 2.00 × 3.50 × 40 = 280.0 kJ

3) Compute latent heat required to evaporate Δm_w

Q_latent = Δm_w × L_v = 1.400 × 2430 = 3402.0 kJ

4) Total heat required

Q_total = Q_sensible + Q_latent = 280.0 + 3402.0 = 3682.0 kJ

5) Compute drying time from available power

t = Q_total / P = 3682.0 / 0.500 = 7364.0 s
Convert to hours: 7364 / 3600 = 2.0456 h ≈ 2 h 2 min 44 s
 533

Problem 14

A batch of 200 kg wet cassava cubes with initial moisture content 70% (w.b.) is to be dried to
10% (w.b.). The product is heated from 25°C to 60°C before evaporation. Use specific heat of
the wet product (cp = 3.5 kJ·kg⁻¹·K⁻¹). Latent heat of vaporization L = 2257 kJ·kg ⁻¹. A dryer
burner can supply 60 kW of thermal power.
 534

Given:
• Mi = 200 kg (wet product)
• Xi = 70% = 0.70 (initial, w.b.)
• Xf = 10% = 0.10 (final, w.b.)
• Ti = 25°C, Td = 60°C
• cp = 3.5 kJ·kg⁻¹·K⁻¹
• L = 2257 kJ·kg⁻¹
• Psupplied = 60 kW

Required:
1. Mass of water removed (kg) and total energy required for heating + evaporation (kJ and kWh).
2. Minimum dryer useful efficiency (fraction and %) required to complete the drying in 3 hours.

Solution:
4. Dry solids and water masses

Ms = Mi(1 - Xi) = 200(1 - 0.70) = 60.0 kg

Wi = MiXi = 200 × 0.70 = 140.0 kg
Wf = (XfMs) / (1 - Xf) = (0.10 × 60) / 0.90 = 6.67 kg
ΔW = Wi - Wf = 140.0 - 6.67 = 133.33 kg

2.) Sensible energy to heat product

Qsensible = Mi × cp × (Td - Ti) = 200 × 3.5 × 35 = 24,500 kJ

3) Latent energy for evaporation

Qlatent = ΔW × L = 133.33 × 2257 = 300,933.33 kJ

4) Total energy required

Qtotal = Qsensible + Qlatent = 24,500 + 300,933.33 = 325,433.33 kJ = 90.40 kWh

5) Efficiency required for 3-hour drying

Puseful = QkWh / t = 90.40 / 3 = 30.13 kW
η = Puseful / Psupplied = 30.13 / 60 = 0.5022 = 50.22%
 535

Problem 15

A juice stream at 25°C must be heated to its boiling point of 102°C before evaporation.
The mass flow is 600 kg/h and specific heat is 3.8 kJ/kg°C. Compute sensible heat required.
 536

Given: m = 600 kg/h =

0.1667 kg/s
Cp = 3.8 kJ/kg°C
ΔT = 102 – 25 = 77°C

Required:

Sensible heat (kW)

Solution:

Q = m Cp ΔT
Q = (0.1667) (3.8) (77)
Q = 48.82 kW

Problem 16

A dairy plant evaporates 150 kg/h of water using microwave heating at 2450 MHz.
Latent heat of vaporization = 2257 kJ/kg. Compute required power.

Given: m = 150 kg/h =

 537

0.04167 kg/s
Lv = 2257 kJ/kg

Required:

Power (kW)

Solution:

Q = m Lv
Q = (0.04167) (2257)
Q = 94.12 kW

Problem 17
600 kg tomatoes at +4°C cooled to −18°C. cp = 3.98 kJ/kgK, latent heat L_f = 334 kJ/kg.
Remove heat in three stages: cooling to 0°C, freezing, cooling to −18°C. Cooling rate = 5.0 kW.

Given: m = 600 kg Ti = +4°C Tf = −18°C cp = 3.98 kJ/kgK L_f

= 334 kJ/kg Cooling power = 5 kW

 538

Required:

5. Total heat removed (kJ)

6. Freezing time (h)

Solution:

Q1 = 600×3.98×4 = 9552 kJ
Q2 = 600×334 = 200400 kJ
Q3 = 600×3.98×18 = 42912 kJ
Q_total = 252,864 kJ
Time = 252,864 / 5 = 50,572.8 s = 14.05 h
Final Answer:

Total heat = 252,864 kJ

Time = 14.05 hours

Problem 18

Freeze 400 kg mango pulp from 25°C to −20°C.

cp1 = 3.6 kJ/kgK (above −2°C), cp2 = 1.9 kJ/kgK (below).
Latent heat L_f = 250 kJ/kg.

Given:
 539

m = 400 kg
Ti = 25°C
Tf = −20°C
Freezing point = −2°C cp1 = 3.6

kJ/kgK cp2 = 1.9 kJ/kgK L_f =

250 kJ/kg

Required:

1. Total heat removed (kJ)

2. Fraction of total for phase change (%)

Solution:

Q1 = 400×3.6×27 = 38,880 kJ
Q2 = 400×250 = 100,000 kJ
Q3 = 400×1.9×18 = 13,680 kJ
Q_total = 152,560 kJ
Phase-change fraction = 100,000 / 152,560 × 100 = 65.5%
Final Answer:
Total heat = 152,560 kJ

Phase change = 65.5%

Problem 19
Evaporate 320 kg/h water. Lv = 2257 kJ/kg.

Given: m = 320 kg/h, Lv =

2257 kJ/kg

Required:
 540

Thermal power Q (kW)

Solution:

m = 0.08888 kg/s
Q = 0.08888 × 2,257,000 = 200,602 W = 200.60 kW

Energy Efficiency

Problem 1
Calculate the energy efficiency of the evaporator that has an input capacity of heat energy of 150
kJ. This is used to vaporize an AB solution. But due to some instances there are some lost on the
surroundings, only 96 kJ and which contributes to actual vaporization.

Given:
 541

USEFUL ENERGY: Quseful = 96 kJ

INPUT ENERGY: Qinput = 150 kJ

Required:

The energy efficiency of the evaporator.

Solution:

Quseful
Efficiency = × 100
Qinput

96
Efficiency = × 100
150

Efficiency = 64 %

Problem 2
Find which evaporator is has better energy efficient, is it the evaporator A or B? Take into
considerations all the following data provided in getting their energy efficiencies.
Given:
FOR A : Q A = 130 kJ m A = 0.045 kg
FOR B : QB = 155 kJ mB = 0.05 kg
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION : Lv = 2,300 kJ/kg
 542

Required:
The efficiency of each evaporator and determine which better of the two.
Solution:
FOR A:
m× L v
Efficiency =
Qinput

0.045 ×2,300
Efficiency = × 100
130

Efficiency = 0.79 ≈ 0.80 = 80%

FOR B:
m× L v
Efficiency =
Qinput

0.05 ×2,300
Efficiency = × 100
155

Efficiency = 0.742 ≈ 0.74 = 74%

Answer: Evaporator a is more efficient than evaporator b.

Problem 3

Given:
Steam supplied = 1,200 kg/h, water evaporated = 1,500 kg/h.

Required:
Compute steam economy E.
 543

Solution:

𝐸 = 𝑚_𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 / 𝑚_𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 1500 / 1200 = 1.25

 544

Problem 4

Given:
Evaporator removes 2,500 kg/h of water, steam economy E = 1.3.

Required:
Determine required steam flow rate.

Solution:

𝑚_𝑠 = 𝑚_𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝 / 𝐸 = 2500 / 1.3 = 1,923 𝑘𝑔/ℎ

 545

Problem 5

A batch dryer is used to dry 100 kg of abrasive material. The initial moisture content is 0.4 kg
water/kg dry solid, and the final moisture content is 0.1 kg water/kg dry solid. The latent heat of
vaporization of water is Lv =2257 kJ/kg . The total energy supplied to the dryer is 300,000 kJ.
Calculate the energy efficiency of the drying process.

Given:
Mass of material: mtotal =100 kg
Initial moisture content: M i=0.4
Final moisture content: M f =0.1
Latent heat of vaporization: Lv =2257 kJ/kg
Total energy supplied: E input=300,000 kJ

Required:
Energy efficiency η (%)

Solution:
Mass of dry solid:
m total 100
mdry = = ≈ 71.43 kg
1+ M i 1+ 0.4
Mass of water removed:
mw =mdry (M i−M f )=71.43 ×(0.4−0.1)=21.43 kg
Useful energy (energy for evaporation):
E useful =mw ⋅ L v =21.43 ×2257 ≈ 48,378 kJ
Energy efficiency:
E useful 48,378
η= ×100= ×100 ≈ 16.13 %
E input 300,000
η ≈ 16.13 %
The drying process has an energy efficiency of about 16.1%, indicating most energy is lost
as heat to the surroundings.

Problem 6
 546

A thin layer of abrasive material is evaporated using hot air. The measured heat transferred to the
surface is 12,000 W, and the mass of water removed per second is 0.005 kg/s. The latent heat of
vaporization is Lv =2257 kJ/kg . Calculate the energy efficiency of the heat transfer process.

Given:
Heat supplied: Qin =12,000 W
Mass of water removed: ṁw =0.005 kg/s
Latent heat of vaporization: Lv =2,257,000 J/kg
Required:
Energy efficiency η (%)
Formula:
Useful energy
η= ×100
Energy supplied
Where:
Useful energy= ṁw ⋅ Lv
Solution:
Compute useful energy for evaporation
E useful =ṁw ⋅ L v =0.005 ×2,257,000=11,285 W
Compute energy efficiency
11,285
η= ×100 ≈ 94.0 %
12,000
η ≈ 94.0 %
The heat transfer process has an energy efficiency of about 94%, indicating most of the
supplied energy is effectively used for evaporation.

Problem 7

An industrial electric motor draws a rated electrical power input of 75 kW from the mains. In
steady-operation, its useful mechanical power output (shaft work) is measured at 58.5 kW. The
rest of the input power is lost as heat and friction in the motor and associated drive system.
 547

(a) Determine the efficiency of the motor (as a percentage).

(b) Calculate how much of the input power (in kW) is being wasted.
(c) If this motor runs for 8 hours per day, estimate how much wasted energy (in kWh) is
produced each day.

Given:
Power input = 75kW
Power output = 58.5kW
Time = 8hrs/day

Required:
a.) efficiency (η) (%)
b.) Pwaste
c.) Pwaste if motor runs 8hrs/day

Solution:
a.) efficiency = (power output / power input)
η = (58.5 kW / 75 kW)
η = 0.78
η =0.78 x 100% = 78%

b.) Wasted Power = Power input – Power output

Pwaste = 75kw – 58.8kW
Pwaste = 16.5 kW

c.) if the motor runs 8hrs/day

Pwaste/day = Pwaste x Time
Pwaste/day = 16.5kW x 8
Pwaste/day = 132kW/day

Problem 8

A heat pump delivers 24 kW of heating power to a building while consuming 8 kW of electrical

power.
 548

(a) Determine the efficiency of the heat pump (as a percentage).

(b) Calculate the electrical energy consumed if it runs for 5 hours.

Given:
Pout = 24kW
Pin = 8 kW
t = 5 hours

Required:
a.) efficiency (η) (%)
b.) Electrical energy consumed (kWh)

Solution:

a.) Efficiency

η= Pout x 100%
Pin
η= 24 x 100%
8
η = 300%

b.) Electrical energy consumed

Eelectric = Pin x t
Eelectric = 8 x 5
Eelectric = 40 kWh

Final Answer: η = 300% & Eelectric = 40 kWh

Problem 9

An evaporator removes 150 kg/h of water. The total steam energy supplied is 420 MJ/h.
Compute the energy efficiency of evaporation.
 549

Given:

Water evaporated: 150 kg/h

Steam energy input: 420 MJ/h

Latent heat of water: 2257 kJ/kg

Required:

Energy efficiency η

Solution:

Quseful =150(2257)=338,550 kJ/h ¿ 338.55 MJ/h

338.55
η= =0.806=80.6 %
420

Problem 10

A system receives 300 MJ/h of heat and evaporates 95 kg/h of water. Latent heat is 2250 kJ/kg.
Find the percentage of wasted energy.
 550

Given:
Heat supplied = 300 MJ/h
Water evaporated = 95 kg/h
Latent heat = 2250 kJ/kg

Required:
% wasted energy

Solution:

Quseful =95(2250)=213,750 kJ/h=213.75 MJ/h

Qwaste =300−213.75=86.25 MJ/h
% waste=(86.25/300)×100=28.75 %

Problem 11

A counterflow heat exchanger transfers heat from hot water (2 kg/s, 80°C) to cold oil (1.5 kg/s,
20°C). The overall heat transfer coefficient is 300 W/m²·K and the area is 15 m². Find the
effectiveness and efficiency of the exchanger.
 551

(Adapted from Çengel, 2019).

Given:
m_h = 2 kg/s, m_c = 1.5 kg/s, T_h,i = 80°C, T_c,i = 20°C, U = 300 W/m²·K, A = 15 m², c_ph =
4.2 kJ/kg·K, c_pc = 2.1 kJ/kg·K.

Required:
Effectiveness and efficiency

Solution:

C_h = 8400 W/K, C_c = 3150 W/K, C_min = 3150, C_r = 0.375.
NTU = UA/C_min = (300×15)/3150 = 1.43 → ε = (1 - exp[-NTU(1 - C_r)]) / (1 - C_r exp[-
NTU(1 - C_r)]) = 0.64.

Final Answer:
Heat exchanger effectiveness = 0.64 or 64%

Problem 12

Steam is used to heat 500 kg/h of water from 25°C to 75°C. If steam condenses at 120°C with
h_fg = 2200 kJ/kg, determine the energy efficiency of the process.
(Based on Geankoplis, 2018).
 552

Given:
ṁ_w = 500 kg/h = 0.139 kg/s, ΔT = 50°C, c_p = 4.18 kJ/kg·K, h_fg = 2200 kJ/kg.

Required:
Energy efficiency, η

Solution:

Q_water = ṁ_w c_p ΔT = 0.139×4.18×50 = 29.05 kJ/s.

Q_steam = ṁ_s h_fg → η = Q_water / Q_steam → assuming η = (29.05 / (0.013×2200)) = 0.999
≈ 99.9%.

Final Answer:
Energy efficiency = 99.9%.

Problem 13

A batch of fresh mango slices (1000 kg total mass) at 30°C and 80% moisture (wet basis) is to
be dried to 15% moisture (wet basis) using a hot-air dryer. The drying air temperature is 70°C.
Assume the specific heat capacity of the wet mango (average) is 3.6 kJ·kg ⁻¹·K ⁻¹. Use an
 553

average latent heat of vaporization of water at dryer conditions of 2400 kJ·kg ⁻¹. Ignore heat
losses other than those represented by dryer thermal efficiency.

Given:
Initial total mass of mango slices, m_i = 1000 kg
Initial moisture (wet basis), X_i = 80% = 0.80 (wb)
Final moisture (wet basis), X_f = 15% = 0.15 (wb)
Initial temperature, T_i = 30 °C
Drying air temperature (final product temperature), T_d = 70 °C
Specific heat of wet mango, c_p = 3.6 kJ·kg⁻¹·K⁻¹
Latent heat of vaporization (at ~70 °C), h_fg = 2400 kJ·kg⁻¹
Dryer thermal efficiency (case A), η_A = 30% = 0.30
Improved dryer thermal efficiency with heat recovery (case B), η_B = 45% = 0.45

Required:
1. Calculate the mass of water to be removed (kg).
2. Calculate the theoretical energy required (kJ) to heat the product to drying temperature
(sensible) and to evaporate the water (latent).
3. Determine the required energy input from the dryer (kJ and kWh) for case A (η_A = 30%).
4. Calculate the specific energy consumption (SEC) in kWh·kg⁻¹ of water removed for case A.
5. If heat recovery is added and dryer efficiency improves to η_B = 45%, compute the new
energy input and the absolute and percentage energy savings compared to case A.

Solution:

1) Dry solids and masses:

- Dry solids = m_i × (1 − X_i) = 200.000 kg
- Final total mass m_f = dry_solids / (1 − X_f) = 235.294 kg
- Initial water mass = m_i × X_i = 800.000 kg
- Final water mass = m_f × X_f = 35.294 kg
- Water to be removed = 764.706 kg

2) Theoretical energy (sensible + latent):

- Sensible heating: Q_sensible = m_i × c_p × ΔT = 1000 × 3.60 × 40 = 144,000 kJ
- Latent (evaporation): Q_latent = water_removed × h_fg = 764.706 × 2400 = 1,835,294 kJ
- Total theoretical energy Q_theoretical = 1,979,294 kJ

3) Energy input required (including dryer efficiency):

- Case A (η = 0.30): E_input_A = Q_theoretical / η_A = 6,597,647 kJ = 1,832.68 kWh
 554

- Case B (η = 0.45): E_input_B = Q_theoretical / η_B = 4,398,431 kJ = 1,221.79 kWh

4) Specific energy consumption (SEC) for Case A:

- SEC = E_input_A / water_removed = 8,628 kJ·kg⁻¹ = 2.397 kWh·kg⁻¹

5) Energy savings with improved efficiency (η_B = 0.45):

- Absolute energy saved = E_input_A − E_input_B = 2,199,216 kJ = 610.89 kWh
- Percentage saving = 33.33%

Problem 14

A small batch evaporator is used to concentrate pineapple juice. During a short operation, 5 kg of
water is evaporated from the juice. If the latent heat of vaporization at the operating temperature
 555

is 2257 kJ/kg, determine the total energy required to evaporate the water. Assume no sensible
heating and no heat losses.

Given:
Mass of water evaporated, m = 5 kg
Latent heat of vaporization, h_fg = 2257 kJ/kg

Required:
3. Total energy required to evaporate the water (kJ).

Solution:

Formula:
Q = m × h_fg

Substitution:
Q = 5 kg × 2257 kJ/kg

Computation:
Q = 11285 kJ

Final Answer:
The total energy required to evaporate 5 kg of water is 11,285 kJ.

Problem 15
A boiler produces 500 kg/h steam (dry) from feed-water at 20 °C.
Fuel input = 3.5×10⁶ W. Latent heat hfg = 2.26×10⁶ J/kg.
 556

Given:

m = 0.13889 kg/s, hfg = 2.26e6, fuel = 3.5e6

Required:

Boiler thermal efficiency.

Solution:

Q = 3.1389e5 W
Efficiency = 0.089683

Answer:

≈ 8.97%

Problem 16
An evaporator uses 600 kg/h of steam to evaporate 1,500 kg/h of water.
Compute its steam economy.
 557

Given:

• Steam used = 600 kg/h • Water evaporated

= 1500 kg/h

Required:

Steam economy

Solution:

Steam economy = 1500 / 600

= 2.5 kg water/kg steam

Answer: Steam economy = 2.5

Problem 17
A process requires 850 kW of heating. If the actual steam supplied provides only 720 kW to the
product, determine the thermal efficiency.

Given:
 558

4. Required output = 720 kW

5. Input = 850 kW

Required:

Efficiency
Solution:

Efficiency = (720 / 850) × 100

= 84.7%
Answer:

84.7%

Problem 18
A dryer consumes 120 kW and removes 250 kg/h water. h_fg = 2250 kJ/kg. Compute thermal
efficiency.

Given:
 559

Power input = 120 kW m

_water = 0.06944 kg/s h_fg
= 2.25×10⁶ J/kg

Required:

Efficiency η

Solution:

Useful power = 156,240 W η = 156,240 /

120,000 = 1.302 → 130.2%

Final Answer:

η = 130.2% (indicates heat recovery)

Problem 19
Heat exchanger recovers 45 kW. Auxiliary energy = 85 kW. Net thermal need = 200 kW.
Compute overall efficiency.

Given:
 560

Recovered = 45 kW
Auxiliary = 85 kW
Required thermal = 200 kW

Required:
Overall efficiency η_overall

Solution:

External thermal = 155 kW

Total external = 240 kW η
= 200 / 240 = 83.33%

Final Answer:

η_overall = 83.33%

Multiple Effect Evaporation

Problem 1
In a process of concentration, a triple effect evaporator is used to evaporate a total of 1000 kg of
water while the steamed consumed was 475 kg. Determine the steam economy.
 561

Given:

MASS OF WATER mass water evaporated = 1000 kg

EVAPORATED:

MASS OF STEAM: mass steamed = 475 kg

Required:

Determined the steam economy.

Solution:

masswater evaporated
Steam economy =
mass steamed

1000
Steam economy =
475

Steam economy = 2.105 ≈ 2.11 kg water/kg steam

Problem 2
 562

The steam economy of a double effect evaporator is 2.4. Find the total mass of evaporated water
if the steam has a mass of 750 kg.
Given:

STEAM ECONOMY: Steam economy = 2.4

MASS OF STEAM: mass steamed = 750 kg

Required:

The mass of evaporated water in the steam.

Solution:

masswater evaporated
Steam economy =
mass steamed

mass water evaporated = Steam economy × mass steamed

mass water evaporated = 2.4 × 750

mass water evaporated = 1800 kg of water

 563

Problem 3

Given:
Steam condenses on an evaporator surface of area A = 1.0 m². Heat flow rate Q̇ = 30 kW,
temperature difference ΔT = 25 K.

Required:
Find the overall heat transfer coefficient h.

Solution:

ℎ = 𝑄̇ / (𝐴 𝛥𝑇) = 30,000 / (1.0 × 25) = 1,200 𝑊 · 𝑚⁻² · 𝐾⁻¹

 564

Problem 4

Given:
Measured heat transfer rate Q̇ = 18,000 W, area A = 0.9 m², temperature difference ΔT = 20 K.

Required:
Calculate h.

Solution:

ℎ = 𝑄̇ / (𝐴 𝛥𝑇) = 18,000 / (0.9 × 20) = 1,000 𝑊 · 𝑚⁻² · 𝐾⁻¹

 565

Problem 5

A triple-effect evaporator is used to concentrate a liquid containing abrasive material. The feed
contains 500 kg/h of water and 200 kg/h of dry solids. The evaporator removes water in three
stages with steam economy of 2.5 (kg of water evaporated per kg of steam). Calculate the total
mass of water evaporated per hour and the mass of final concentrated solution.

Given:
Feed water: 500 kg/h
Dry solids: 200 kg/h
Steam economy: 2.5 (kg water/kg steam)

Required:
Mass of water evaporated (mevap)
Mass of concentrated solution (mconc)
Formulas:
Mass balance:
mconc =dry solids+remaining water =mdry +(mwater, feed −mevap)
Water evaporated in multiple effect evaporator (using steam economy):
mevap =Steam supplied × Economy Solution:
Suppose steam supplied is sufficient to remove all excess water (simplifying). Total water to be
removed:
mevap =500 kg/h
Mass of final concentrated solution:
mconc =mdry solids + mremaining water =200+(500−500)=200 kg/h
In this simplified example, all feed water is removed, leaving only dry solids.

Mass of water evaporated = 500 kg/h

Mass of concentrated solution = 200 kg/h
This illustrates mass reduction in a multiple-effect evaporator.

Problem 6
 566

A double-effect evaporator is used to concentrate 1000 kg/h of an abrasive slurry with 70%
water. The first effect uses 100 kg/h of steam at 100°C. If the steam economy of the double-
effect evaporator is 1.8, calculate:

a) The total mass of water evaporated per hour

b) The mass of concentrated slurry after evaporation

Given:
Feed mass: 1000 kg/h
Water fraction: 70% → water mass 700 kg/h
Dry solids: 300 kg/h
Steam supplied: 100 kg/h
Steam economy: 1.8 (kg water evaporated per kg steam)

Required:
Mass of water evaporated mevap
Mass of concentrated slurry mconc
Formulas:
Total water evaporated:
mevap =steam supplied × steam economy=100 ×1.8
Mass of concentrated slurry:
mconc =mdry solids + mremaining water =300+(700−mevap ) Solution :
Compute total water evaporated
mevap =100× 1.8=180 kg/h
Remaining water
mwater, remaining =700−180=520 kg/h
Mass of concentrated slurry
mconc =300+520=820 kg/h

Mass of water evaporated = 180 kg/h

Mass of concentrated slurry = 820 kg/h
This shows how multiple-effect evaporators improve energy efficiency, evaporating more
water per kg of steam compared to single-effect systems.
 567

Problem 7

A feed of 5000 kg/hr of water containing 10% solids is to be concentrated to 25% solids in a
triple-effect evaporator. Calculate:
a.) The total water evaporated per hour.
b.) If the first effect uses fresh steam, how much steam is required, assuming each effect
evaporates an equal amount of water.
 568

Given:
Feed = 5000 kg/hr
Solids in feed = 10% = 0.1
Product solids = 25% =0.25
Number of effects = 3
Latent heat of vaporization (L) = 2250 kJ/kg

Required:
Total water evaporated per hour
Steam required in the first effect

Solution:

a.) Total water evaporated per hour

Mass of solids = Feed × % solids
Mass of solids in feed = 5000 × 0.10 = 500 kg/hr

Mass of product = Mass of solids ÷ % solids in product

Mass of product = 500 ÷ 0.25 = 2000 kg/hr

Water in product = Mass of product − Mass of solids

Water in product = 2000 − 500 = 1500 kg/hr

Water evaporated = Water in feed − Water in product

Water evaporated = (5000 − 500) − 1500 = 3000 kg/hr

b.) Steam required in the first effect

Equal evaporation in each effect = Water evaporated ÷ Number of effects
Equal evaporation in each effect = 3000 ÷ 3 = 1000 kg/hr

Heat required = Water evaporated × Latent heat

Heat required per effect = 1000 × 2250 = 2,250,000 kJ/hr

Steam required = Heat required ÷ Latent heat

Steam required in first effect = 2,250,000 ÷ 2250 = 1000 kg/hr

Final Answer: Water evaporated = 3,000 kg/h &

Steam requirement in first effect = 1,000 kg/h
 569

Problem 8

A double-effect evaporator concentrates 4000 kg/hr of 8% solids solution to 20% solids. find the:
a.) The total water evaporated per hour.
b.) water evaporated in each effect.

Given:
Feed = 4000 kg/hr
 570

Solids in feed = 8%
Product solids = 20%
Number of effects = 2

Required:
Total water evaporated per hour
Water evaporated in each effect.

Solution:

a.) The total water evaporated per hour.

Mass of solids = Feed × % solids

Mass of solids = 4000 × 0.08 = 320 kg/hr

Mass of product = Mass of solids ÷ % solids in product

Mass of product = 320 ÷ 0.20 = 1600 kg/hr

Water evaporated = Water in feed − Water in product

Water in product = 1600 − 320 = 1280 kg/hr

Water evaporated per effect = Total water evaporated ÷ Number of effects

Water evaporated = (4000 − 320) − 1280 = 2400 kg/hr

b.) water evaporated in each effect.

Equal evaporation in two effects = Water evaporated ÷ Number of effects

Equal evaporation in two effects = 2400 ÷ 2 = 1200 kg/hr per effect

Final Answer: Water evaporated = 2400 kg/hr & Equal evaporation in two effects = 1200
kg/hr per effect
 571

Problem 9

A double-effect evaporator evaporates 1200 kg/h of water total. The steam consumption in the
first effect is 700 kg/h. Compute the steam economy.

Given:

Water evaporated: 1200 kg/h

 572

Steam used: 700 kg/h

Required:

Steam economy

Solution:

kg water evaporated 1200

Economy = ¿ =1.714
kg steam used 700

Problem 10

A triple-effect evaporator removes 3000 kg/h of water using 980 kg/h of steam. Determine the
steam economy and compare it to single-effect performance (1.0 economy).

Given:

Water evaporated: 3000 kg/h

 573

Steam: 980 kg/h

Required:

Steam economy

Improvement factor vs. single-effect

Solution:

Economy =3000/980=3.061

3.061/1.0=3.06

Problem 11

A double-effect evaporator concentrates a 10% NaCl solution to 30%. Feed rate is 5000 kg/h and
the first effect operates at 1 atm while the second at 0.3 atm. Determine the steam economy if the
latent heat of condensation is 2200 kJ/kg.
(Adapted from Coulson & Richardson, 2017).

Given:
 574

Feed = 5000 kg/h, x_f = 0.1, x_p = 0.3, h_fg = 2200 kJ/kg.

Required:

Steam economy, SE

Solution:

Mass of product = (0.1×5000)/0.3 = 1667 kg/h → water evaporated = 5000 - 1667 = 3333 kg/h.

In a double effect, SE = (water evaporated)/(steam used) ≈ 2.

Final Answer:

Steam economy = 2.0 kg vapor/kg steam.

Problem 12

A triple-effect evaporator handles 10,000 kg/h of dilute sugar solution (5% solids) and
concentrates it to 50%. If 4000 kg/h of steam is supplied to the first effect, estimate the steam
economy.
(Based on Geankoplis, 2018).

Given:
 575

Feed = 10,000 kg/h, x_f = 0.05, x_p = 0.5, steam = 4000 kg/h.

Required:

Steam economy, SE

Solution:

Product = (0.05×10,000)/0.5 = 1000 kg/h → water evaporated = 10,000 - 1000 = 9000 kg/h.

SE = 9000 / 4000 = 2.25 kg vapor/kg steam.

Final Answer:

Steam economy = 2.25 kg vapor/kg steam.

Problem 13

Feed: 5,000 kg/h of juice at 25 °C containing 10% (w/w) total soluble solids. The product must
be concentrated to 60% (w/w) solids. Live steam is supplied to the first effect. Boiling
temperatures (saturated) in the effects are: Effect 1 = 95 °C, Effect 2 = 85 °C, Effect 3 = 75 °C.
Assume an average latent heat of vaporization (L) = 2,257 kJ/kg for the vapor involved, and the
specific heat capacity of the juice (cp) = 3.9 kJ/kg·K. Neglect heat losses to the surroundings and
any boiling-point elevation. Vapors from an effect serve as the heating medium for the next effect
(ideal internal reuse).
 576

Given:
• Feed flow rate = 5,000 kg/h (juice at 25 °C, 10% solids)
• Product solids = 60% (w/w)
• Number of effects, N = 3 (forward feed)
• Boiling temperature, Effect 1 = 95 °C (feed boiling temperature)
• cp (juice) = 3.9 kJ/kg·K (assumed)
• Latent heat, L = 2,257 kJ/kg (assumed constant)
• Feed temperature = 25 °C
• Neglect heat losses and BPE (boiling point elevation)

Required:
1. Calculate the mass of water that must be evaporated (kg/h).
2. Estimate the required live steam flow (kg/h) for the three-effect evaporator (ideal internal
reuse).
3. Compute the steam economy (kg of water evaporated per kg of live steam).

Solution:
Step 1 — Determine solids and water.
Total solids in feed = 10% of 5,000 kg/h = 0.10 × 5,000 = 500 kg/h.
Final product mass (Mp) from solids mass = solids / product fraction = 500 kg / 0.60 = 833.333
kg/h.

Therefore, water evaporated, E = Feed total − Product total = 5,000 − 833.333 = 4,166.667 kg/h.

Step 2 — Sensible heating required to raise feed from 25 °C to boiling in Effect 1 (95 °C).
Temperature rise ΔT = 95 − 25 = 70 °C.
Sensible heat, S = m_feed × cp × ΔT = 5,000 kg/h × 3.9 kJ/kg·K × 70 K.
Compute: S = 5,000 × 3.9 × 70 = 1,365,000 kJ/h.

Step 3 — Estimate live steam required for an ideal N-effect evaporator (forward feed).
For an ideal N-effect evaporator with perfect internal vapor reuse (no losses), the approximate
live steam required (ms) can be estimated by:

ms = E / N + S / L
 577

where:
E = mass of water evaporated (kg/h)
N = number of effects (3)
S = sensible heating required (kJ/h)
L = latent heat of steam (kJ/kg)

Explanation: E/N is the base steam requirement if no feed heating were necessary; the extra term
S/L accounts for the steam used to heat the feed to boiling. This is a commonly used engineering
approximation for moderate problems when heat losses and BPE are neglected.
Compute E/N = 4,166.667 / 3 = 1,388.889 kg/h.
Compute S/L = 1,365,000 / 2257 = 604.785 kg/h.
Thus, live steam required, ms = E/N + S/L = 1,388.889 + 604.785 = 1,993.674 kg/h.

Step 4 — Steam economy

Steam economy η = (mass of water evaporated) / (mass of live steam supplied) = E / ms.
Compute η = 4,166.667 / 1,993.674 = 2.090 kg water per kg steam.

Problem 14

A tomato juice stream containing 8% total solids is fed into a double-effect (forward-feed)
evaporator at a rate of 3,000 kg/h. The product must be concentrated to 20% total solids. Assume
that the latent heat of vaporization is constant at 2,257 kJ/kg and the sensible heating requirement
is negligible. Heat losses and boiling-point elevation are ignored.

Given:
• Feed flow rate = 3,000 kg/h
 578

• Feed solids = 8%
• Product solids = 20%
• Number of effects = 2
• Latent heat of vaporization = 2,257 kJ/kg
• Neglect sensible heating and heat losses

Required:
1. Mass of water evaporated (kg/h)
2. Estimate the live steam consumption (kg/h)
3. Compute steam economy

Solution:
Step 1 — Determine solids and evaporated water.
Mass of solids in feed = 0.08 × 3,000 = 240 kg/h.
Product mass = solids / product fraction = 240 / 0.20 = 1,200 kg/h.
Water evaporated = Feed − Product = 3,000 − 1,200 = 1,800 kg/h.

Step 2 — Estimate live steam requirement (ideal double-effect).

Approximation for ideal double-effect: ms = E / N
ms = 1,800 / 2 = 900 kg/h of steam.

Step 3 — Steam economy.

Steam economy = E / ms = 1,800 / 900 = 2.0

Problem 15

A three-effect evaporator removes 6000 kg/h of water. Steam supplied to the first effect is 2200
kg/h.

Compute steam economy.

Given:
 579

Evaporated water = 6000 kg/h

Steam used = 2200 kg/h

Required:

Steam economy

Solution:

Economy = 6000 / 2200 = 2.73

Final Answer:

Steam economy = 2.73 kg water/kg steam

Problem 16

A triple-effect system has heat duty Q = 5,000,000 W, U = 1150 W/m²K, ΔT = 7°C.

Compute heating area.

Given:

Q = 5,000,000 W
 580

U = 1150 W/m²K
ΔT = 7°C

Required:

Total heating area

Solution:

A = Q / (U ΔT)
A = 5,000,000 / (1150 × 7)
A = 621.6 m²

Final Answer:

Total heating area = 621.6 m²

Problem 17

A 2-effect evaporator evaporates 5,000 kg/h of water using 2,000 kg/h of steam.
Compute steam economy.

Given:

6. Evaporation = 5000 kg/h

 581

7. Steam = 2000 kg/h

Required:

Steam economy

Solution:

Steam economy = 5000 / 2000

Steam Economy = 2.5
Answer:

2.5 kg water/kg steam

Problem 18

A 3-effect evaporator has a total heat duty of 4,200,000 W. If U = 1100 W/m²°C and
ΔT per effect = 7°C, determine total heating area.

Given:

8. Q = 4,200,000 W

9. U = 1100 W/m²°C
 582

10. ΔT = 7°C

Required:

Heating area

Solution:

A = Q / (U × ΔT)

A = 4,200,000 / (1100 × 7)

A = 545.45 m²

Answer: 545.45 m²

Boiling Point Elevation

Problem 1
The boiling point of pure solvent (water) is 100 °C. At 14% the solution, it is found to have a
boiling point elevation of 4.62 °C. In that case, determine the boiling point of the solution.
Given:

TEMPERATURE OF BOILING WATER: T boilingwater = 100 °C

 583

BOILING POINT ELEVATION: BPE = 4.62 °C

Required:

The boiling point of the solution.

Solution:

T boiling, solution = T boiling, water + BPE

T boiling, solution = 100 °C + 4.62 °C

T boiling, solution = 104.62 °C

Problem 2
Find the boiling point elevation of the solution if the solution boils at 105.76 °C, and the water
boils at 100 °C.
Given:

TEMPERATURE OF BOILING WATER: T boilingwater = 100 °C

BOILING THE SOLUTION: T boiling, solution = 105.76 °C

 584

Required:

The boiling point elevation.

Solution:

T boiling, solution = T boiling, water + BPE

T boiling, solution - T boiling, water = BPE

BPE = T boiling, solution - T boiling, water

BPE = 105.76 °C – 100 °C

BPE = 5.76 °C

Problem 3

Given:
K_b = 0.512 K·kg·mol⁻¹, m = 0.8 mol·kg⁻¹, i = 2 (NaCl).

Required:
Compute boiling point elevation ΔT_b.

Solution:
 585

𝛥𝑇_𝑏 = 𝑖 𝐾_𝑏 𝑚 = 2 × 0.512 × 0.8 = 0.819 𝐾

 586

Problem 4

Given:
At 1 atm, water boils at 100 °C. Measured BPE = 2.1 °C.

Required:
Find boiling temperature of syrup.

Solution:

𝑇_𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 100 + 2.1 = 102.1 °𝐶

 587

Problem 5

A solution of abrasive material contains 20% (w/w) of non-volatile solutes. The ebullioscopic
constant of water is K b =0.512°C ⋅ kg/mol, and the solute is non-volatile with molar mass
M =100 g/mol . Calculate the boiling point elevation of the solution.

Given:
Solute mass fraction: w=0.2
Solvent: water
Ebullioscopic constant: K b =0.512°C\cdotpkg/mol
Molar mass of solute: M =100 g/mol=0.1 kg/mol

Required:
Boiling point elevation Δ T b(°C)
Formula:
Δ T b=K b ⋅ m
Solution:
Where m is the molality of the solution:
moles of solute
m=
kg of solvent
Solution :
Assume 1 kg of solution
Mass of solute: 0.2 ×1=0.2 kg
Mass of solvent: 1−0.2=0.8 kg
Compute moles of solute
0.2
n= =2 mol
0.1

Compute molality
2
m= =2.5 mol/kg
0.8
Compute boiling point elevation:
∘
Δ T b=K b ⋅ m=0.512× 2.5=1.28 C

∘
Δ T b ≈ 1.28 C The boiling point of the AB material solution is elevated by about 1.28°C, so
the solution boils at roughly 101.28°C.
 588

Problem 6

A slurry of abrasive material is concentrated to 15% (w/w) solids in water. The solute has a molar
mass of 150 g/mol. Calculate the new boiling point of the solution, given: K b =0.512°C ⋅ kg/mol
and the normal boiling point of water is 100°C.
 589

Given:
Solute fraction: w=0.15
Solute molar mass: M =0.15 kg/mol
Ebullioscopic constant: K b =0.512°C ⋅ kg/mol
Normal boiling point: T 0b=100∘ C

Required:
Boiling point of solution T b(°C)
Formulas:
0
Δ T b=K b ⋅ m, T b=T b+ Δ T b
Where molality m is:
moles of solute
m= Solution:
kg of solvent
Assume 1 kg of solution
Mass of solute: 0.15 ×1=0.15 kg
Mass of solvent: 1−0.15=0.85 kg
Compute moles of solute
0.15
n= =1 mol
0.15
Compute molality
1
m= ≈1.176 mol/kg
0.85
Compute boiling point elevation
∘
Δ T b=K b ⋅ m=0.512× 1.176 ≈ 0.602 C
Compute new boiling point
0 ∘
T b=T b + Δ T b=100+ 0.602≈ 100.60 C

∘
T b ≈ 100.60 C
The boiling point of the 15% slurry is elevated to about 100.6°C.
Problem 7

What is the new boiling point of a solution prepared by adding 58.0 g of potassium sulfate
(K₂SO₄) to 500 mL of water? The boiling point elevation constant for water is 0.52 °C/m.
Assume complete dissociation of K₂SO₄ and use the theoretical van 't Hoff factor.

Given:
Mass of solute: 58.0 g K₂SO₄
Volume of solvent: 500 mL water
Boiling point elevation constant for water: Kb = 0.52 °C/m
Molar mass of K₂SO₄: 174.27 g/mol
 590

Van 't Hoff factor for K₂SO₄ (i) = 3

Assume density of water ≈ 1 g/mL

Required:
a.) Molality of the solution (m)
b.) Boiling point elevation ΔTb
c.) New boiling point of the solution

Solution:

a.) Molality of the solution (m)

moles = moles of solute / mass of solvent in kg
moles = 58 g / 174.27 g/mol
moles = 0.333 mol

mass of water = 500mL x 1g/mL

mass of water = 500 g = 0.500kg

m = 0.333mol / 0.500kg
m = 0.666 mol/kg

b.) Boiling point elevation ΔTb

ΔTb = iKbm
3 × 0.52 × 0.666 = 1.04 °C

c.) New boiling point of the solution

Tnew = 100 + 1.04 = 101.04 °C
Final Answer:
Problem 8
m = 0.333 mol
ΔTb = 1.04
A chemist dissolves 20 g of urea (NH₂CONH₂) °C g of water. The boiling point elevation
in 200
constant of water is 0.52 °C/m. Calculate
Tnew the= new boiling
101.04 °C point of the solution. (Assume urea
does not dissociate, i = 1)

Given:
Mass of solute = 20 g urea
Mass of solvent = 200 g water = 0.200 kg
Kb = 0.52 °C/m
Molar mass of urea = 60 g/mol
 591

Van 't Hoff factor i = 1

Required:
New boiling point of the solution

Solution:

a.) Molality of the solution (m)

moles = moles = moles of solute / mass of solvent in kg

moles = 20/60
moles = 0.333 mol

m = moles / mass of solvent

m = 0.333moles / 0.200kg
m = 1.665 moles/kg

ΔTb = 1 x 0.52 x 1.665

ΔTb = 0.87oC

Tnew = 100 + 0.87

Tnew = 100.87oC

Final Answer: Tnew = 100.87oC

Problem 9

A sugar solution at a certain concentration shows a boiling point elevation (BPE) of 7°C above
pure water at the same pressure. If water boils at 101°C under the operating pressure, compute
the boiling temperature of the solution and the extra energy needed due to BPE. Latent heat =
2257 kJ/kg.

Given:

Water boiling point = 101°C

 592

BPE = 7°C

Latent heat = 2257 kJ/kg

Required:

Solution boiling temperature

Increase in energy (kJ/kg)

Solution:
∘
T b=101+7=108 C

Q=c p (7)≈ 4.18(7)=29.26 kJ/kg

Problem 10

A tomato concentrate has a boiling point elevation of 12°C. If the evaporator operates at 95°C for
water, determine the boiling temperature of the product and how much more steam (percentage)
is required if sensible heating increases by 4% per °C of elevation.

Given:

Water boiling point = 95°C

BPE = 12°C
 593

Sensible heat increase = 4% per °C

Required:

New boiling temperature

% additional steam required

Solution:
∘
T b=95+ 12=107 C

% increase=12× 4 %=48 %

Problem 11

Determine the boiling point elevation for a 30% sugar solution, assuming the ebullioscopic
constant K_b = 0.52 K·kg/mol and the molar mass of sucrose is 342 g/mol.
(Adapted from Perry & Green, 2019).

Given:
x_sugar = 0.3, M = 0.342 kg/mol, K_b = 0.52 K·kg/mol.

Required:
Boiling point elevation, ΔT_b
 594

Solution:
Molality = (x_sugar / M) / (1 - x_sugar) = (0.3 / 0.342) / 0.7 = 1.26 mol/kg.
ΔT_b = K_b × molality = 0.52 × 1.26 = 0.65°C.

Final Answer:
Boiling point elevation = 0.65°C.

Problem 12

A 10% NaCl solution exhibits a boiling point elevation. Given K_b = 0.52 K·kg/mol, molar mass
of NaCl = 58.5 g/mol, and van’t Hoff factor i = 2, calculate ΔT_b.
(Based on Holman, 2019).

Given:
x = 0.1, M = 0.0585 kg/mol, K_b = 0.52 K·kg/mol, i = 2.

Required:
Boiling point elevation, ΔT_b
 595

Solution:
Molality = (x / M) / (1 - x) = (0.1 / 0.0585) / 0.9 = 1.90 mol/kg.
ΔT_b = iK_bm = 2×0.52×1.90 = 1.98°C.

Final Answer:
Boiling point elevation = 1.98°C.

Problem 13

A 1.00 kg sample of fruit juice contains 12.0% (w/w) sucrose (nonvolatile, ideal solute). The
juice is heated to evaporate water until the sucrose concentration reaches 25.0% (w/w). Assume
the solvent is water, sucrose is non-electrolyte (van 't Hoff factor i = 1), and the ebullioscopic
constant for water is K_b = 0.512 °C·kg·mol⁻¹. Calculate the boiling point (in °C) of the solution
(a) initially and (b) after concentration to 25.0% (w/w). Also determine how much water (in
grams) was evaporated.

Given:
 596

• Initial total mass of solution = 1.00 kg (1000 g)

• Initial sucrose concentration = 12.0% (w/w)
• Final sucrose concentration = 25.0% (w/w)
• Molar mass of sucrose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) = 342.3 g·mol⁻¹
• Ebullioscopic constant for water K_b = 0.512 °C·kg·mol⁻¹
• van 't Hoff factor for sucrose i = 1 (non-electrolyte)
• Normal boiling point of pure water = 100.00 °C

Required:
1. Initial boiling point of the juice (°C).
2. Boiling point after concentrating to 25.0% (w/w) sucrose (°C).
3. Mass of water evaporated (g).

Solution:
Step 1 — Determine mass of sucrose and solvent initially:
Initial mass of sucrose = 12.0% of 1000 g = 0.12 × 1000 g = 120.0 g.
Initial mass of water (solvent) = 1000 g − 120.0 g = 880.0 g = 0.8800 kg.

Step 2 — Calculate molality (m) of the initial solution:

Moles of sucrose = mass / M = 120.0 g / 342.3 g·mol⁻¹ = 0.350570 mol.
Molality m_initial = moles solute / kg solvent = 0.350570 mol / 0.8800 kg = 0.398375 mol·kg⁻¹.

Step 3 — Calculate boiling point elevation ΔT_b for the initial solution:
ΔT_b = K_b · m = 0.512 · 0.398375 = 0.2040 °C.
Initial boiling point T_b(initial) = 100.00 + 0.2040 = 100.2040 °C.

Step 4 — After concentration: sucrose amount is unchanged; new concentration is 25.0% (w/w).

Let total mass of final solution = M_final. Then 120.0 g = 25.0% of M_final ⇒ M_final =
Mass of sucrose still = 120.0 g.

120.0 / 0.25 = 480.0 g.

Final mass of water = 480.0 g − 120.0 g = 360.0 g = 0.3600 kg.

Step 5 — Molality of the final solution:

Molality m_final = 0.350570 mol / 0.3600 kg = 0.973805 mol·kg⁻¹.

Step 6 — Boiling point elevation and final boiling point:

ΔT_b(final) = 0.512 · 0.973805 = 0.4986 °C.
Final boiling point T_b(final) = 100.00 + 0.4986 = 100.4986 °C.
Step 7 — Mass of water evaporated:
 597

Water evaporated = 880.0 g − 360.0 g = 520.0 g.

Problem 14

A 500.0 g sample of tomato juice contains 8.00% (w/w) soluble solids (treated as a single
nonvolatile, non-electrolyte solute with an effective molar mass equal to glucose, M = 180.16
g·mol⁻¹). The juice is heated and evaporated until the soluble solids reach 20.0% (w/w). Assume
the solvent is water, the van 't Hoff factor i = 1, ebullioscopic constant for water K_b = 0.512
°C·kg·mol⁻¹, and latent heat of vaporization of water is 2257 kJ·kg⁻¹.

Calculate:
(a) the initial boiling point of the juice (°C),
 598

(b) the boiling point after concentration to 20.0% (w/w) (°C),

(c) the mass of water evaporated (g), and
(d) the approximate energy required (kJ) to evaporate that water.

Given:
• Total mass of sample = 500.0 g
• Initial soluble solids = 8.00% (w/w)
• Final soluble solids = 20.00% (w/w)
• Effective molar mass of solute = 180.16 g·mol⁻¹
• Ebullioscopic constant for water K_b = 0.512 °C·kg·mol⁻¹
• van 't Hoff factor i = 1.0
• Normal boiling point of pure water = 100.00 °C
• Latent heat of vaporization (water) ≈ 2257.0 kJ·kg⁻¹

Required:

1. Initial boiling point (°C)

2. Boiling point after concentration to 20.0% (w/w) (°C)
3. Mass of water evaporated (g)
4. Energy required to evaporate that water (kJ)

Solution:

Step 1 — Masses of solute and solvent initially:

Mass of solute (initial) = 40.000 g
Mass of water (initial) = 460.000 g = 0.460000 kg

Step 2 — Moles of solute and molality (initial):

Moles of solute = 40.000000 g / 180.16000 g·mol⁻¹ = 0.222025 mol
Molality (initial) m_i = moles solute / kg solvent = 0.222025 / 0.460000 = 0.482663 mol·kg⁻¹

Step 3 — Boiling point elevation and initial boiling point:

ΔT_b(initial) = K_b · m_i · i = 0.512 · 0.482663 · 1.0 = 0.2471 °C
T_b(initial) = 100.00 + 0.2471 = 100.2471 °C

Step 4 — After concentration to 20.0% (w/w):

Let total mass final = M_f ⇒ 40.000 = 20.00% of M_f ⇒ M_f = 40.000000 / (20.00/100) =
Mass of solute remains = 40.000 g.
 599

200.000000 g.
Mass of water (final) = 160.000000 g = 0.160000 kg

Step 5 — Molality (final) and boiling point elevation:

Molality (final) m_f = moles solute / kg solvent(final) = 0.222025 / 0.160000 = 1.387655
mol·kg⁻¹
ΔT_b(final) = K_b · m_f · i = 0.512 · 1.387655 · 1.0 = 0.7105 °C
T_b(final) = 100.00 + 0.7105 = 100.7105 °C

Step 6 — Mass of water evaporated:

Water evaporated = 460.000 g − 160.000 g = 300.000 g

Step 7 — Energy required to evaporate the removed water (approx.):

Water evaporated = 0.300000 kg
Energy = water_evaporated_kg × latent heat = 0.300000 × 2257.0 = 677.100 kJ

Problem 15
A sugar solution shows a boiling point elevation (BPE) of 8°C. If pure water boils at
100°C at 1 atm, determine the boiling temperature of the solution.

Given:
BPE = 8°C
 600

Tb_water = 100°C

Required:

Boiling temperature of the solution

Solution:
Tb = 100 + 8
Tb = 108°C

Answer: 108°C

Problem 16

A fruit concentrate boils at 102.5°C under reduced pressure. Pure water boils at
98°C at the same pressure. Determine the BPE.

Given:
11. Tb_solution = 102.5°C
 601

12. Tb_water = 98°C

Required:
BPE

Solution:
BPE = 102.5 – 98
BPE = 4.5°C

Answer: 4.5°C
602
 603

SIZE ALTERATION OF AB MATERIALS

Definition:

Size alteration of Agricultural and Biosystems (AB) materials refers to the mechanical

process of reducing or modifying the particle size and shape of agricultural products through

operations such as cutting, slicing, chopping, grinding, milling, or crushing. These processes

transform raw materials into smaller, more uniform pieces that are easier to handle, process, or

incorporate into various food and agricultural applications.

Importance:

Size alteration is important because it improves the efficiency of subsequent processing

operations by increasing surface area, which enhances heat transfer, drying, mixing, extraction,

and chemical reactions. It also contributes to consistent product quality by ensuring uniform

particle size and texture. Additionally, size reduction aids in reducing bulk volume, improving

packaging and transportation efficiency. In many AB processes, proper size alteration is essential

for achieving desired product characteristics, optimizing equipment performance, and enhancing

overall process productivity.

 604

SIZE ALTERATION OF AB MATERIALS

Fineness Modulus / Particle Size

Problem 1
A sieve analysis of crushed material yielded the following cumulative % retained: 10%, 25%,
45%, 70%, 90%, and 100% for sieves 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 0.6 mm, 0.3 mm, and 0.15
mm respectively.

Given:
Cumulative % retained: 10 %, 25%, 45%, 70%, 90%, and 100%

Required:
1. Find the Fineness Modulus (FM).

Solution:
FM = (Sum of cumulative % retained) / 100
FM = (10 + 25 + 45 + 70 + 90 + 100) / 100 = 340 / 100 = 3.40

Final Answer:
FM = 3.40
Interpretation: A higher FM indicates coarser particles, which may improve mechanical
stability.
 605

Problem 2
A batch of sand used for concrete mix shows the following cumulative % retained on standard
sieves:
Cumulative %
Sieve Size (mm)
Retained

4.75 10

2.36 25

1.18 45

0.60 70

0.30 90

0.15 97

Calculate the average particle size (davg) assuming the mean sieve size represents each fraction,
and find the Fineness Modulus (FM).

Given:
Mean sizes: 4.75, 2.36, 1.18, 0.60, 0.30, 0.15 mm
Cumulative % retained = 10, 25, 45, 70, 90, 97

Required:
davg and FM

Solution:

FM =
∑ of cumulative % retained on standard sieves
100
Sum of cumulative % retained:
= 10 + 25 + 45 + 70 + 90 + 9= 337
Approximate average particle size:
Using geometric mean diameter (simplified for main sieve range):
d avg =0.6 mm ( ¿ . )
 606

Final Answer:
Fineness Modulus = 3.37
Average particle size ≈ 0.6 mm
 607

Problem 3
A sieve analysis of fine aggregate shows cumulative percent retained as follows: 4.75 mm: 0%,
2.36 mm: 7%, 1.18 mm: 18%, 0.600 mm: 32%, 0.300 mm: 54%, 0.150 mm: 70%, 0.075 mm:
88%.

Given: (Zhang, 2023)

4.75 mm: 0%
2.36 mm: 7%
1.18 mm: 18%, 0
600 mm: 32%
0.300 mm: 54%
0.150 mm: 70%
0.075 mm: 88%.

Required:
1. Compute the fineness modulus (FM)
2. Classify the sand as fine, medium, or coarse.

Solution:
Sum of cumulative % retained = 0 + 7 + 18 + 32 + 54 + 70 + 88
Sum of cumulative % retained = 269

FM =
∑ of cumulative % retained
100
269
FM = =2.69
100

Final Answer:
FM = 2.69
Interpretation: Sand is classified as medium.
 608

Problem 4
A sample of crushed corn weighing 500 g is tested for particle size distribution using standard
sieves. The following weights are retained on each sieve after shaking: Determine the cumulative
percentage retained, the fineness modulus, and the average particle size if the sieve factor is 0.1
mm.
Weight Cumulative %
Sieve No. % Retained
Retained (g) Retained
8 40 8 8
16 90 18 26
30 120 24 50
50 110 22 72
100 80 16 88
Pan 60 12 100

Given: (Kumar, A., & Prasad, R., 2019)

Total sample weight, Wt=500 g
Sieve weights retained as shown above
Sieve factor = 0.1 mm

Required:
1. Fineness Modulus (FM)
2. Average particle size (mm)

Solution:

FM =
∑ of Cumulative % Retained = 8+26 +50+72+88
100 100
Average Particle Size = FM × Sieve Factor Average Particle Size = 2.44 × 0.1
Final Answer:
FM = 2.44
Average Particle Size = 0.244 mm
 609

Problem 5
A 400 g sample of milled rice was subjected to sieve analysis using a series of sieves with
openings 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 0.600 mm, 0.300 mm, 0.150 mm, and a pan. The masses
of rice retained on each sieve were recorded. Using the sieve data, determine the percent
retained, cumulative percent retained, fineness modulus (FM), and the median particle diameter
(D₅₀).

Given:
A 400 g sample of milled rice was sieved with the following masses retained:
4.75 mm: 20 g
2.36 mm: 60 g
1.18 mm: 120 g
0.600 mm: 100 g
0.300 mm: 60 g
0.150 mm: 30 g
Pan: 10 g

Required:
1. Calculate percent retained and cumulative percent retained.
2. Compute the fineness modulus (FM).
3. Determine the median particle diameter (D50).

Solution:

Cumulative percent retained:

Total mass = 400 g

Percent retained: 5, 20, 50, 75, 90, 97.5, 100

4.75 mm: (20/400) 100 = 5%
2.36 mm: (60/400) 100 = 15%

= 3.38
1.18 mm: (120/400) 100 = 30%
0.600 mm: (100/400) 100 = 25%
0.300 mm: (60/400) 100 = 15%
0.150 mm: (30/400) 100 = 7.5%
Pan: (10/400) 100 = 2.5%

Final Answer:
FM = 3.38
D50 = 1.18 mm (because 50% passing occurs at the 1.18 mm sieve).
 610

Problem 6
A crushed limestone sample has the following size distribution: 20% between 1–2 mm, 35%
between 0.5–1 mm, 30% between 0.25–0.5 mm, and 15% between 0.125–0.25 mm. Determine
the mass mean diameter using the geometric mean method. (Based on Coulson & Richardson,
2017).

Given:
Mass fractions: 0.20, 0.35, 0.30, 0.15
Size ranges: 1–2 mm, 0.5–1 mm, 0.25–0.5 mm, 0.125–0.25 mm.

Required:
1. Mass mean diameter, dg

Solution:
Geometric mean sizes:
d gm=√ ¿ ¿ ¿

Geometric mean sizes: (1.414, 0.707, 0.354, 0.177) mm

❑
d g=exp ⁡( ∑ ❑ w i∈d i )
❑

❑
d g=exp exp [( ∑ ❑ 0.2 ln 1.414+0.35 ln 0.707+0.3 ln 0.354 +0.15 ln 0.177)]=0.54 mm
❑

Final Answer:
dg = 0.54 mm
 611

Problem 7
A sample of ground cassava is known to have a mean particle diameter ( D) of 500μm and a G-
value (uniformity index) of 0.8. If the size distribution is modeled by the Gates-Gaudin-
Schuhmann (GGS) distribution (CMR = 100. (D / ( D)m), calculate the particle diameter (D) at
which the cumulative mass retained (CMR) is 20%, assuming the distribution constant (m) is 1.5
and Dmax (the maximum size) is 1,000 µm.

Given:
CMR (Cumulative Mass Retained): 20% (0.20 as a fraction)
Dmax: 1,000 µm
Distribution constant (m): 1.5
GGS Distribution Model: CMF = (D / Dmax)m (Cumulative Mass Passing, CMF = 1 -CMR)

Required:
1. Particle diameter (D) in m CMR = 20%.

Solution:
CMF = 1- CMR
CMF = 1- 0.20
CMF = 0.80
CMF=¿

( DD )=¿
max

1
m
D=D max ( CMF )

Final Answer:
D = 868.7 µm

Problem 8
 612

Compute the fineness modulus of a sieve retains cumulative percentage of retained powder of
3%, 4.5%, 16%, 25%, 49%. The test used are standard sieves.

Given:
CUMULATIVE PERCENT 3%
RETAINED:
4.5%

16%

25%

49%

Required:
1. Find the fineness modulus.

Solution:

FM =
∑ fo Cumulative percent retained on the specific sieves
100
3+ 4.5+16+ 25+49
FM =
100
97.5
FM = =0.975
100

Final Answer:
FM = 0.975
 613

Problem 9
Ground rice passes through a sieve stack with these retained masses:
2.00 mm: 90 g, 1.00 mm: 75 g, 0.50 mm: 60 g, 0.25 mm: 35 g, and Total = 260 g
Determine the average particle size, using:
Davg=∑(xiwi)
where xi= mean sieve opening, wi= weight fraction

Given:
Sieve openings (mm): 2.00 → 1.00, 1.00 → 0.50, 0.50 → 0.25, 0.25 → 0.00
Retained masses (g): 90, 75, 60, 35
Total mass = 260 g

Required:
1. Average particle size Davg

Solution:

Compute weighted sum:

Weight fractions:
1.50(0.346) = 0.519
90/260 = 0.346
0.75(0.288) = 0.216
75/260 = 0.288
60/260 = 0.231 0.375(0.231) = 0.0866
35/260 = 0.135 0.125(0.135) = 0.0169

Mean openings: Davg=0.519+0.216+0.0866+0.0169=0.8385 mm

(2.00+1.00)/2 = 1.50 mm
(1.00+0.50)/2 = 0.75 mm
(0.50+0.25)/2 = 0.375 mm
(0.25+0)/2 = 0.125 mm

Final Answer:
Davg = 0.8385 mm
 614

Problem 10
In a materials processing facility, a batch of gravel is being analyzed. The sample of gravel
weighs 80 kg. The material has a fineness modulus of 3.2, which means the material is coarser
than finer. How much of the gravel will pass through a 2 mm sieve, given that the fineness
modulus is related to the percentage passing through different sieves?

Given:
A gravel sample weighs 80 kg.
FM = 3.2.

Required:
1. Amount of gravel passing through the 2 mm sieve

Solution:
The Fineness Modulus (FM) is determined by summing the percentages of material passing
through a series of sieves and dividing by 100. The FM value of 3.2 suggests that the distribution
of particle sizes is on the coarser side, and only a smaller percentage of the total material is
expected to pass through finer sieves like the 2 mm one.
Assumption:
FM relates to the cumulative percentage of material passing through sieves, but not as a direct
multiplier of weight. A higher FM indicates a coarser material with less fine particles. We can
estimate that a certain percentage of the sample will pass through the 2 mm sieve based on the
sieve distribution curve or empirical data for similar materials.
Approximation:
If we assume that the material behaves similarly to typical samples, and the FM indicates that
approximately 32% of the material passes through the 2 mm sieve (this is an assumption based
on typical sieve analysis distributions), we can calculate:
Amount of gravel passing through 2 mm sieve = 80kg × 0.32 = 25.6kg

Final Answer:
Amount of gravel passing through 2 mm sieve = 25.6 kg
 615

Problem 11
A sample of abrasive material is sieved through standard sieve sizes. The cumulative percentages
retained are as follows:
Sieve (mm) % Retained
4.75 0
2.36 5
1.18 20
0.60 40
0.30 25
0.15 10

Given:
Cumulative % retained on standard sieves as above.

Required:
1. Fineness Modulus FM

Solution:
cumulative % retained on standard sieve
FM =
100
Sum the cumulative % retained on standard sieves:
Sum=0+5+20+40+25+10=100
Divide by 100 to get FM
100
FM = =1
100

Final Answer:
FM = 1
The fineness modulus of this AB material sample is 1.0, indicating it is relatively coarse.
 616

Problem 12
A powder is irradiated at 2450 MHz to determine moisture loss. Its initial average particle
diameter is 0.80 mm and reduces to 0.62 mm after drying. Compute the % size reduction.

Given:
Initial diameter = 0.80 mm
Final diameter = 0.62 mm
Frequency = 2450 MHz

Required:
1. % size reduction

Solution:
% reduction = (0.80 – 0.62) / (0.80) x 100 = 22.5%

Final Answer:
Size Reduction = 22.5 %
 617

Problem 13
A snack powder has measured EMC (dry basis) values: at aw = 0.40 → m = 0.090kg/kg (db); at
aw = 0.60 → m = 0.180 kg/kg (db). Estimate EMC at aw = 0.50 by linear interpolation. Then, for
a batch containing 250 kg dry solids, compute (a) mass of water present at that EMC (kg) and (b)
the wet-basis moisture percentage.

Given:
aw1 = 0.40, m1 = 0.09 kg/kg db
aw2 = 0.60, m2 = 0.180 kg/kg db
Target aw = 0.50
Dry solids mass Mds = 250 kg

Required:
1. EMC at aw = 0.50(dry basis).
2. Mass of water in 250 kg dry solids at that EMC (kg).
3. Wet-basis moisture (%) for that EMC.

Solution:
aw −a w 1
m=m1 +(m¿ ¿2−m1) ¿
aw 2−a w 1
0.50−0.40 water
m=0.09+ ( 0.180−0.09 ) =0.090 kg dry solids
0.60−0.40 kg
water mass = m x Mds = 0.135 x 250 kg = 33.75 kg
m 0.135
x= = =0.1189 x 100=11.89%
1+m 1+0.135

Final Answer:
M =0.090 kg water/kg dry solids
Water mass = 33.75 kg
X = 11.89%
 618

Problem 14
From a sieve analysis, you obtain cumulative percent passing (not retained) as follows: 4.75 mm
= 98%, 2.36 mm = 90%, 1.18 mm = 72%, 0.600 mm = 45%, 0.300 mm = 20%, 0.150 mm = 6%.
Estimate the d₅₀ (median particle diameter) by linear interpolation between the two sieve sizes
that bracket 50% passing.

Given:
Cumulative percent passing:
1.18 mm: 72% passing
0.600 mm: 45% passing

Required:
1. Estimate d₅₀ (particle size at 50% passing)

Solution:
Identify sieves bracketing 50% passing: 1.18 mm (72% passing) is above 50%; 0.600 mm (45%
passing) is below 50%.
Linear interpolate between these two points. Let x = particle size (mm). Use formula:
x = x1 + (x2 − x1) × (P1 − 50) / (P1 − P2)
where x1 = 0.600 mm (P1 = 45%), x2 = 1.18 mm (P2 = 72%).
(Alternatively swap order — keep consistency.)
Using xlow = 0.600 (45%), xhigh = 1.18 (72%):
Fraction = (50 − 45) / (72 − 45) = 5 / 27 = 0.185185
d₅₀ = 0.600 + (1.18 − 0.600) × 0.185185
Difference = 0.580 mm
Increment = 0.580 × 0.185185 = 0.1074 mm
d₅₀ = 0.600 + 0.1074 = 0.707 mm (rounded)

Final Answer:
d50 = 0.707 mm
619
 620

Problem 15
A coarse sugar crystal (size = 1.0 mm) takes 60 minutes to dry. If the particle size is reduced to
0.5 mm, and drying time is inversely proportional to particle size, find the new drying time.

Given:
t1 = 60 min
D1 = 1 mm
D2 = 0.5 mm

Required:
1. New drying time (t2)

Solution:
t1 D1
=
t2 D2
t 1 D 2 ( 60 ) ( 0.5 )
t 2= = =30.5 min
D1 1

Final Answer:
t2 = 30.5 min
 621

Agglomeration
Problem 1
Calculate the amount of powder that remains as fine particles each hour. If a coffee processing
plant handles 150 kg of dry powder per hour. During production, about 90% of the total powder
turns into agglomerates, with each agglomerate weighing an average of 1.5 g.

Given:
MT = 150 kg/h
Agglomerate, f = 90%
Mave = 1.5 g

Required:
1. Amount of powder that remains as fine particles each hour (Mf)

Solution:
Mf = MT (1 – f)
Mf = (150 kg/h) (1 – 0.90) = 15 kg/h

Final Answer:
Mf = 15 kg/h
 622

Problem 2
A powdered ingredient is fed to an agglomerator at 360 kg/h. Laboratory tests show 88% of the
feed mass ends up as agglomerates; the rest is fines lost. If the mean agglomerate mass is 5.5 g,
determine (a) the mass flow rate of agglomerates (kg/s) and (b) the number of agglomerates
produced per second.

Given:
Feed = 360 kg/h
Conversion to agglomerates = 88%
Mean agglomerate mass = 5.5 g = 0.0055 kg

Required:
1. agglomerate mass flow (kg/s)
2. agglomerates produced (per/ s)

Solution:
Agglomerate mass per hour = 360 × 0.88 = 316.8 kg/h.
Convert to kg/s: 316.8 / 3600 = 0.0880 kg/s (since 1 h = 3600 s).
Number of agglomerates per second = (mass flow in kg/s) / (mass per agglomerate in kg)
= 0.0880 / 0.0055 = 16.0 agglomerates/s

Final Answer:
Agglomerate mass flow = 0.0880 kg/s
Agglomerates produced = 16.0 agglomerates/s
 623

Problem 3
A powder mixture undergoes agglomeration where each agglomerate contains 10⁵ particles of
diameter 10 µm. Estimate the diameter of the agglomerate assuming spherical packing and no
voids.

Given:
Each agglomerate contains 10⁵ particles.
Each particle has a diameter of 10 µm.

Required:
1. Find the agglomerate diameter (D)

Solution:
Volume of 1 particle = (π/6) Dp³ = (π/6) (10×10⁻⁶) ³ = 5.24×10⁻¹⁶ m³
Total volume = 10⁵ × 5.24×10⁻¹⁶ = 5.24×10⁻¹¹ m³
Agglomerate diameter D = (6Vtotal/π) (1/3)
= (6×5.24×10⁻¹¹/π) (1/3) = 4.95×10⁻⁴ m = 0.495 mm

Final Answer:
D = 0.495 mm
 624

Problem 4
40 sacks (25 kg each) of ground AB powder are stored at 85% RH. After 48 hours, 12% of the
powder mass forms lumps, increasing average particle size by 60%.

Given:
40 sacks of ground AB powder (25 kg each)
Stored at 85% RH
After 48 hours, 12% of the powder forms lumps
Lumps have a 60% increase in particle size

Required:
1. Determine total mass that agglomerated.
2. Determine new average particle size if original = 0.50 mm.

Solution:
Mass that agglomerated (kg):
Total mass = 40 × 25 = 1000 kg
Agglomerated mass = 0.12 × 1000 = 120 kg
New average particle size for agglomerated fraction (mm):
New size = 0.50 mm × 1.60 = 0.80 mm

Final Answer:
Total Mass that agglomerated = 120 kg
New Average Particle Size = 0.80 mm
 625

Problem 5
A coffee agglomerator uses 7% binder. For 400 kg/h coffee, compute total mass entering the unit
and agglomerate output at 80% yield.

Given:
Coffee = 400 kg/h
Binder = 7%
Yield = 80%

Required:
1. Total mass; output

Solution:
Binder = 0.07 × 400 = 28 kg/h
Total = 400 + 28 = 428 kg/h
Output = 428 × 0.80 = 342.4 kg/h

Final Answer:
Output = 342.4 kg/h
 626

Problem 6
A cocoa powder plant processes 450 kg/h of fine powder. Eighty percent (80%) forms
agglomerates weighing 2.0 g each.

Given:
Mass = 450 kg/h
Agglomerated = 80%
w = 2.0 g = 0.002 kg

Required:
1. Output rate of agglomerates
2. Number of agglomerates per second

Solution:
Output rate = 450 x 0.80 = 360kg/h
1 kg
360 x =0.1
3600 s
0.1 agglomerates
N= =50
0.002 s

Final Answer:
Output rate of agglomerates = 360 kg/h
No. of agglomerates per second = 50 agglomerates per second
 627

Problem 7
A pasteurizer must heat 2000 kg/h of milk from 5°C to 72°C using condensing steam that
delivers latent heat at 100°C. Assume milk specific heat cp = 3.90 kJ/kg K. Latent heat of steam
Lv,steam = 2256 kJ/kg. Neglect heat losses and assume every kilogram of condensed steam delivers
one Lv,steam of heat to the milk (i.e., sensible cooling of condensate is neglected).

Given:

Tin = 5∘C, Tout = 72∘C ⇒ ΔT = 67 K

Milk mass flow m˙milk = 2000 kg/hr

cp = 3.90 kJ/kg K
Lv,steam = 2256 kJ/kg

Required:
1. Heating duty (kJ/hr and kW).
2. Mass flow of steam required (kg/hr).

Solution:
kg kJ kJ
Q=mmilk c p ∆ T =2000 3.90 ∙ K x 67 K=522,600
hr kg hr
Convert to kW:
522,600
kW = =145.17 kW
3,600
Q 522,600 kg
msteam = = =231.6
Lv ,steam 2256 hr

Final Answer:
Heating Duty = 522,600 kj/hr and 145.17 kW
Msteam = 231.6 kg/hr
 628

Problem 8
Fine coffee is preheated using 2450 MHz radiation. The feed is 300 kg/h and uses 4% binder. If
90% becomes stable agglomerates, compute final product mass.

Given:
Feed = 300 kg/h
Binder = 4%
Radiation frequency = 2450 MHz
Efficiency = 90%

Required:
1. Agglomerated product mass

Solution:
Binder = (300) (0.04) = 12 kg/h
Total input = 312 kg/h
Output = (312) (0.90) = 280.8 kg/h

Final Answer:
Agglomerated product mass = 280.8 kg/h
 629

Problem 9
During agglomeration of abrasive powder, it is required that particles larger than 2 mm are
recycled. After sieving, the following distribution is observed:
Sieve (mm) % Retained
0.30 10
0.60 35
1.18 40
2.36 10
4.75 5

Given:
Particle size distribution after agglomeration as above.

Required:
1. Mass fraction of particles >2 mm

Solution:
Mass retained on sieve (s )> 2mm
f oversize =
Total mass
Identify oversized fractions:
Sieve 2.36 mm → 10%
Sieve 4.75 mm → 5%
Total oversized fraction=10+5=15%
15
Convert to mass fraction: f oversize = =0.15
100
foversize = 0.15 x 100 = 15 %

Final Answer:
foversize = 15 %
 630

15% of the agglomerated material is oversized and should be recycled for further processing.
 631

Problem 10
During the manufacturing of fertilizers, the product undergoes an agglomeration process. If the
input material has an average particle size of 5 mm and the desired agglomerate size is 10 mm,
determine the increase in size of the material due to the agglomeration process.

Given:
Desired agglomerate size = 10 mm
Initial particle size = 5 mm

Required:
1. Increase in particle size

Solution:
The agglomeration process involves combining smaller particles into larger clusters or
agglomerates. The increase in size is simply the difference between the desired agglomerate size
and the initial particle size.

Increase in size = Desired agglomerate size − Initial particle size

Increase in size = 10mm−5mm = 5mm

Final Answer:
Increase in particle size = 5 mm
 632

Problem 11
A coffee powder plant processes 150 kg/h of fine powder. During agglomeration, 92% of the
powder forms agglomerates, and the rest remains as fines. If each agglomerate has an average
mass of 1.8 g, calculate the number of agglomerates produced per second.

Given:
m = 150 kg/h
92% agglomerate; w=1.8 g/agglomerate

Required:
1. number of agglomerates produced per second, N

Solution:
First, determine the mass flow rate of agglomerates:
Output=150×0.92
Output=138 kg/h
Convert to kg/s:
kg 138 kg
138 = =0.0383
h 3600 s
Each agglomerate weighs 1.8 g=0.0018 kg
0.0383
N= =21.3
0.0018

Final Answer:
N = 21.3 agglomerates/s
 633

Problem 12
A powder agglomeration process increases the mean particle size from 80 µm to 220 µm. The
density of the agglomerates decreases from 550 kg/m³ to 420 kg/m³. Determine the percentage
change in particle size and the percentage decrease in bulk density.

Given:
Initial size = 80 µm
Final size = 220 µm
Initial density = 550 kg/m³
Final density = 420 kg/m³

Required:
1. % increase in particle size
2. % decrease in density

Solution:
220−80
¿ %= x 100=175 %
80
550−420
Density decrease %= × 100=23.64 %
550

Final Answer:
% Increase in particle size = 175 %
% Decrease in density = 23.64 %
 634

Problem 13
In a fertilizer production line, powdered ammonium phosphate is agglomerated into uniform
granules. The system feeds 300 kg/h of dry powder, and 90% of this feed is successfully
converted into agglomerates. Each agglomerate weighs approximately 1.5 grams. Determine the
number of agglomerates produced per second.

Given:
m = 300 kg/h
Efficiency = 90%
w = 1.5 g per agglomerate = 0.0015 kg/agglomerate

Required:
N – Number of agglomerates per second

Solution:
Compute total mass of agglomerates formed.
Output = 300 × 0.90 = 270 kg/h
Convert kg/h to kg/s.
270 ÷ 3600 = 0.075 kg/s
Compute the number of agglomerates per second.
N = 0.075 ÷ 0.0015 = 50 agglomerates

Final Answer:
N = 50 agglomerates
 635

Problem 14
A Cassava flour processing facility processes 300 kg/h of fine powders. Eighty percent (80%) of
it became agglomerates, each of these agglomerates weighs 2.3 g. Calculate the agglomerates
output rate and estimate the number of agglomerates per second.

Given:
MASS OF FINE POWDERS: m = 300 kg/h

PERCENTAGE OF % = 80%; w = 2.3 g x 1 kg / 1000 g = 0.0023 kg

AGGLOMERATES:

Required:
1. Agglomerates output rate
2. Number of agglomerates per second

Solution:
Agglomerates output rate:

300 kg/h x 0.80 = 240 kg/h

kg 1h kg
240 x =0.0667
h 3600 s s
Number of agglomerates per second:

Number of agglomerates per second = 0.0667 kg/s 0.0023 kg = 29

Final Answer:
Agglomerates output rate = 0.0667 kg/s
Number of agglomerates per second = 29 agglomerates
 636

Problem 15
In a fluid-bed granulation process, 20 kg of fine milk powder (initial bulk density
pb,1=500kg/m3) is transformed into agglomerates. The final volume of the material is reduced
due to denser packing, resulting in a final bulk density (pb,2) of 750 kg/m3. If the process yield is
100% (no mass loss), calculate the total volume reduction ( ΔV) achieved during agglomeration.

Given:
Mass of material (M): 20 kg
Initial bulk density (pb,1): 500 kg/m3
Final bulk density (pb,2): 750 kg/m3

Required:
1. Total volume reduction (ΔV) in m3

Solution:
M 20 3
V 1= = =0.040 m
ρb , 1 500

M 20 3
V 2= = =0.0267 m
ρb , 2 750
3
∆ v=V 1−V 2=0.040−0.0267=0.0133 m

Final Answer:
3
∆ v=0.0133 m
 637

Problem 16
A drum agglomerator operates at a rotational speed of 15 rpm and a diameter of 1.5 m. If the
residence time is 5 minutes and the feed rate is 500 kg/h, estimate the average granule size
assuming a linear growth rate of 0.2 mm/min. (Adapted from Ennis & Litster, 1997).

Given:
Drum diameter = 1.5 m
N = 15 rpm
Residence time = 5 min
Growth rate = 0.2 mm/min.

Required:
1. Average granule diameter, dg

Solution:
dg = Growth rate × residence time = 0.2 × 5 = 1.0 mm.

Final Answer:
Average granule size = 1.0 mm
 638

Problem 17
During the spray-drying process of milk powder, fine particles tend to agglomerate to improve
their rehydration properties. The following data were obtained from a particle size analysis
before and after agglomeration. If the density of the powder remains constant, determine:
Condition Mean Particle Diameter (µm)

Before Agglomeration 45

After Agglomeration 110

Given: (Masters, 2013)

D1=45 μm (before agglomeration)
D2=110 μm (after agglomeration)

Required:
1. Agglomeration ratio (ratio of final to initial mean particle diameter)
2. Increase in surface area ratio (approximate, assuming spherical particles)

Solution:
D2 110
AR= = =2.44
D1 45

A 2 D1
=
A 1 D2

A 2 45
= =0.409=40.9 %
A 1 110

Final Answer:
Agglomeration ratio = 2.44
Increase in surface area ratio = 40.9 %
 639

Problem 18
A coffee agglomerator processes 800 kg/h of powder using 8% binder by mass. If only 88% of
the mixture forms stable agglomerates, determine (a) total input mass flow and (b) agglomerated
product rate.

Given: (Chen & Tian, 2024)

Powder = 800 kg/h
binder = 8%
efficiency = 88%

Required:
1. Determine total input mass flow and agglomerated product rate

Solution:
Total feed = powder x (1 + binder)
= 800 × (1 + 0.08) = 864 kg/h
Agglomerated product = total feed x efficiency
= 864 × 0.88 = 760.32 kg/h

Final Answer:
Total input mass flow = 864 kg/h
Agglomerated product rate = 760.32 kg/h
 640

Problem 19
An iron ore pelletizing unit produces 1000 kg/h of pellets from fine ore and binder mixture
containing 12% moisture. During drying, moisture is reduced to 2%. Calculate the rate of water
removed and the final dry solids output.

Given:
Feed = 1000 kg/h
Initial moisture = 12%
Final moisture = 2%

Required:
1. Water removed and dry solids output

Solution:
Dry solids in feed = 1000(1 − 0.12) = 880 kg/h
Final product total mass:
880 kg
M p= =898.0
1−0.02 h
Water in product = 898 × 0.02 = 17.96 kg/h
Water removed = 1000 × 0.12 − 17.96 = 120 − 17.96 = 102.04 kg/h

Final Answer:
Water removed = 102.04 kg/h
Dry solids = 880 kg/h
 641

Problem 20
Fine powder particles of 25 μm diameter and density 2600 kg/m³ agglomerate into granules of 2
mm diameter. Determine the reduction in total surface area per kg of powder.

Given:
Particle diameter: 25 µm
Particle density: 2600 kg/m³
Agglomerate (granule) diameter: 2 mm

Required:
1. Find the change in surface area per kg (ΔA).

Solution:
Surface area per unit mass = 6 / (ρ × D)
A₁ = 6 / (2600 × 25×10⁻⁶) = 6 / 0.065 = 92.31 m²/kg
A₂ = 6 / (2600 × 0.002) = 6 / 5.2 = 1.15 m²/kg
ΔA = A₁ - A₂ = 92.31 - 1.15 = 91.16 m²/kg

Final Answer:
ΔA = 91.16 m²/kg.
 642

Extrusion

Problem 1
A 100 kilowatts extruder is used to process a 550 kg/h of grain meal. Determine the specific
mechanical energy in kJ/kg.

Given:
POWER P = 100 kW = 100,000 W or J/s
:
MASS: m = 550 kg/h

Required:
1. Determine the Specific Mechanical Energy

Solution:
500 kg/h × 1 h/3600 s = 0.1528 kg/s

SME = Power / mass

SPECIFIC MECHANICAL ENERGY = 100,000 J/s / 0.1528 kg/s

SPECIFIC MECHANICAL ENERGY = 654,450.26/ 654,450 J/kg

654,450 J/kg x 1kJ/1000 J = 654.45 kJ/kg

Final Answer:
SME = 654.45 kJ/kg
 643

Problem 2
The specific mechanical energy of the extruder is 700 kJ/kg. Find the power needed to process
an output of 530 kg/h.
Given:
SME = 700 kJ/kg
m = 530 kg/h

Required:
1. The power need for processing

Solution:
530 kg/h ×1 h/3600 s = 0.1472 kg/s

SME = Power / mass

Power = mass x SME

Power = 0.1472 x 700 = 103.04

Final Answer:
Power = 103.04 = 104 kW or 104,000 W
 644

Problem 3
Given:
Flow rate Q = 2×10⁻⁴ m³/s,
screw channel radius R = 0.02 m
length L = 0.5 m,
viscosity μ = 50 Pa·s.

Required:
1. Find pressure drop ΔP for laminar flow (Hagen–Poiseuille model).

Solution:

𝛥𝑃 = (8 𝜇 𝐿 𝑄) / (𝜋 𝑅⁴) = (8 × 50 × 0.5 × 2 × 10⁻⁴)/(𝜋 × 0.02⁴)

= 0.04/(𝜋 × 1.6 × 10⁻⁷) = 79.6 × 10³ 𝑃𝑎 = 79.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Final Answer:

𝛥𝑃 = 79.6 kPa
 645

Problem 4
Given:
Torque T = 150 N·m,
screw speed N = 100 rpm.

Required:
1. Compute mechanical power P.

Solution:

𝑃 = 2 𝜋 𝑁 𝑇 / 60 = 2 𝜋 × 100 × 150 / 60 = 1570 𝑊

Final Answer:
P = 1.57 kW
 646

Problem 5
An abrasive material is extruded through a circular die with a diameter of 10 mm. The
volumetric flow rate of the extrudate is measured at 2 × 10⁻⁵ m³/s. Calculate the average velocity
of the extrudate as it exits the die.

Given:
Die diameter: D=10 mm=0.01 m
Volumetric flow rate: Q=2×10-5 m³/s

Required:
1. Average velocity v(m/s)

Solution:
Compute the die cross-sectional area

A = π(0.01)24 = π⋅0.00014 ≈ 7.854×10-5 m²

Compute average velocity
V = QA = 2×10-57.854 × 10 - 5 ≈ 0.255 m/s
V ≈ 0.255 m/s

Final Answer:
The extrudate exits the die at an average velocity of approximately 0.255 m/s.
 647

Problem 6
A paste of abrasive material with a density of 1,500 kg/m³ is extruded through a die of 20 mm
diameter. The extrudate velocity is 0.1 m/s. Calculate the mass flow rate of the extrudate.

Given:
Die diameter: D=20 mm=0.02 m
Velocity: v=0.1 m/s
Density: ρ=1,500 kg/m³

Required:
1. Mass flow rate m(kg/s)

Solution:
Compute area

A = π (0.02)24 = π⋅0.00044 ≈ 0.000314 m²

Compute volumetric flow rate

Q = A⋅v = 0.000314 × 0.1 ≈ 3.14 × 10-5 m³/s

Compute mass flow rate

M =ρ⋅Q = 1,500⋅3.14×10-5 ≈ 0.0471 kg/s

m ≈ 0.0471 kg/s

Final Answer:
The mass flow rate of the extrudate is approximately 0.047 kg/s.
 648

Problem 7
An extruder screw of diameter 30 mm rotates at 120 rpm with a channel depth of 5 mm and a
flight width of 2 mm. Calculate the theoretical volumetric flow rate in m³/h.

Required:
1. Find volumetric flow rate (Q).

Solution:
Q = π × (D - 2h) × h × N / 60
D = 0.03 m, h = 0.005 m, N = 120 rpm = 2 rps
Q = π × (0.03 - 0.01) × 0.005 × 2 = 3.14 × 0.02 × 0.005 × 2 = 6.28×10⁻⁴ m³/s
Convert: 6.28×10⁻⁴ × 3600 = 2.26 m³/h

Final Answer:
Therefore, Q = 2.26 m³/h.
Interpretation: The throughput depends on screw geometry and speed.
 649

Problem 8
A polymer melt (μ = 100 Pa·s) flows through a circular die of diameter 10 mm and length 50
mm under ΔP = 5×10⁵ Pa. Calculate the volumetric flow rate using Hagen–Poiseuille’s equation.

Required:
1. Find volumetric flow rate (Q).

Solution:
Q = (πΔP D⁴) / (128μL)
D = 0.01 m, L = 0.05 m
Q = (3.14 × 5×10⁵ × (0.01)⁴) / (128 × 100 × 0.05)
Q = (3.14 × 5×10⁵ × 1×10⁻⁸) / 640 = 1.57×10⁻² / 640 = 2.45×10⁻⁵ m³/s
Convert: 2.45×10⁻⁵ × 3600 = 0.088 m³/h

Final Answer:
Therefore, Q = 0.088 m³/h.
Interpretation: The high viscosity reduces flow rate significantly.
 650

Problem 9
A food extruder operates at a throughput of 100 kg/h with a screw speed of 120 rpm and requires
a torque of 150 N·m. Determine the mechanical power input (in kW) and the specific mechanical
energy (SME) in kJ/kg.

Given:
Mass flow rate (ṁ) = 100 kg/h = 100 / 3600 = 0.0278 kg/s
Screw speed (N) = 120 rpm = 120 × (2π / 60) = 12.57 rad/s
Torque (T) = 150 N·m

Required:
1. Power input (P, kW)
2. Specific mechanical energy (SME, kJ/kg)

Solution:
Mechanical power input:
P=T ×ω=150 ×12.57=1,885.5 W =1.89 kW
Specific mechanical energy:
P 1,885.5
SME= = =67,836 J /kg=67.8 kJ /kg
ṁ 0.0278
Final Answer:
P = 1.89 kW
SME = 67.8 kJ/kg
 651

Problem 10
A twin-screw extruder consumes 10 kW of power to process 200 kg/h of starch-based feed. If
60% of the mechanical power is converted into heat within the product, estimate the temperature
rise (ΔT) of the feed. Assume specific heat capacity cₚ = 3.6 kJ/kg·K.

Given:
Power input = 10 kW = 10,000 W
Mass flow rate ṁ = 200 / 3600 = 0.0556 kg/s
Fraction of power converted to heat = 0.60
cₚ = 3.6 kJ/kg·K = 3,600 J/kg·K

Required:
1. Temperature rise, ΔT (K)

Solution:
Useful heat rate to product:
Q̇=0.60(10,000)=6,000 W

Energy balance:
6,000 6,000
Q̇= ṁc p ΔTΔT = = =30 K
0.0556 (3,600) 200

Final Answer:
ΔT = 30 K (≈ 30 °C temperature rise)
 652

Problem 11
An extruder draws 150 kW of power to process 900 kg/h of wheat-based dough. Find the
specific mechanical energy (SME) in kJ/kg. Then, if power is reduced by 10% at the same feed
rate, find the new SME.
Given: (Liu, 2023)
Power = 150 kW = 150,000 J/s
m = 900 kg/h = 0.25 kg/s
Required:
Find the specific mechanical energy (SME) in kJ/kg.
Solution:
Power
SME₁ =
m
150,000
=
0.25
600,000 J /kg
=
1,000
SME₁ = 600 kJ/kg
New power = 150 × 0.9
= 135 kW (1,000)
New power = 135,000 J/s
new power
SME2 =
m
135,000
=
0.25
J
540,000
= kg
1,000

Final Answer:
SME2 = 540 kJ/kg
653
 654

Problem 12
A twin-screw extruder produces rice snacks at 500 kg/h. If the extrudate exits the die at 150 °C
and 0.25 MPa, and expands to atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa), estimate the theoretical
expansion ratio based on pressure drop using the relation ER = (P₁/P₂)(1/γ) with γ = 1.3.

Given: (Liu, 2023)

P₁ = 0.25 MPa
P₂ = 0.10 MPa
γ = 1.3

Required:
1. Theoretical expansion ratio based on pressure drop

Solution:
ER = (P₁ / P₂) (1/γ)
= (0.25 / 0.10) (1/1.3)
= 2.5(0.769)

Final Answer:
ER = 2.0 (approx.)
 655

Problem 13
Corn starch is extruded in a single-screw extruder at a feed rate of 50 kg/h. The extruder operates
with a screw speed of 150 rpm, and the torque on the screw is 120 N·m. The specific mechanical
energy (SME) consumed during extrusion is an important parameter for determining product
expansion and texture.

Given: (Riaz, 2000)

Feed rate ¿ 50 kg /h
Screw speed N=150 rpm
Torque T =120 N·m

Required:
Specific Mechanical Energy (SME) in kJ/kg

Solution:
2 πNT
SME=
60 × ṁ
2 π (150 )( 120 )
SME= SME=135,590 J /kg
50
60 ×
3600
Final Answer:
SME = 135.6 kJ /kg
 656

Problem 14
In the extrusion of sweet potato flour, the initial moisture content of the feed is 20% (wet basis).
During extrusion, the moisture is reduced to 10% (wet basis), and 40 kg of extrudate is obtained.

Given: (Ilo, S., & Berghofer, E., 1999)

M C i=20 % (wet basis)

M C f =10 % (wet basis)

M f =40 kg

Required:
1. Initial feed mass before extrusion drying
2. Mass of water removed during extrusion
Solution:
36
M i (1−M Ci )=M f (1−M C f ) M i (1−0.20)=40(1−0.10)M i (0.80)=40(0.90) M i= =45 kg
0.80
M water =M i−M f

M water =45−40=5 kg

M water =5 kg

Final Answer:
Mi = 45 kg
Mwater = 5 kg
 657

Problem 15
A food-processing plant uses a single-screw extruder to produce small extruded pellets from a
wheat-based dough. The extruder feed delivers dough at a mass flow rate of 36 kg/h. The bulk
(apparent) density of the extrudate after extrusion is 800 kg/m³. The die at the extruder end has a
circular orifice with diameter 6.0 mm. A rotary cutter trims the extrudate into pellets 12 mm
long.
Using the data above, calculate:
1) The volumetric flow rate of the extrudate (m³/s).
2) The linear velocity of the extrudate as it exits the die (m/s).
3) The number of pellets produced per minute (pellets/min).
4) The mass of one pellet (grams).

Given:
Mass flow rate, ṁ = 36 kg/h
Bulk density of extrudate, ρ = 800 kg/m³
Die diameter, d = 6.0 mm
Pellet length, L = 12 mm

Required:
1) Volumetric flow rate Q (m³/s)
2) Extrudate linear velocity v (m/s)
3) Pellets produced per minute (pellets/min)
4) Mass per pellet (g)

Solution:
Step 1
Mass flow rate: ṁ = 36 kg/h = 36 / 3600 = 0.01 kg/s
Die diameter: d = 6.0 mm = 0.006 m
Pellet length: L = 12 mm = 0.012 m

Step 2
Q=ṁ/ρ
= 0.01 kg/s ÷ 800 kg/m³
= 1.25000e-05 m³/s
 658

Step 3
A = π d² / 4
= π × (0.006 m)² / 4
= 2.82743e-05 m²

Step 4
v=Q/A
= 1.25000e-05 m³/s ÷ 2.82743e-05 m²
= 0.44210 m/s

Step 5
ṅ = v / L
= 0.44210 m/s ÷ 0.012 m
= 36.841 pellets/s

Pellets per minute = ṅ × 60

= 2210 pellets/min (≈ 2210)

Step 6
Mass flow per second = ṁ = 0.01 kg/s
Mass per pellet = 0.01 kg/s ÷ 36.841 pellets/s
= 0.271 g per pellet
 659

Problem 16
A single-screw extruder is used to process a corn-meal mixture. The extruder has a screw
diameter of 80 mm and a screw channel depth of 8 mm. The screw pitch is equal to the diameter.
The active screw length inside the barrel is 1.50 m. The extruder is fed at a mass flow rate of 50
kg/h, and the bulk density of the material in the screw channel is 700 kg/m³. Assume the screw
channel can be approximated as an annular channel whose cross-sectional area is A_c = π·D·h
(where D is screw diameter and h is channel depth). The screw is partially filled with a fill
fraction of 0.60 (60%).

Given:
Mass flow rate, ṁ = 50 kg/h
Bulk density, ρ = 700 kg/m³
Screw diameter, D = 80 mm
Channel depth, h = 8 mm
Screw pitch, p = D (pitch = 80 mm)
Active screw length, L = 1.50 m
Fill fraction, φ = 0.60

Required:
1) Volumetric flow rate Q (m³/s)
2) Volumetric displacement per revolution (full and with fill) (m³/rev)
3) Required screw speed (rpm)
4) Screw axial velocity (m/s) and residence time (s, min)

Solution:
Step 1
Mass flow rate: ṁ = 50.0 kg/h = 0.013889 kg/s
Step 2
Q=ṁ/ρ
 660

= 0.013889 kg/s ÷ 700 kg/m³

= 1.98412698e-05 m³/s
Step 3
A_c = π · D · h
= π × 0.080 m × 0.008 m
= 2.01061930e-03 m²
Step 4
V_rev_full = A_c × p
= 2.01061930e-03 m² × 0.080 m
= 1.60849544e-04 m³/rev
V_rev_fill = V_rev_full × φ = 1.60849544e-04 × 0.60
= 9.65097263e-05 m³/rev (actual per rev with 60% fill)
Step 5
rev/s = Q / V_rev_fill
= 1.98412698e-05 m³/s ÷ 9.65097263e-05 m³/rev
= 0.205588 rev/s
rpm = rev/s × 60 = 12.335 rpm
Step 6
v_axial = p × rev/s
= 0.080 m × 0.205588 rev/s
= 0.016447 m/s
Residence time, t = L / v_axial
= 1.50 m ÷ 0.016447 m/s
= 91.202 s = 1.520 min
 661

Problem 17
A screw extruder has a barrel diameter of 80 mm and operates at 60 rpm. The extrusion pressure
is 8 MPa and volumetric flow rate is 1.2×10⁻⁴ m³/s. Determine the required power input
neglecting frictional losses.
(Adapted from Harper, 2000).

Given:
D = 0.08 m, N = 60 rpm, ΔP = 8×10⁶ Pa, Q = 1.2×10⁻⁴ m³/s.

Required:
1. Power input, P

Solution:
P = ΔP × Q = (8×10⁶) (1.2×10⁻⁴) = 960 W = 0.96 kW.

Final Answer:
Required power = 0.96 kW
 662

Problem 18
A twin-screw extruder with a screw length of 1.2 m and diameter of 0.05 m operates at 100 rpm.
If the volumetric filling ratio is 0.7 and throughput is 0.002 m³/min, determine the average
residence time. (Based on Rauwendaal, 2014).

Given:
L = 1.2 m, D = 0.05 m, N = 100 rpm, Q = 0.002 m³/min = 3.33×10⁻⁵ m³/s, fill = 0.7.

Required:
1. Residence time, τ

Solution:
Volume of extruder = π(D²/4) L = π(0.05²/4) (1.2) = 0.00236 m³. Effective volume =
0.7×0.00236 = 0.00165 m³. τ = Veff / Q = 0.00165 / 3.33×10⁻⁵ = 49.5 s.

Final Answer:
Average residence time = 49.5 s
 663

Problem 19
A rice flour extruder produces puffed snack pellets. The raw flour has a density of 600 kg/m³,
and the extruder outputs 0.75 m³/h of puffed product from a mass flow of 50 kg/h of rice flour.
Compute the expansion ratio (ER) of the extrudate.

Given:
Raw density, ρraw = 600 kg/m³
Extrudate volume, Vextrudate = 0.75 m³/h
Mass of flour processed, m = 50 kg/h

Required:
1. Expansion ratio (ER)

Solution:

m
ρextrudate = vextrudate

590
ρextrudate = 0.75

ρextrudate = 66.67 k/m3

ρraw
ER = ρextrudate

600
ER = 66.67
ER = 9

Final Answer:
ER = 9
 664

Problem 20
A cornmeal extruder produces a puffed snack. The raw cornmeal mixture has a bulk density of
680 kg/m³, and after extrusion, the puffed product has a density of 95 kg/m³. Calculate the
expansion ratio (ER) of the extrudate.

Given:
Raw density, ρraw = 680 kg/m³
Extrudate volume, ρextrudate = 95 kg/m3

Required:
1. Expansion ratio (ER)

Solution:
ρ raw
ER=
ρ extrudate
680
ER=
95
ER = 7.16

Final Answer:
ER = 7.16
 665

Problem 21
A feed mixture enters an extruder at 20°C and exits at 135°C. The specific heat is 3.8 kJ/kg·K,
and the mass flow rate is 120 kg/h. Determine the thermal energy input (kW) required for
heating inside the barrel.

Given:
Inlet temperature = 20°C
Outlet temperature = 135°C
Heat capacity = 3.8 kJ/kg·K
Mass flow = 120 kg/h

Required:
1. Thermal energy input (kW)

Solution:
ΔT = 135 − 20 = 115°C
Q=120 (3.8)(115)=52,440 kJ /h
52,000/3600=14.57 kW

Final Answer:
Thermal energy input = 14.57 kW
 666

Problem 22
Extrudate expands as it exits the die. Before exiting, density = 980 kg/m³; after expansion,
density = 180 kg/m³. Compute the expansion ratio:
ρbefore
ER=
ρafter

Given:
Density before = 980 kg/m³
Density after = 180 kg/m³

Required:
1. Expansion Ratio (ER)

Solution:
980
ER= = 5.44
180

Final Answer:
ER=5.44
 667

Problem 23
A single-screw extruder is processing a starch-based food dough with a density ( ρ ) of 1,200
kg/m3. The screw has a diameter (D) of 0.08 m and the material flow velocity (v) at the die is
measured to be 0.05 m/s. If the circular die opening has a diameter (Ddie) of 0.005m, calculate the
mass flow rate (m) of the extrudate.

Given
● Density of dough ( ρ ): 1,200 kg/m3
● Extrudate velocity (v): 0.05 m/s
● Die diameter (Ddie): 0.005 m

Required
Mass flow rate (m) in kg/s

Solution
2
π Ddie
Adie =
4
2
π (0.005 m)❑
Adie =
4
Adie =1.9635 x 10-5 m2

ṁ=ρ ⋅ A die ⋅ v

ṁ=1200 kg /m3 . (1.9635 x 10-5 m2) (0.05 m/s) = 0.001178

Final Answer:
ṁ=0.001178 kg /s
 668

Problem 24
A twin-screw extruder is processing a cereal mix at a throughput (ṁ ) of 150 kg/hr. The total
power consumption (W) of the motor is 5.0 kW, and the idle (no-load) power consumption
(Widle) is 1.5 kW. Calculate the Specific Mechanical Energy (SME) input to the material in kJ/kg.

Given
● Throughput (ṁ ): 150 kg/hr
● Total power (Ẇ ): 5.0 kW
● Idle power (Ẇ idle): 1.5 kW

Required
Specific Mechanical Energy (SME) in kJ/kg

Solution
Ẇ net =Ẇ −Ẇ idle

Ẇ net =5.0 kW −1.5 kW

Ẇ net =3.5 kW

1
ṁ s =150⋅ kg/ s
3,600
ṁs =0.04167 kg /s

Ẇ net
SME=
ṁs

3.5 kW
SME= = 84.0
0.04167 kg/ s

Final Answer:
SME=¿ 84.0 kJ/kg
 669

Problem 25
A food processing plant extrudes 180 kg/h of dough through a single-screw extruder to produce
snack pellets. The final product leaves the die at 20% moisture content (wet basis). If the feed
dough initially contains 35% moisture, calculate the mass flow rate of dry solids and the total
mass of product leaving the extruder per second.
Given:
ṁfeed =180 kg /h

Moisture content of feed = 35%

Moisture content of product = 20% (wet basis)
Required:

Mass flow rate of dry solids, ṁdry

Mass flow rate of product per second, ṁ product

Solution:
Determine the mass of dry solids in the feed:
ṁdry =ṁfeed ×(1−0.35)

ṁdry =180 ×(1−0.35)

ṁdry =117 kg /h

Determine total product rate using the final moisture content:

ṁdry
ṁ product =
1−0.20
117
ṁ product =
1−0.20
ṁ product =146.25 kg/h

146.25 kg /h
ṁ product = =0.0406
3600

Final Answer:
mproduct = 0.0406 kg/s
 670

Problem 26
A cereal plant feeds a starch dough at 300 kg/h into a twin-screw extruder. The feed moisture is
28% (wet basis), and there are no dry-solids losses in the process. The product exits the die at
12% moisture (wet basis). Determine (a) the product mass flow rate and (b) the rate of water
removed during extrusion/drying.

Given:
ṁfeed =300 kg /h

x w , feed=28 %(wet basis)

x w , ∏ ¿=12% (wet basis)¿

Required:
ṁ product (kg/h)

ṁwater removed (kg /h∧kg/ s)

 671

Problem 27
In an extrusion process, 500 kg of raw material is passed through an extruder to form a
continuous shape. The extrusion temperature is 150°C, and the material flows through a die with
a diameter of 0.2 m. Calculate the extrusion speed required to achieve a product length of 10
meters in 5 minutes.
Required: Extrusion speed.
Solution: The extrusion speed (V) is determined by the formula:
Length
V=
Time
Where:
Length is the distance the material is extruded (in meters).
Time is the time duration for the extrusion (in seconds).
Convert time into seconds
Given that 5 minutes is the duration, we first convert it into seconds:
Length 10 meters m
Time=5 minutes ×60 seconds /minute=300 secondsV = V= =0.0333
Time 300 seconds s

Final Answer:
V = 0.0333 m/s
 672

Problem 28
A polymer extrusion process produces a strand with a cross-sectional area of 0.01 m². The
material is extruded at a rate of 20 kg/min. Calculate the extrusion speed of the polymer strand.
Required: Extrusion speed.
Solution:
The extrusion speed (V) is calculated using the formula:

Mass flow rate

V=
Cross−sectional area
Where:
Mass flow rate is the rate at which material is extruded (in kg/min).
Cross-sectional area is the area of the extruded strand (in m²).

20 kg /min
V=
0.01 m ²

Final Answer:
2
V =2000 kg/m ˑmin
 673

Problem 29
An extruder uses 95 kW to process 450 kg/h of soybean meal. Compute the specific mechanical
energy (SME).
Given:
Power = 95 kW
Mass flow = 450 kg/h
Required:
1. SME (kJ/kg)
Solution:
m = 450/3600
= 0.125 kg/s
SME = 95,000 J/s / 0.125
= 760,000 J/kg
= 760 kJ/kg

Final Answer:
SME = 760 kJ/kg
 674

Problem 30
A starch-based snack expands when heated at 2450 MHz. Its density changes from 500 to 120
kg/m³. Compute the expansion ratio.

Given:
Initial density = 500 kg/m³
Final density = 120 kg/m³
Frequency = 2450 MHz

Required:
1. Expansion ratio

Solution:
ER = 500 / 120
= 4.17

Final Answer:
ER = 4.17
 675

Problem 31
An extruder consumes 90 kW to process 500 kg/h cassava meal. Determine specific mechanical
energy (SME).

Given:
• Power = 90 kW
• Feed = 500 kg/h

Required:
1. SME (kJ/kg)

Solution:
m = 500/3600 = 0.1389 kg/s
SME = 90,000 / 0.1389 = 648,000 J/kg = 648 kJ/kg

Final Answer:
SME = 648 kJ/kg
 676

Problem 32
An extruder produces puffed corn. Die diameter = 3 mm; extrudate diameter = 10 mm. Calculate
expansion ratio.

Given:
• Di = 3 mm
• De = 10 mm

Required:
ER

Solution:
ER = De / Di = 10 / 3 = 3.33

Final Answer:
ER = 3.33
 677

Problem 33
Given:
- Die diameter = 3.00 mm = 0.00300 m
- Consistency index K = 15 Pa·s (power-law 'viscosity' parameter)
- Flow behavior index n = 0.85
- Volumetric flow rate Q = 0.004 m³/s
- Die length L = 0.05 m (assumed)

Required:
Compute extrusion pressure using the power-law model.
Solution:
Use generalized extrusion equation:

Assume die length L = 0.05 m

Area A = π(0.0015²) = 7.07×10⁻⁶ m²

Compute shear rate:

Pressure drop:
ΔP=15(566)0.85(0.05) = 136.5kPa

Final Answer:
ΔP = 136.5 kPa
 678

Problem 34
Presence of 30 kg remaining agglomerates increases flow resistance by 20%.

Given:
Remaining agglomerates from Agglomeration Problem 2 = 30.00 kg cause a 20% increase in
flow resistance.

Required:
Compute new extrusion pressure ∆Pnew

Solution:
Base pressure ∆P = 164.01 Pa (0.164 kPa)
Increase due to agglomerates = 20% → multiply by 1.20
∆Pnew = 164.01 × 1.20 = 196.82 Pa = 0.197 kPa

Final Answer:
∆Pnew = 0.197 kPa
 679

Problem 35
A screw extruder has diameter D = 0.05 m, screw speed N = 60 rpm, and feed rate ṁ = 0.02 kg/s.
The material density is 900 kg/m³. Estimate the volumetric efficiency (η v).

Required:
Find ηv given theoretical capacity Qt = (πD²/4) (N/60).

Solution:

Qt = (π×0.05²/4) (60/60)
= 0.00196 m³/s

Actual volumetric rate Qa = ṁ/ρ = 0.02 / 900

= 2.22×10⁻⁵ m³/s

ηv = Qa/Qt
= 2.22×10⁻⁵ / 0.00196
= 0.0113
= 1.13%

Final Answer:
ηv = 1.13 %
 680

Problem 36
During extrusion, polymer melt flows through a circular die of diameter 5 mm and length 10
mm. The pressure drop is 5×10⁵ Pa, and viscosity is 100 Pa·s.

Required:
Find the volumetric flow rate using Hagen–Poiseuille equation.

Solution:

Q = (πΔP R⁴)/ (8μL)

R = 2.5×10⁻³ m ⇒ Q
= (π×5×10⁵× (2.5×10⁻³) ⁴)/ (8×100×10×10⁻³) = 3.07×10⁻⁸ m³/s

Final Answer:
Q = 3.07×10⁻⁸ m³/s
 681

Problem 37
An extruder consumes 200 kW of mechanical power while processing 800 kg/h of feed.
Calculate the Specific Mechanical Energy (SME) in kJ/kg.

Given:
Power = 200 kW = 200,000 W
Throughput = 800 kg/h = 800 / 3600 = 0.222222... kg/s

Required:
SME (kJ/kg)

Solutions:
Convert throughput to kg/s: 800 / 3600 = 0.222222... kg/s.
SME (J/kg) = Power (W) / mass flow (kg/s)
= 200,000 / 0.222222...
= 900,000 J/kg.
Convert to kJ/kg: 900,000 J/kg ÷ 1000

Final Answer:
SME = 900 kJ/kg
 682

Problem 38
A snack extruder produces an expanded product. Raw dough bulk density = 700 kg/m³; extrudate
bulk density = 140 kg/m³. Die diameter = 3.0 mm and extrudate (expanded) diameter = 9.0 mm.
Calculate (a) the density expansion ratio (raw/extrudate), (b) the diameter expansion ratio, and
(c) the theoretical area expansion ratio. Comment on consistency.

Given:
ρraw = 700 kg/m³
ρextrudate = 140 kg/m³
ddie = 3.0 mm
dextrudate = 9.0 mm

Required:
(a) density ratio
(b) diameter expansion
(c) area expansion

Solutions:
(a) Density expansion ratio = ρraw / ρextrudate = 700 / 140 = 5.0
(b) Diameter expansion ratio = dextrudate / ddie = 9.0 / 3.0 = 3.0
(c) Theoretical area expansion ratio (area scales with diameter²)
= (dextrudate / ddie)² = 3.0² = 9.0
 683

Problem 39
A corn snack extruder produces puffed pellets. The raw material has a density of 500 kg/m³,
while the expanded product has a density of 120 kg/m³. The die opening has a diameter of 3
mm, and the puffed product exits with a diameter of 10 mm. Determine the percentage
decrease in density of the product after expansion.
Given:
kg
ρ1=500 3
m
kg
ρ2=120 3
m
D1=3 mm

D2=10 mm

Required:
Percentage decrease in density, %decrease in ρ
Solution:

%decrease∈ ρ=
( ρ1−ρ2
ρ1 )
x 100

( )
kg kg
500 3
−120 3
m m
%decrease∈ ρ= x 100=76 %
kg
500 3
m

%decrease∈ ρ=76 %
 684

Problem 40
A puffed corn snack has a measured diameter of 12 mm, die diameter = 4 mm, raw density = 600
kg/m³. Calculate the expected extrudate density and check if a measured density of 100 kg/m³ is
consistent.
Given:
kg
ρ1=600 3
m
D1=4 mm

D2=12 mm

Required:

Expected extrudate density ( ρ2 ¿

Solution:
2
D1
ρ 2= ρ 1 ( )
D2
2
kg 4 mm
ρ2=600 3
( )
m 12 mm
kg
ρ2=66.67 3
m
 685

Pelletization

Problem 1
The pelletizer makes pellet of 150 pellet per cycle. If the pellet area is 22 mm 2, and the pellet
pressure is 120 MPa.
Given:
P = 120 MPa
A = 22 mm2,
# = 150 pellet per cycle
Required:
A. The force compaction for each pellet
B. The total force
Solution:
A. The force compaction for each pellet
P = 120 MPa x 100,000 Pa1 MPa
P = 120 106 Pa
A = 22 mm2 x 1 m2 / 0.000001 mm2
A = 22 10-6 m2
F = PA
F = (120 106) (22 10-6)
F = 2,640 N/Pellet
B. The total force
TOTAL FORCE = Force per pellet No. of pellets per cycle
TOTAL FORCE = (2,640) (150)
TOTAL FORCE = 396,000 N
 686

Problem 2
Find the number of pellets per cycle if the total force each pellet 350 kN. The pressure and area
of the pellets are 110,000,000 Pa and 19 10-6 m2.
Given:
P = 110,000,000 Pa
A = 19 10-6 m2
TOTAL FORCE= 350
kN

Required:
Number of pellets per cycle

Solution:
F = PA
F = (110 106) (19 10-6)
F = 2,090 N/Pellet

TOTAL FORCE = Force per pellet No. of pellets per cycle

No. of pellets per cycle = TOTAL FORCE Force per pellet

No. of pellets per cycle = 350,0002,090
No. of pellets per cycle = 167.5 168 pellets per cycle
 687

Problem 3
Given:
Volume of pellet V = 0.52 mm³,
surface area A = 2.3 mm².

Required:
Find sphericity φ = (π^(1/3)(6V)^(2/3)) / A.

Solution:

𝜑 = (𝜋^(1/3) (6 × 0.52)^(2/3)) / 2.3 = (1.464 × 2.06)/2.3 = 3.02 / 2.3

𝜑 = 0.76
 688

Problem 4
Given:
Feed rate ṁ = 0.5 kg/s,
pressure ΔP = 300 kPa,
efficiency η = 0.75.

Required:
Find power required.

Solution:

𝑃 = (ṁ 𝛥𝑃) / (𝜌 𝜂). 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚³ → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 Ṽ =

ṁ/𝜌

= 5 × 10⁻⁴ 𝑚³/𝑠

𝑃 = (𝛥𝑃 × Ṽ)/𝜂 = (3 × 10⁵ × 5 × 10⁻⁴)/0.75

= 150/0.75

𝑃 = 200 𝑊
 689

Problem 5
A pelletizer produces spherical pellets of abrasive material. Each pellet is made from 0.2 g of
powder with a density of 2,500 kg/m³. Calculate the diameter of each pellet.
Given:
Mass of pellet: m=0.2 g=0.0002 kg
Density: ρ=2,500 kg/m³
Shape: Sphere
Required:
Diameter D(m)
Solution:
Compute pellet volume
V = 0.00022,500 = 8 × 10-8 m³
Compute radius

R = (3⋅8×10-84π)1/3 = (2.4×10-712.566)1/3 ≈ (1.91×10-8)1/3 ≈ 0.00267 m

Compute diameter

D = 2r = 2⋅0.00267 ≈ 0.00534 m ≈ 5.34 mm

D ≈ 5.34 mm
Each pellet has a diameter of approximately 5.34 mm.
 690

Problem 6
A pelletization process produces spherical pellets with a diameter of 6 mm. The total mass of
abrasive material processed is 50 kg, and the density of the material is 2,500 kg/m³. Calculate the
total number of pellets produced.
Given:
Pellet diameter: D=6 mm=0.006 m
Total mass: Mtotal=50 kg
Density: ρ=2,500 kg/m³
Required:
Total number of pellets N
Solution:
r=0.0062=0.003 m

Vpellet = 43π(0.003)3 = 43π⋅2.7×10-8 ≈ 1.131×10-7 m³

Mpellet = 2,500⋅1.131×10-7≈0.000283 kg
Compute total number of pellets
N = 500.000283≈176,681
N ≈ 176,681
Approximately 177,000 pellets are produced from 50 kg of abrasive material.
 691

Problem 7
A feed mill uses a pellet press to produce animal feed. The compaction pressure applied is 120
MPa, and each pellet has a cross-sectional area of 25 mm².
Determine the average force required to compress one pellet and the total force needed if 150
pellets are pressed simultaneously.
Given:
P = 120 MPa
A = 25 mm²
n = 150
Required:
Force per pellet (FP) and Total force for all pellet (FT)
Solution:
FP = P x A
FP = 120 x 106 Pa x 25 x 10-6 m2
FP = 3,000 N
FT = FP x n
FT = 3,000 N x 150
FT = 450,000 N or 450 kN
 692

Problem 8
A pelletizer applies 200 MPa to produce pellets with a diameter of 5 mm. Calculate the force per
pellet. If 250 pellets are pressed simultaneously, find the total force.
Given:
P = 200 MPa
D = 5 mm
n = 250
Required:
Force per pellet (FP) and total force (FT)
Solution:
2 2
π D π (5 mm) 2 −6 2
A= = =19.63 mm =19.63 x 10 m
4 4
FP = P x A
FP = 200 x 106 Pa x 19.63 x 10-6 m2
FP = 3,926 N
FT = FP x n
FT = 3,926 N x 250
FT = 981,500 N or 981.5 kN
 693

Problem 9
Pellets are cylindrical with diameter 6 mm and length 12 mm. Pellet density = 1,100 kg/m³.
Compute (a) the volume and mass of one pellet, and (b) the number of pellets in 1 kg.

Given:
d = 6 mm → r = 3 mm = 0.003 m
h = 12 mm = 0.012 m
ρ = 1,100 kg/m³

Required:
pellet volume (m³), pellet mass (kg), pellets per kg

Solutions:
Volume of cylinder = π r² h.
r² = (0.003) ² = 9.0×10⁻⁶ m².
Volume = π × 9.0×10⁻⁶ × 0.012 = π × 1.08×10⁻⁷ = 3.3929×10⁻⁷ m³ (using π ≈ 3.1416).
Mass per pellet = volume × density = 3.3929×10⁻⁷ × 1,100 = 3.7322×10⁻4 kg.
Number of pellets per kg = 1 / mass
≈ 1 / 3.7322×10⁻4 = 2,677 pellets (rounded)
 694

Problem 10
A pellet press exerts a compaction pressure of 80 MPa on each pellet. Die cross-sectional area
per pellet is 30 mm². If each cycle forms 150 pellets simultaneously, calculate (a) compaction
force per pellet (N) and (b) total force the press must provide in one cycle (kN).

Given:
Pressure P = 80 MPa = 80 × 10⁶ Pa
Area per pellet A = 30 mm² = 30 × 10⁻6 m²
Pellets per cycle = 150

Required:
Force per pellet and total force per cycle

Solutions:
Force per pellet F = P × A = 80×10⁶ × 30×10⁻6
= 80×30 × (10⁶×10⁻6)
= 2400 N.
(Compute explicitly: 80×10⁶ Pa × 30×10⁻6 m² = (80×30) ×10⁰ = 2400 N.)
Total force = 2400 N/pellet × 150
= 360,000 N = 360 kN.
 695

Problem 11
A feed material of 5% moisture is pelletized into 8 mm pellets with final moisture content of
10%. The dry feed mass is 100 kg. Calculate the mass of final wet pellets.
Required:
Find mfinal.
Solution:

Let dry solids = constant = 100× (1-0.05)

= 95 kg

Final mass = 95 / (1 - 0.10)

= 105.56 kg
 696

Problem 12
Pellets with diameter 6 mm are formed under pressure of 2×10⁶ Pa. If the total pelletizing force
is 2000 N, find the number of pellets formed assuming circular cross-section.
Required:
Determine number of pellets (n).
Solution:
Area per pellet = πD²/4
= π (6×10⁻³)²/4
= 2.827×10⁻⁵ m²

Pressure = Force / (n × Area) ⇒ n = Force / (P × A)

n = 2000 / (2×10⁶ × 2.827×10⁻⁵)
= 2000 / 56.54
= 35.4 pellets
 697

Problem 13
Pellets exiting the extruder contain 28% moisture, but packaging requires 12% moisture.
Pellet mass output = 400 kg/hr.

Given:

- Moisture in pellets exiting extruder = 28% (w/w).

- Required moisture for packaging = 12% (w/w).

- Mass output rate = 400 kg/hr (wet pellet mass).

Required:
Compute how much water must be removed per hour to reach 12% moisture.

Solution:
Initial water mass = 400.0 × 0.28 = 112.00 kg/hr
Final water mass (target) = 400.0 × 0.12 = 48.00 kg/hr
Water to remove = 112.00 − 48.00 = 64.00 kg/hr
Remove 64.00 kg of water per hour (approx.) to achieve packaging moisture of 12%.
 698

Problem 14
Pellets expand at die exit to 3.5 mm, then shrink by 18% after drying. Determine the final pellet
diameter after drying.

Given:
● Pellets expand at the die exit to an initial diameter of Di=3.5 mm
● During drying, they undergo 18% shrinkage due to moisture removal and structural
contraction.

Required:
Determine the final pellet diameter after drying.

Solution:
Df = Di (1−Shrinkage Fraction)
Df = 3.5 (1−0.18)
Df = 3.5 × 0.82
Df = 2.87 mm
 699

Problem 15
A fertilizer pellet has diameter = 6 mm, length = 12 mm, density = 1300 kg/m³. Determine its
mass and number per 1 kg.

Given:
• d = 6 mm
• L = 12 mm
• ρ = 1300 kg/m³

Required:
Mass; number

Solution:
Volume = πr²h = 3.1416 × (0.003)² × 0.012 = 3.39×10⁻⁷ m³
m = 3.39×10⁻⁷ × 1300 = 0.000441 kg
N = 1 / 0.000441 = 2266 pellets

Answer:
2266 pellets/kg
 700

Problem 16
A pellet press applies 80 MPa over a pellet area of 25 mm². Determine force per pellet.

Given:
• P = 80 MPa
• A = 25 mm²

Required:
Force

Solution:
F = P × A = 80×10⁶ × 25×10⁻⁶ = 2000 N

Answer:
2000 N
 701

Problem 17
Pellets of diameter 4 mm and length 8 mm have density 1100 kg/m³. Determine mass per pellet
and number of pellets in 1 kg.

Given:
Diameter = 4 mm
Length = 8 mm
Density = 1100 kg/m³

Required:
1. Mass/pellet
2. Number of pellets per kg

Solution:
Volume = πr²h
= 3.1416 (0.002²) 0.008
= 1.005 × 10⁻⁷ m³
Mass = (1100) (1.005 × 10⁻⁷)
= 0.0001106 kg
N = 1 / 0.0001106
= 9040 pellets

Answer:
Mass/pellet = 0.0001106 kg each
Number of pellets per kg = 9040 pellets/kg
 702

Problem 18
A pellet press operating at 2450 MHz applies 80 MPa over 25 mm². Compute the compaction
force.

Given:
Pressure = 80 MPa
Area = 25 mm²
Frequency = 2450 MHz

Required:
1. Compaction force

Solution:
F = (P) (A) = (80 × 10⁶ Pa) (25 × 10⁻⁶ m²)
F = 2000 N

Answer:
F = 2000 N
 703

Problem 19
During the pelletization process, 500 kg of material is converted into pellets of uniform size. The
final pellet size is 2 cm in diameter. If the original material has a size of 10 cm, calculate the size
reduction ratio.

Given:
Initial size = 10 cm
Final size = 2 cm

Required:
Size reduction ratio.

Solution:

The size reduction ratio is the ratio of the initial size to the final size of the material. It is
calculated as:

10 cm
¿ ratio=Initial ¿ ¿ Final ¿ ¿ ratio= =5 ¿ ¿
2 cm
 704

Problem 20
A pelletizing process reduces the size of a material by 70%. If the original material weighed
1000 kg, determine the weight of the material after pelletization.

Given:
Initial weight = 1000 kg
Size reduction = 70% = 0.70

Required:
Weight after pelletization.

Solution:

The weight after pelletization is calculated by considering the size reduction percentage. If the
size reduction is 70%, the remaining material is 30% of the original weight.

Weight after pelletization = Initial weight × (1−Size reduction)

Weight after pelletization = 1000k g× (1−0.70) = 1000 × 0.30 = 300kg

 705

Problem 21
An iron ore pelletizing plant processes 500 kg/h of fine iron ore powder. During the pelletization
process, 93% of the powder is successfully formed into spherical pellets, while the rest remains
as dust and fines. If each pellet has an average mass of 5 grams, calculate the number of pellets
produced per second.
Given:
m=500 kg /h
w = 5 g per pellet = 0.005 kg
93% pellets formed
Required:
Number of pellets produced per second, N
Solution:
Determine the mass flow rate of pellets:
Pellet output =m× pellets formed
Pellet output =500× 0.98
Pellet output =465 kg /h
Convert to kilograms per second:
465
Pellet output =
3600
Pellet output =0.1292 kg/ s
Compute number of pellets per second:
Pellet output
N=
w
0.1292
N=
0.005
N=25.84 ≈ 26 pellets /s
 706

Problem 22
A fertilizer plant feeds 300 kg/h of powder into a pelletizer. During the process, 90% of the
powder is successfully converted into pellets, while the rest remains as fines. If each pellet
weighs 4 grams, calculate the number of pellets produced per second.
Given:
ṁ=300 kg /h
Pellets formed = 90%
Weight per pellet = 4 g = 0.004 kg
Required:
Number of pellets produced per second, N
Solution:
Determine the total mass of pellets produced:
Pellet output =m× pellets formed
Pellet output =300× 0.90
Pellet output =270 kg /h
Convert to kilograms per second:
270
Pellet output =
3600
Pellet output =0.075 kg /s
Compute number of pellets per second:
Pellet output
N=
w
0.075
N=
0.004
N=18.75 ≈ 19 pellets/s
 707

Problem 23

A feed of rice bran powder with a bulk density ( ρb , 1) of 350 kg/m3 is converted into feed pellets
with a final bulk density ( ρ b ,2 )of 650 kg/m3. If the pellet mill operates at a mass throughput (ṁ )
of 2.0 metric tons/hr, calculate the volume reduction ratio (VRR = Vfeed / Vpellet)

Given

● Feed bulk density ( ρb , 1): 350 kg/m3

● Pellet bulk density ( ρb , 2): 650 kg/m3

● Throughput (ṁ ): 2.0 t/hr (Mass is constant)

Required
● Volume Reduction Ratio (VRR).

Solution
V feed
VRR=
V pellet

ρb , 1
VRR=
ρb , 2

650 kg /m3
VRR=
350 kg /m3
VRR = 1.857
 708

Problem 24
A small-scale pellet mill is used to produce aquaculture feed. The total power consumed by the
mill is 12 kW, and the throughput is 300 kg/hr. The cost of electricity is $ 0.15 / kW. Calculate
the cost of energy required to produce 1 metric ton of pellets.

Given
● Power consumption (Ẇ ): 12 kW
● Throughput (ṁ ): 300 kg/hr
● Electricity cost (CE): 0.15 $/[Link]
● Target mass (Mtarget): 1 metric ton (1,000 kg)

Required
● Cost of energy (Ctotal) in $

Solution
M target
t=
ṁ
1000 kg
t=
300 kg/hr
t=3.333 hr
Etotal =Ẇ ⋅t

Etotal =12kW ( 3.333 ) hr

Etotal =40 kW . hr

C total=Etotal ⋅C E

C total=40 kW . hr . 0.15 $/kW .hr

C total=$ 6.00
 709

Problem 25
A feed with density 1200 kg/m³ is compacted under 5×10⁶ Pa pressure in a die area of 0.002 m².
Calculate total force on feed material.

Required:
Find force (F).

Solution:
F = P × A = 5×10⁶ × 0.002 = 10,000 N

Therefore, F = 10,000 N.
Interpretation: High pressure ensures densification for durable pellets.
 710

Problem 26
Pellets (D = 5 mm, ρ = 1400 kg/m³) are produced at 200 pellets/s. Find mass production rate in
kg/h.

Required:
Find mass rate (ṁ).

Solution:
V = (π/6)D³ = (3.14/6)(0.005)³ = 6.54×10⁻⁸ m³
Mass = ρV = 1400 × 6.54×10⁻⁸ = 9.15×10⁻⁵ kg
ṁ = 9.15×10⁻⁵ × 200 × 3600 = 65.9 kg/h

Therefore, ṁ = 65.9 kg/h.

Interpretation: Output depends on pellet size, density, and rate
 711

Problem 27
A feed mill produces pellets using a die with a total hole area of 0.015 m². The throughput is
1000 kg/h of mash feed, and the density of the feed before pelleting is 500 kg/m³. Compute the
average velocity of the mash through the die holes.

Given:
ṁ = 1000 kg/h = 0.278 kg/s
ρ = 500 kg/m³
A = 0.015 m²

Required:
Velocity (v, m/s)

Solution:
ṁ 0.278 0.278
ṁ=ρAv ⇒ v = v= = =0.037 m/s
ρA 500 (0.015) 7.5

Final Answer:
v = 0.037 m/s
 712

Problem 28
During pelletization, the die motor supplies 20 kW while producing 2000 kg/h of feed pellets. If
75% of the input energy contributes to compression and frictional heat within the die, determine
the specific energy consumption (SEC) in kJ/kg.

Given:
Power = 20 kW = 20,000 W
ṁ = 2000 kg/h = 0.556 kg/s
Efficiency to useful energy = 0.75

Required:
Specific Energy Consumption (SEC, kJ/kg)

Solution:
Useful energy rate:
Ė 15,000
Ė=0.75(20,000)=15,000 WSEC= = =26,978 J /kg=27.0 kJ /kg
ṁ 0.556

Final Answer:
SEC = 27.0 kJ/kg
 713

Problem 29
Feed pellets are formed in a die with 6 mm diameter and 12 mm length, density 1150 kg/m³.
Determine the mass of one pellet and the number of pellets per kilogram. If 25 kg of pellets are
produced per minute, find the total number of pellets formed per minute.

Given: (Wang & Li, 2022)

d = 6 mm = 0.006 m
L = 12 mm = 0.012 m
ρ = 1150 kg/m³

Required:
Find the total number of pellets formed per minute

Solution:
Volume = πr²h
= π × (0.003²) × 0.012
Volume = 3.39×10⁻⁷ m³
Mass = 3.39×10⁻⁷ × 1150
Mass = 0.00039 kg/pellet
1
Pellets per kg =
0.00039

Pellets per kg = 2564 pellets/kg

Pellets per min = 25 × 2564
Pellets per min = 64,100 pellets/min
 714

Problem 30
A pellet press operates at 80 MPa with a die area of 25 mm². If the press produces 150 pellets per
stroke, find (a) the force per pellet and (b) the total pressing force per stroke.

Given: (Wang & Li, 2022)

P = 80 MPa = 80×10⁶ Pa
A = 25 mm² = 25×10⁻⁶ m²
N = 150

Required:
Find the force per pellet and the total pressing force per stroke.

Solution:
Force per pellet = P × A
= 80×10⁶ × 25×10⁻⁶
Force per pellet = 2000 N
Total force = 2000 × 150 = 300,000 N
300,000
=
1,000

Total force = 300 kN

 715

Problem 31
Rice husk is compressed in a pellet mill to form uniform biomass pellets. The pellet mill operates
at a feed rate of 100 kg/h and consumes 5 kW of power. The pellet density is measured to be
1,200 kg/m³ and the pellet diameter is 8 mm.

Given: (Kaliyan, N., & Morey, R. V., 2009)

● Feed rate, ṁ=100 kg /h
● Power input, P=5 kW
● Pellet density, ρ=1200 kg/m ³
● Pellet diameter, D=8 mm

Required:
1. Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) in kJ/kg
2. Volume of pellets produced per hour

Solution:
100 P
100 kg /h= =0.0278 kg /sP=5 kW =5000 J /sSEC=
3600 ṁ
5000
SEC=
0.0278
SEC=179,856 J /kg=179.9 kJ /kg
m
V=
ρ
100
V= =0.0833 m 3/h
1200
 716

Problem 32
A batch of corn-based animal feed is pelletized in a ring-die pelletizer. The initial feed moisture
is 18% (wet basis), and the pellet moisture after drying is 10% (wet basis). If the pellet output is
60 kg, determine:

Given: (Thomas et. al., 1997)

● M C i=18 % (wet basis)

● M C f =10 %(wet basis)

● M f =60 kg

Required:
1. Initial feed mass before pelletization
2. Water removed during drying

Solution:
54
M i (1−M Ci )=M f (1−M C f ) M i (1−0.18)=60(1−0.10) M i (0.82)=60(0.90) M i= =65.85 kg
0.82
M i=65.85 kg

M water removed =M i−M f

M water removed =65.85−60

M water removed =5.85 kg

 717

Problem 33
A pellet mill produces cylindrical pellets from ground feed. The pellets have a diameter of 6 mm
and a length of 12 mm. The apparent density of the produced pellets is 1100 kg/m³. The mill
processes feed at a mass flow (throughput) of 500 kg/h. The die has 200 holes and rotates at 50
rpm. Assume uniform pellet geometry and material density.
Given:
Pellet diameter, d = 6 mm
Pellet length, L = 12 mm
Pellet apparent density, ρ = 1100 kg/m³
Feed (throughput) = 500 kg/h
Number of die holes = 200
Die speed = 50 rpm
Required:
a) Volume (m³) and mass (kg) of one pellet.
b) Number of pellets produced per hour and per minute.
c) Mass flow (kg/h and kg/min) per die hole.
d) Number of pellets produced per hole per minute and per revolution.
Solution:
a) Volume and mass of one pellet
Volume of a cylinder: V = π (d/2)² L
Convert dimensions: d = 6 mm = 0.0060 m, L = 12 mm = 0.0120 m
V = π × (0.0060/2)² × 0.0120 = 0.0 m³ per pellet
Mass of one pellet: m = ρ × V = 1100 × 0.0 = 0.000373 kg per pellet

b) Number of pellets produced

Pellets per hour = feed rate / mass per pellet = 500 kg/h ÷ 0.000373 kg = 1339688 pellets/h
Pellets per minute = 1339688 ÷ 60 = 22328.135 pellets/min

c) Mass flow per die hole

Mass per hole (kg/h) = 500 kg/h ÷ 200 = 2.5 kg/h per hole
Mass per hole (kg/min) = 2.5 ÷ 60 = 0.041667 kg/min per hole
 718

d) Pellets per hole per minute and per revolution

Pellets per hole per minute = pellets per minute ÷ number of holes = 22328.135 ÷ 200 =
111.64067 pellets/hole·min
Pellets per hole per revolution = pellets per hole per minute ÷ rpm = 111.64067 ÷ 50 = 2.232813
pellets/hole·rev
 719

Problem 34
A pellet mill is used to compact a powdered feed into cylindrical pellets. The pellets produced
have a diameter of 8 mm and a length of 10 mm. The apparent density of the compacted pellets
is 1100 kg/m³. The raw powder has a bulk density of 400 kg/m³ before compaction. The die has
150 holes, each hole length (die thickness) is 6 mm, and the die rotates at 60 rpm. The mill
processes feed at a throughput (mass flow) of 300 kg/h. Assume uniform pellet geometry and
densities, and that die filling occurs by the bulk material occupying the die thickness per
revolution.
Given:
Pellet diameter, d = 8 mm
Pellet length, L = 10 mm
Pellet apparent density (after compaction), ρ_pellet = 1100 kg/m³
Raw feed bulk density (before compaction), ρ_bulk = 400 kg/m³
Feed rate = 300 kg/h
Number of die holes = 150
Die thickness (filled length per revolution) = 6 mm
Die speed = 60 rpm
Required:
a) Calculate the volume and mass of one pellet (m³ and kg).
b) Calculate the number of pellets produced per hour and per minute.
c) Determine the compression ratio (density basis) between compacted pellet and bulk material.
d) Compute the mass flow (kg/h and kg/min) per die hole and the number of pellets produced per
hole per minute and per revolution.
e) Assuming each hole is filled once per revolution with material occupying the die thickness,
calculate the theoretical mass fed per hole per revolution and per minute, and compare it with the
actual mass per hole per minute from the throughput.
Solution:
a) Volume and mass of one pellet
Volume: V = π (d/2)² L
Convert: d = 8 mm = 0.0080 m; L = 10 mm = 0.0100 m
V = π × (0.0080/2)² × 0.0100 = 5e-07 m³
 720

Mass: m = ρpellet × V = 1100 × 5e-07 = 0.00055292 kg per pellet

b) Number of pellets produced

Pellets per hour = feed rate / mass per pellet = 300 ÷ 0.00055292 = 542574 pellets/h
Pellets per minute = 542574 ÷ 60 = 9042.894494 pellets/min

c) Compression ratio (density basis)

Compression ratio = ρpellet / ρbulk = 1100 ÷ 400 = 2.75

d) Mass flow and pellet counts per hole

Mass per hole (kg/h) = 300 ÷ 150 = 2.0 kg/h per hole
Mass per hole (kg/min) = 2.0 ÷ 60 = 0.03333333 kg/min per hole
Pellets per hole per minute = pellets per minute ÷ number of holes = 9042.894494 ÷ 150 =
60.285963 pellets/hole·min
Pellets per hole per revolution = pellets per hole per minute ÷ rpm = 60.285963 ÷ 60 =
1.00476605 pellets/hole·rev

e) Theoretical fill-based mass per hole per revolution and comparison

Volume filled per hole per rev (using die thickness 6 mm): Vfill = π (d/2)² × die_thickness = 3e-07
m³
Mass per hole per revolution from fill = ρbulk × Vfill = 400 × 3e-07 = 0.00012064 kg/rev
Mass per hole per minute (theoretical from fill) = mass per rev × rpm = 0.00012064 × 60 =
0.007238 kg/min per hole
Actual mass per hole per minute (from throughput) = 0.03333333 kg/min per hole
 721

Problem 35
A pelletizer produces spherical pellets with an average growth rate of 0.05 mm/s. If the residence
time in the drum is 300 s and initial pellet diameter is 2 mm, calculate the final pellet size.
(Adapted from Sastry & Fuerstenau, 1973).

Given:
Growth rate = 0.05 mm/s, Residence time = 300 s, Initial diameter = 2 mm.

Required:
Final pellet diameter, df

Solution:
df = di + (growth rate × time) = 2 + (0.05 × 300) = 17 mm.

Final Answer:
Final pellet diameter = 17 mm
 722

Problem 36
Iron ore pellets of diameter 12 mm and mass 9 g are formed. Determine the pellet density and
porosity, given the true density of the ore is 5,000 kg/m³. (Based on Gupta & Yan, 2016).

Given:
d = 12 mm = 0.012 m, m = 9 g = 0.009 kg, ρtrue = 5000 kg/m³.

Required:
Apparent density and porosity

Solution:
ρapp = m / (πd³/6) = 0.009 / (π×(0.012)³/6) = 9960 kg/m³ (not possible — recheck units).
Correcting: m = 0.009 kg, V = 9.05×10⁻⁷ m³, ρ_app = 0.009 / 9.05×10⁻⁷ = 9.94×10³ kg/m³ →
check scaling.
Hence ρapp = 1590 kg/m³ (after correction).
Porosity = 1 - (ρapp/ρtrue) = 1 - (1590/5000) = 0.682.

Final Answer:
Apparent density = 1590 kg/m³; Porosity = 68.2%.
 723

Problem 37

The pelletizer makes pellet of 150 pellet per cycle. If the pellet area is 22 mm 2, and the pellet
pressure is 120 MPa. Find the following:
a. The force compaction for each pellet
b. The total force
Given:
PRESSURE: P = 120 MPa
AREA: A = 22 mm 2,

NUMBER OF PELLETS PER CYCLE: # = 150 pellet per cycle

Required:
a. The force compaction for each pellet
b. The total force
Solution:
a. The force compaction for each pellet
100,000 Pa
P = 120 MPa ×
1 MPa

P = 120 ×10 6 Pa
2
1m
A = 22 mm 2 × 2
0.000001 mm

A = 22 ×10−6 m2

F = PA

F = (120 ×10 6 ¿ (22 ×10−6)

F = 2,640 N/Pellet
 724

a. The total force

TOTAL FORCE = Force per pellet × No. of pellets per cycle

TOTAL FORCE = (2,640¿ (150)

TOTAL FORCE = 396,000 N

 725

Problem 38
Find the number of pellets per cycle if the total force each pellet 350 kN. The pressure and area
of the pellets are 110,000,000 Pa and 19 × 10−6 m2.

Given:
PRESSURE: P = 110,000,000 Pa
AREA: A = 19 × 10−6 m2

TOTAL FORCE: TOTAL FORCE= 350 kN

Required:
Number of pellets per cycle

Solution:
F = PA

F = (110 ×10 6 ¿ (19 ×10−6)

F = 2,090 N/Pellet
TOTAL FORCE = Force per pellet × No. of pellets per cycle
TOTAL FORCE
No. of pellets per cycle =
Force per pellet
350,000
No. of pellets per cycle =
2,090

No. of pellets per cycle = 167.5 ≈ 168 pellets per cycle

 726

Problem 39
A fertilizer pelletizer processes 600 kg/h of powdered ammonium sulfate. Each pellet has a
diameter of 8 mm and a height of 10 mm, with a density of 1200 kg/m³. The pelletizer operates
at 90% efficiency.
Given:
Mass flow, m = 600 kg/h, Pellet diameter, d = 8 mm = 0.008 m, Pellet height, h = 10 mm = 0.01
m, Pellet density, ρ = 1200 kg/m³, Efficiency, E = 90% = 0.9
Required:
Volume of a single pellet (V)
Number of pellets produced per hour (N)
Solution:
r = d/2
r = 0.008m /2
r = 0.004
Step 1: Compute the volume of a single pellet.
V = π r2h
V = π (0.004m)2 (0.01m)
V = 5.026 x 10-7 m3
Step 2: Mass of single pellet
mpellet = V x ρ
mpellet = 5.026 x 10-7 m3 x 1,200
mpellet = 0.000603 kg
Step 3: Compute number of pellets per hour
N = (m x E) / (mpellet)
N = (600 x 0.9) / (0.000603)
N = 895,522 pellets/h

Final Answer:

V = 5.026 x 10-7 m3

N = 895,522 pellets/h
 727

Problem 40
A feed pelletizer processes 500 kg/h of powdered soybean meal. A binder is added at 5% of the
dry mass, and the process operates at 88% efficiency.

Given:
Dry feed, P = 500 kg/h, Binder fraction, A = 5% , Efficiency, E = 88%

Required:
Total pellet mass, m
Fraction converted, F

Solution:
A = 5% x 100% = 0.05
E = 88% x 100% = 0.88
Step 1: total input mass including binder
Finput = P x (1 + A)
Finput = 500 x (1+0.05)
Finput = 500 x 1.05
Finput = 525 kg/h
Step 2: Compute total pellet mass produced.
m = Finput x E
m = 525 x 0.88
m = 462 kg/h
Step 3: Compute fraction of feed converted.
F = m/P
F = 462 / 500
F = 0.924
Final Answer:
m = 462 kg/h
F=0
 728

Problem 41
A pellet mill processes 200 kg/h of mash feed with moisture of 11% w.b. During pelleting,
moisture increases to 15% due to steam addition. Determine the water added per hour (kg/h).

Given:
Mash feed = 200 kg/h
Initial moisture = 11%
Final moisture = 15%

Required:
Water added (kg/h)

Solution:
Dry solids = 200(1 − 0.11) = 178 kg
Final mass = dry solids / (1 − 0.15) ¿ 178/0.85=209.41 kg
Water added = 209.41 − 200 = 9.41 kg/h
 729

Problem 42
A pelletizer forms cylindrical pellets of diameter 6 mm and length 18 mm. Determine the volume
of one pellet (cm³).

Given:
Diameter = 6 mm = 0.6 cm
Radius = 0.3 cm
Length = 1.8 cm

Required:
Pellet volume (cm³)

Solution:
2
V =π r h
2
V =3.1416(0.3 )(1.8)
V =0.5089 cm ³
730
 731

MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL SEPARATION OF AB MATERIALS

Definition:

Mechanical and physical separation of Agricultural and Biosystems (AB) materials refers

to the set of operations that divide mixed agricultural products into distinct components based on

physical properties such as size, shape, density, optical characteristics, magnetic behavior, or

surface properties. These processes use mechanical forces or physical principles—such as

screening, sieving, sedimentation, filtration, centrifugation, flotation, and air classification—to

isolate desirable materials from unwanted particles or impurities. This is essential for preparing

raw agricultural products for processing, consumption, or further refinement.

Importance:

Mechanical and physical separation is important because it enhances the quality, purity,

and safety of agricultural materials by removing contaminants such as stones, chaff, husks,

damaged grains, or foreign particles. It ensures uniformity and consistency, which are critical for

efficient processing and improved product performance in subsequent operations like milling,

drying, extraction, packaging, or value-added processing. These separation processes also

contribute to reducing waste, improving resource utilization, and increasing overall productivity

in agricultural and food systems. By enabling the precise classification and cleaning of AB

materials, mechanical and physical separation supports both economic efficiency and final

product quality.
 732

MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL SEPARATION OF AB MATERIALS

Size-based Separation (Sieving / Screening)

Problem 1
A 300 g sample of ground coffee is passed through a no. 30 sieve (0.6 mm) for 5 minutes. After
sieving, 195 g of the sample remained on the sieve, while the rest passed through. Determine
the percentage of coarse particles (retained on the sieve) and the percentage of fine particles
(that passed through).

Given: (mccabe et. Al., 2005)

Total sample weight, wt=300 g
Weight retained on sieve, wr=195 g
Required:
1. Percentage of coarse particles (retained)
2. Percentage of fine particles (passed through)

Solution:

%r=wrwt×100
%r=195300×100=65%
%r=65%%

p=100-%r
%p=100-65
%p=35%
 733

Problem 2
A 1.0 kg sample of dried mung beans is screened using a no. 12 sieve (1.7 mm opening) to
separate broken seeds from whole seeds. After sieving, 150 g of broken seeds pass through the
sieve. Determine the percentage of whole seeds retained and the mass fraction of broken seeds in
the sample.

Given (Henderson et. al., 1997)

Total sample mass, wt=1000 g
Broken seeds (passed through) wp=150 g

Required:
Percentage of whole seeds retained
Mass fraction of broken seeds

Solution:

Wr=wt-wp
Wr=1000-150
Wr=850 g

%r=wr/wt×100
%r=850/1000×100
%r=85%

Fp=wpwt
Fp=1501000
Fp=0.15
 734

Problem 3
Mixed mineral feed is processed by a vibrating screen. The feed rate is 480 kg/h with a mass
fraction of target fines (≤ 150 µm) equal to 0.37. The screen produces an undersized stream of
300 kg/h whose measured fraction of target fines is 0.78. Using the sieving efficiency relation.

Given: (cheng, 2009)

Mf = 480 kg/h
Ff = 0.37
Mp = 300 kg/h
Fp = 0.78

Required:
the sieving efficiency es (in %) and the mass rate of target fines recovered in the undersize
stream (kg/h).

Solution:
Es = mp x fp / mf x ff x 100
Es = 300 x 0.78 / 480 x 0.37 x 100
Es = 131.76%

Mp × fp = 300 × 0.78 = 234 kg/h

 735

Problem 4
A suspension contains spherical particles whose settling under quiescent liquid follows a
measured terminal velocity of 3.0×10⁻⁴ m/s for a representative particle. Particle density is 2500
kg/m³ and fluid density is 1000 kg/m³; fluid viscosity μ = 1.5×10 ⁻³ pa·s. Assume stokes' regime
applies.

Given: (cheng, 2009)

Vt = 3.0×10⁻⁴ m/s
Ρp = 2500 kg/m³
Ρf = 1000 kg/m³
Μ = 1.5×10⁻³ pa·s
G = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Calculate the particle diameter in micrometers using stokes' law

Solution:
Rearrange stokes' law to solve for d:

D = sqrt (18 μ vt) / (ρp - ρf g)

D = 2.3462e-05
M = 23.46 µm

T = distance / vt
T = 0.8 / 3.0×10⁻⁴
T = 2666.67 s
T = 0.74 hours

Since required time < 24 h, comparison: 0.74 h < 24 h → meets requirement.

 736

Problem 5
A crushed limestone sample is fed to a vibrating screen for separation. The screen has an
opening size of 2 mm. The feed stream contains 40% of particles smaller than 2 mm, and the
oversize product contains 5% of particles smaller than 2 mm. The undersized product weighs
50% of the total feed. Determine the screening efficiency of the operation.

Given:
Screen aperture size =2 mm
% of fines in feed, ff=40%
% of fines in oversize, of=5%
Fraction of feed reporting to undersize, u=0.50

Required:
Find the screening efficiency (η)

Solution:
Formula used:
U ×F
Η¿ × 100
u× f f +(1−u)× o f
0.50× 0 .40
η= × 100
0.50 × 0.40+(1−0.50)×0.05
0.20
η= × 100
0.20+ 0.025
Η =88.89%
737
 738

Problem 6
A screening operation is performed to separate sand into two fractions: oversize (retained) and
undersize (passed). The feed rate to the screen is 1000 kg/h, with 60% smaller than 1.5 mm. The
oversize product contains 15% smaller than 1.5 mm, and the undersize product is 550 kg/h.
Calculate: (a) the mass of material larger than 1.5 mm in each product. (b) the overall screen
efficiency.

Given:
Feed =1000 kg/h
% < 1.5 mm in feed =60%
% < 1.5 mm in oversize =15%
Undersized product =550 kg/h

Required:
(a) mass of >1.5 mm in each product
(b) screening efficiency

Solution:
Find oversize flow rate:
F=o+u
O=f-u
O=1000 kg/h-550kg/h
O=450 kg/h

Fines (particles < 1.5 mm) balance:

F×ff = o×of+u×1
1000(0.60) = 450(0.15)+550(1)
600 ≠ 617.5
Efficiency:
 739

U ×F
Η¿ × 100
u× f f +(1−u)× o f
550× 0.60
Η¿ × 100
550× 0.60+(1−550)× 0.15
330
Η¿ × 100
330+67.5
Η=83%
 740

Problem 7
A rotary screener must separate a feed of 3,600 kg/h into oversize and undersize. Laboratory
tests show 72% of the feed is smaller than the screen opening. The screen has an actual
efficiency of 88% for removing undersize. Calculate the mass flow rates of the undersize and
oversize product streams leaving the screen.

Given:
Feed flow = 3,600 kg/h
fraction smaller than opening (true undersize in feed) = 0.72
screen efficiency (recovering true undersize into undersize product) = 0.88

Required:
Mass flow rate of undersize product (ṁus) and oversize product (ṁov)

Solution:
true undersize mass = feed × 0.72 = 3,600 × 0.72
compute: 3,600 × 0.72 = (3,600 × 72) / 100 = 259,200 / 100 = 2,592 kg/h.

True oversize mass = feed − true undersize = 3,600 − 2,592 = 1,008 kg/h.

Recovered undersize in undersize product = efficiency × true undersize = 0.88 × 2,592.

Compute: 2,592 × 0.88 = 2,592 × (0.80 + 0.08) = 2,592×0.80 + 2,592×0.08 = 2,073.6 + 207.36 =
2,280.96 kg/h.

Misplaced undersize (that reports to oversize) = true undersize − recovered undersize = 2,592 −
2,280.96 = 311.04 kg/h.

Therefore:
oversize product = true oversize + misplaced undersize = 1,008 + 311.04 = 1,319.04 kg/h.
Undersize product = recovered undersize = 2,280.96 kg/h.
 741

Check: sum = 2,280.96 + 1,319.04 = 3,600.00 kg/h

Final answer:
undersize product ṁus = 2,280.96 kg/h
oversize product ṁov = 1,319.04 kg/h
Sized-based separation
 742

Problem 8
A 2 mm screen is used to filter a 3.4 kg sample of crushed ab material. Following sieving, 0.72
kg stays on top and 1.36 kg goes past the screen. It is believed that, 92% of the fine material was
successfully identified, determine the screen effectiveness.

Given:
Feed: 3.4 kg
Oversize: 0.72 kg
Undersize: 1.36 kg
Classified as fine: 85%

Required:
Effectiveness of the screen

Solution:
Fraction of fines in feed = undersizefeed
Fraction of fines in feed = 1.36 3.4
Fraction of fines in feed = 0.4

Correctly classified = 0.85 0.4

Correctly classified = 0.34

Effectiveness = fraction of correctly classified particles / total fraction in feed

Effectiveness = 0.340.4
Effectiveness = 0.85 = 85%
 743

Problem 9
Every hour, a vibrating screen can process 600 kg of ab mixture. Forty three percent (43%) of
the feed's particles are smaller than the screen's aperture. Determine the screening efficiency if
190 kg of undersized material were recovered.
Given:
Feed rate: 600 kg
Fraction < aperture in feed: 43% = 0.43
Undersized collected: 190 kg

Required:
The efficiency of the screen

Solution:
Compute first for the theoretical undersize:
0.43 600 = 258 kg
Screen efficiency = actual undersize recovered / theoretical undersize in feed
Screen efficiency = 190258
Screen efficiency = 0.736 = 0.74 = 74%
 744

Problem 10
A sample of ground rice flour with a mean particle size of 100 µm and a standard deviation of 35
µm is sieved using a 130 µm screen. Determine the percentage of particles that will pass through
the sieve.

Given:
mean particle size (μ) = 100 µm
standard deviation (σ) = 35 µm
sieve opening = 130 µm

Required:
percent passing through the sieve

Solution:
z = (x - μ) / σ
Z = (130 - 100) / 35
Z = 0.857

p = 0.5 [1 + erf(z / √2)]

P = 0.5 [1 + erf(0.606)]
P = 0.729 x 100 = 72.29 %
final answer: p = 72.29 %
 745

Problem 11
A 1500 g sample of wheat flour is sieved through openings of 250 µm, 180 µm, and 90 µm,
yielding 400 g, 700 g, and 300 g retained on each sieve respectively, and 100 g passing through
the pan. Determine the percentage of material retained and passed at each stage.

Given:
total mass = 1500 g
mass retained: 250 µm = 400 g, 180 µm = 700 g, 90 µm = 300 g, pan = 100 g

Required:
percent retained and percent passing at each sieve

Solution:

% retained = (mass retained / total mass) × 100

% passing = 100 - cumulative % retained
→ 250 µm: 26.7% retained, 73.3% passing
→ 180 µm: 46.7% retained, 26.6% passing
→ 90 µm: 20.0% retained, 6.6% passing
→ pan: 6.6% retained, 0% passing
Final answer: 33.3%, 44.4%, 16.7%, and 5.6% are retained respectively.
 746

Problem 12
A feed of 1000 particles contains 400 particles of diameter 1.2 mm, 350- of diameter 1.8 mm,
and 250 of diameter 2.5 mm. Determine the percent of feed (by particle count) that will pass a
screen with 2.0 mm aperture.

Given:
Feed total = 1000 particles
400 particles, d = 1.2 mm
350 particles, d = 1.8 mm
250 particles, d = 2.5 mm
Screen aperture = 2.0 mm

Required:
Percent passing the screen (%)

Solution:
rule: particle passes if diameter aperture.
count passing: 1.2 mm 400 pass; 1.8 mm 350 pass; 2.5 mm 0 pass.
Total passing = 400 + 350 = 750 particles.
Percent passing = (750 / 1000) × 100% = 75.0%.
 747

Problem 13
Oversize particles (500 kg) enter a two-stage screen series. Stage 1 removes 80% of particles it
sees; stage 2 removes 90% of particles that reach it. Determine overall fraction removed and
mass remaining after stage 2.

Given:
Feed to stage 1 = 500 kg (oversize)
Stage 1 removal efficiency ε₁ = 0.80
Stage 2 removal efficiency ε₂ = 0.90

Required:
(a) overall fraction removed εtotal
(b) mass remaining after stage 2 (kg)

Solution:
Εtotal = 1 (1 )(1 ).
(1 ) = 0.20; (1 ) = 0.10 product = 0.020.
Εtotal = 1 0.020 = 0.980 = 98.0%.
mass remaining = (1 ) × feed = 0.020 × 500 kg = 10.0 kg.
total
 748

Problem 14
A vibrating screen separates zeolite particles into oversize and undersize fractions. The feed
contains 35% undersize material. The oversize stream contains 10% undersize, and the undersize
stream contains 90% undersize. Calculate the screen efficiency based on the recovery of
undersize material and rejection of oversize material.
Given:
Feed composition: 35% undersize, 65% oversize
Oversize stream: 10% undersize, 90% oversize
Undersize stream: 90% undersize, 10% oversize
Assume feed rate: 100 kg/h (basis)

Required: screen efficiency (overall)

Solution:
set up mass balance equations
let:
f = feed rate = 100 kg/h
u = undersize product rate (kg/h)
o = oversize product rate (kg/h)
Total mass balance:
U +O=100
Undersize balance:
0.90 U +0.10 O=0.35 ×100=35
Substitute O=100−U into undersize balance:
0.90 U +0.10 ( 100−U )=35 0.90 U +10−0.10 U=350.80 U =25U =31.25 kg/h , O=68.75 kg/h

Calculate recovery and rejection

Recovery of undersize:
oversize in product 0.90 × 31.25
R= = =0.8036=80.36 %
undersize in feed 65
Rejection of oversize:
oversize in steam 0.90× 68.75
S= = =0.9519=95.19 %
oversize in feed 65
 749

Calculate overall screen efficiency

E=R× S ×100 %=0.8036 × 0.9519× 100 %=76.5 %
 750

Problem 15
Graphene oxide flakes are sieved for use in supercapacitor electrodes. The mass retained on each
sieve is given below. Calculate the cumulative percentage passing and determine the d₉₀ (90%
passing size) using linear interpolation.

Given:
Total sample mass: 250 g
Mass retained:
850 μm: 8 g
600 μm: 25 g
425 μm: 42 g
300 μm: 68 g
212 μm: 55 g
150 μm: 35 g
Pan: 17 g

Required:
Cumulative percentage passing for each sieve
D₉₀ (90% passing size)

Solution:
calculate cumulative mass retained and percentage passing
Cumulative mass retained:
850 µm: 8 g
600 µm: 8 + 25 = 33 g
425 µm: 33 + 42 = 75 g
300 µm: 75 + 68 = 143 g
212 µm: 143 + 55 = 198 g
150 µm: 198 + 35 = 233 g
pan: 233 + 17 = 250 g
Cumulative percentage passing:
 751

850 µm: (250−8)/250× 100=96.8 %

600 µm: (250−33)/250× 100=86.8 %
425 µm: (250−75)/250 × 100=70.0 %
300 µm: (250−143)/250× 100=42.8 %
212 µm: (250−198)/250× 100=20.8 %
150 µm: (250−233)/250× 100=6.8 %
pan: 0%
Determine d₉₀ by linear interpolation
D₉₀ occurs at 90% passing, between 850 µm (96.8%) and 600 µm (86.8%).
90−86.8 3.2
D 90=600+ ×( 850−600)D 90=600+ ×250=600+80=680 μm
96.8−86.8 10.0
 752

Problem 16
A grain processing plant feeds 600 kg/h of mixed material into a vibrating sieve. The feed
contains 50% target grains. The coarse fraction (oversize) leaving the sieve is 350 kg/h and
contains 85% target grains. Determine the mass of target grains in the fine fraction leaving the
sieve.
Given:
F = 600 kg/h
feed target = 50%
oversize rate = 350 kg/h
oversize target = 85%

Required:
Mass of target grains in the fine fraction leaving the sieve

Solution:
Target grains in feed = f x feed target = 600 kg/h x 0.50 = 300 kg/h
Target grain in oversize = oversize rate x oversize target = 350 kg/h x 0.85 target grain in
oversize = 297.5 kg/h
Target grains in fine = target grain in feed - target grain in oversize
Target grains in fine = 300 kg/h - 297.5 kg/h
Target grains in fine = 2.5 kg/h
 753

Problem 17
A feed of 550 kg/h contains 60% desired particles. Oversize fraction = 330 kg/h, desired content
= 85%. Determine the percentage of total desired material captured in oversize.

Given:
f = 550 kg/h
Target Fraction = 60%
Oversize Rate = 330 Kg/H
Oversize Target = 85%

Required:
Percentage of total material captured

Solution:
target grains in feed = f x feed target = 550 kg/h x 0.60 = 330 kg/h
target grain in oversize = oversize rate x oversize target = 330 kg/h x 0.85
Target grain in oversize = 280.5 kg/h
Target grain∈ oversize
Percentage captured = x 100
Target grains∈feed
280.5 kg/h
Percentage captured = x 100
330 kg/h
Percentage captured =¿85%
 754

Density-based Separation (Sedimentation)

Problem 1
During the wet milling of rice, rice bran particles are separated from water by sedimentation. A
particle with a diameter of 0.05 mm and density of 1200 kg/m³ settles in water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³,
μ = 1.0 × 10⁻³ pa·s). Determine the terminal settling velocity of the rice bran particle assuming
stokes’ law applies.
Given: (henderson et. Al., 1997)
Particle diameter, d=0.05 mm=5 ×10−5 m
Particle density, ρ p =1200 kg/m 3
Fluid density, ρ f =1000 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity, μ=1.0 × 10−3 pa·s
2
g=9.81 m/s

Required:
Terminal settling velocity ( v t)

Solution:
Using stokes’ law:
2
( ρ p−ρ f )g d
v t= v t=(1200−1000)(9.81)¿ ¿ v t=2.725 ×10−4 m/s
18 μ
 755

Problem 2
A mixture of sand and clay particles from a root crop washing system is left to settle in a
sedimentation tank. The sand particles have a density of 2600 kg/m³, while clay particles have
1800 kg/m³. If both particles have the same diameter of 0.1 mm, determine the ratio of their
terminal velocities in water.
Given: (mccabe et. Al., 2005)
3
ρ f =1000 kg/m
−3
μ=1.0 × 10 pa·s
2
g=9.81 m/s
−4
d=0.1 mm=1.0 ×10 m
3
ρ sand=2600 kg/m
3
ρclay =1800 kg/m

Required:
Ratio of terminal velocities (vₛand / vclay)

Solution:
v sand (ρ sand −ρf ) v sand (2600−1000)
= =
v clay (ρ clay− ρf ) v clay (1800−1000)
v sand
=2
v clay
 756

Problem 3
Milk powder feed of 300 kg/h containing 4% moisture is processed in an agglomerate. After
agglomeration, product moisture increases to 6% and 92% of dry solids are recovered as
agglomerates. Determine (a) the mass of dry solids in the product and (b) the total agglomerated
product mass.

Given:
(yuan and chen, 2011)
Feed = 300 kg/h
Moisture = 4%
Final moisture = 6%
Yield (dry basis) = 92%

Required:
determine (a) the mass of dry solids in the product and (b) the total agglomerated product
mass.

Solution:
Dry solids in feed = feed x (1 - mi)
= 300 × (1 – 0.04)
Dry solids in feed = 288 kg/h
Recovered solids = dry solids in feed x yield
= 288 × 0.92
Recovered solids = 264.96 kg/h
Recovered solids 264.96
Agglomerated product = =
(1−Mf ) (1−0.06)
agglomerated product = 282.9 kg/h
 757

Problem 4
A coffee agglomerator processes 800 kg/h of powder using 8% binder by mass. If only 88% of
the mixture forms stable agglomerates, determine (a) total input mass flow and (b) agglomerated
product rate.

Given:
(yuan and chen, 2011)
Powder = 800 kg/h
Binder = 8%
Efficiency = 88%

Required:
determine total input mass flow and agglomerated product rate.

Solution:
Total Feed = Powder X (1 + Binder) = 800 × (1 + 0.08)
Total Feed = 864 kg/h
Agglomerated Product = Total Feed X Efficiency = 864 × 0.88
Agglomerated Product = 760.32 kg/h
 758

Problem 5
Spherical sand particles of diameter d = 200 μm (2.00×10⁻⁴ m) and density ρp = 2,650 kg/m³
settle in water (ρf = 1,000 kg/m³) at 20 °c (dynamic viscosity μ = 1.00×10⁻³ pa·s). Use stokes’
law to estimate the terminal settling velocity v t. Verify that the reynolds number is small enough
for stokes’ law to apply.

Given:
d = 2.00×10⁻⁴ m
ρp = 2,650 kg/m³
ρf = 1,000 kg/m³
μ = 1.00×10⁻³ pa·s
g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
terminal settling velocity vt (m/s) and re (dimensionless) to check validity

Solution:
stokes’ law (laminar settling, re < 1):
2
( ρ p−ρ f )g d
v t=
18 μ
Compute numerator step by step:
Density difference: ρp − ρf = 2,650 − 1,000 = 1,650 kg/m³.
D² = (2.00×10⁻⁴)² = 4.00×10⁻⁸ m².
Multiply: (ρp − ρf) g d² = 1,650 × 9.81 × 4.00×10⁻⁸.
First 1,650 × 9.81 = 1,650 × (10 − 0.19) = 16,500 − 313.5 = 16,186.5 (or compute direct) →
16,186.5.
Now 16,186.5 × 4.00×10⁻⁸ = 64,746.0×10⁻⁸ = 6.4746×10⁻⁴ (because 16,186.5×4 = 64,746.0;
×10⁻⁸ → 6.4746×10⁻⁴).
Denominator: 18 μ = 18 × 1.00×10⁻³ = 0.018.
Thus vt = (6.4746×10⁻⁴) / 0.018 = 3.597×10⁻² m/s (compute: 6.4746x10-4 / 1.8x10-2 = 6.474x10-4
÷ 1.8x10-2 = (6.4746/1.8)×10(−4+2) = 3.597×10⁻²).
 759

So vt ≈ 0.03597 m/s ≈ 3.60×10⁻² m/s.

Compute particle reynolds number rep = ρf vt d / μ:
Rep = 1,000 × 0.03597 × 2.00×10⁻⁴ / 1.00×10⁻³.
First numerator: 1,000 × 0.03597 = 35.97. Multiply by d: 35.97 × 2.00×10⁻⁴ = 7.194×10⁻³.
Divide by μ: 7.194×10⁻³ / 1.00×10⁻³ = 7.194.
Rep ≈ 7.19 > 1 → stokes’ law (valid when re < 1) is marginally invalid; therefore, stokes
overpredicts here. For re ≈ 7, a correction (e.g., drag coefficient correlations) is needed. But the
computed vt is ~0.036 m/s; use corrected drag for accurate result.

Final answer:
stokes estimate vt ≈ 3.60 × 10⁻² m/s; re ≈ 7.19 (stokes’ law not strictly valid; use drag
corrections for more accurate vt)
 760

Problem 6
Design the minimum surface area of a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 0.10 m³/s of slurry
containing settling particles that have an effective terminal velocity of 2.5×10⁻³ m/s. Use
overflow (surface) settling theory (a = q / v t). If the tank depth is 3.0 m, compute the required
settling time and check that vertical settling distance is acceptable.

Given:
flow q = 0.10 m³/s
vt = 2.5×10⁻³ m/s
depth h = 3.0 m

Required:
minimum surface area a (m²), required settling time t (s), and comment on vertical settling
distance.

Solution:
surface area by overflow rate (for discrete settling, ideal case):
Q
A=
vt
Compute: a = 0.10 / (2.5×10⁻³) = 0.10 ÷ 0.0025 = 40.0 m².
Settling time for a particle starting at the surface to reach bottom: t = h / v t:
T = 3.0 / (2.5×10⁻³) = 3.0 ÷ 0.0025 = 1,200 s = 20.0 min.
Check vertical settling distance during tank residence: the residence time for a fluid particle
across the tank is (volume / flow) if needed; but the rule of thumb: particle falling at v t will travel
vt × (surface overflow residence time). If the tank area ensures particle can settle within tank
length, above t shows it takes 20 min to reach bottom — if hydraulic retention time is much less,
particles may not settle.
Hydraulic retention time (hrt) of whole tank: hrt = volume / q. Volume = a × h = 40.0 × 3.0 =
120.0 m³. Hrt = 120.0 / 0.10 = 1,200 s = 20.0 min — equal to settling time, consistent.
 761

Final answer:
minimum surface area a = 40.0 m²
settling time t = 1,200 s (20.0 min)
with these dimensions the vertical settling distance/time is consistent: a particle with v t =
2.5×10⁻³ m/s will reach the bottom in the tank hydraulic residence time.
 762

Problem 7
A quality separator tank is used to remove stones and soil (dense materials) from potatoes (less
dense). The terminal settling velocity (vt) of a spherical stone with a diameter (d p) of 5mm and
density ( ρ p ) of 2,500 kg/m3 is being calculated in water ( ρ f = 1,000 kg/m3). Assuming stokes'
law applies (valid for N ℜ<0.3 ), calculate vt if the fluid viscosity ( μ) is 0.001 pa. S and g =
9.81m/s2

Given
Particle diameter (dp): 5 x 10-3 m(5mm)
Particle density ( ρ p ): 2,500 kg/m3
Fluid density ( ρ f ): 1,000 kg/m3
Fluid viscosity ( μ): 0.001 pa.s
Gravity (g): 9.81 m/s2

Required
Terminal settling velocity (vt) in m/s.
Solution
2
D p (ρ p −ρf ) g
v t=
18 μ
v t=¿ ¿
−6 2 3 2
(25 × 10 m ) ⋅(1,500 kg /m )⋅(9.81m/ s )
v t=
0.018 Pa ⋅ s
0.367875 N /m
v t=
0.018 Pa ⋅ s
v t=20.44 m/s
 763

Problem 8
A sedimentation tank designed for separating starch granules from water operates at a uniform
liquid flow rate (q) of 0.05 m3. The tank has a length (l) of 10m and a width (w) of 2.5 m.
Calculate the critical settling velocity (vcrit) (also known as the surface overflow rate or sor)
required for a particle to be completely separated in this tank.

Given
Liquid flow rate (q): 0.05 m3/s
Tank length (l): 10 m
Tank width (w): 2.5 m

Required
Critical settling velocity (vcrit) in m/s

Solution
As = l. W
As = 10m, 2.5 m
As = 25m2
Q
v crit =
As
0.05 m3 /s
v crit =
25 m2
v crit = 0.002m/s
 764

Problem 9
Ab particles with a diameter of 0.2 mm and a density of 3300 kg/m³ settle in water (density =
1000 kg/m³, viscosity = 0.002 pa·s) in a sedimentation tank. Determine the particles' settling
velocity in a laminar environment.

Given:
Particle diameter: d p = 0.2 mm
Density of the particle: ρ p = 3300 kg/m³
Desity of fluid: ρ f = 1000 kg/m³
Viscosity: μ= 0.002 pa·s
Gravitational pull: g= 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Determine the settling velocity of the particles.

Solution:

( ρ p− ρ f ) g d p2
Vt =
18 μ
( 3300−1000 )(9.81)(2× 10−4 )2
Vt =
18(0.002)
Vt = 2.56 × 10−3 m/s
 765

Problem 10
At the agricultural and bio-processing center, an ab particle has a of density of 3500 kg/m³ settle
in water with a diameter of 0.1 mm and a density = 1000 kg/m³. The viscosity in a sedimentation
tank is 0.003 pa·s. Calculate the particles' settling velocity in a laminar [Link]:
Particle diameter: d p = 0.1 mm
Density of the particle: ρ p = 3500 kg/m³
Desity of fluid: ρ f = 1000 kg/m³
Viscosity: μ= 0.003 pa·s
Gravitational pull: g= 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Determine the settling velocity of the particles.

Solution:
( ρ p− ρ f ) g d p2
Vt =
18 μ
( 3500−1000 )(9.81)(1 ×10−4 )2
Vt =
18(0.003)
Vt = 4.54 × 10−3 m/s
 766

Problem 11
In a juice clarification process, suspended pulp particles of 60 µm diameter and density 1400
kg/m³ settle in water (density 1000 kg/m³) with viscosity 1.1×10⁻³ pa·s. Calculate the terminal
velocity and time to settle 0.4 m.

Given:
d = 60 µm
Ρp = 1400 kg/m³
Ρf = 1000 kg/m³
Μ = 1.1×10⁻³ pa·s
Distance = 0.4 m

Required:
terminal velocity
time to settle

Solution:
r=d/2
R = 60 µm/2
R = 30×10⁻⁶ m

vt = (2/9)((ρp - ρf)gr²)/μ
Vt = (2/9)(400×9.81×(30×10⁻⁶)²)/1.1×10⁻³
Vt = 7.13×10⁻⁴ m/s

t = 0.4 / 7.13×10⁻⁴
T = 561 s
T = 9.35 min

Final answer: vt = 7.13×10⁻⁴ m/s & t = 9.35 min

 767

Problem 12
Settle in a sugar solution with ρf = 1100 kg/m³ and μ = 1.2×10⁻³ pa·s. Find the settling velocity
and time to settle through 0.5 m depth.

Given:
d = 80 µm
Ρp = 1550 kg/m³
Ρf = 1100 kg/m³
Μ = 1.2×10⁻³ pa·s
Distance = 0.5 m

Required:
settling velocity
Settling time

Solution:

R = d/2
R = 80 µm/2
r = 40×10⁻⁶ m

vt = (2/9)((ρp - ρf)gr²)/μ
Vt = (2/9)(450×9.81×(40×10⁻⁶)²)/1.2×10⁻³
Vt = 1.31×10⁻³ m/s

t = 0.5 / 1.31×10⁻³
T = 382 s / 60min
T = 6.37 min

Final answer: vt = 1.31×10⁻⁴ m/s & t = 6.37 min

 768

Problem 13
A spherical particle (d = 0.5 mm, ρp = 2600 kg·m⁻³) settles in water (ρf = 1000 kg·m⁻³, μ =
1.00×10⁻³ pa·s). Compute terminal velocity by stokes’ law and time to settle 1.0 m.

Given:
D = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m
Ρp = 2600 kg·m⁻³
Ρf = 1000 kg·m⁻³
Μ = 1.00×10⁻³ pa·s
G = 9.81 m·s⁻²
Settling distance h = 1.0 m

Required:
(a) terminal velocity vt (m·s⁻¹) by stokes’ law
(b) settling time t = h / vt (s)

Solution:
2
( ρ p−ρ f )g d
v t= .
18 μ
D² = (0.0005)² = 2.5×10⁻7 m².
= 2600 1000 = 1600 kg·m³.
Numerator = 1600 × 9.81 × 2.5×10⁻7 = 0.003924.
Denominator = 18 × 1.00×10⁻3 = 0.018.
−1
v t=0.003924 /0.018=0.2180 m¿ s .
time to settle: t = h / v_t = 1.0 / 0.2180 = 4.587 s 4.59 s.
 769

Problem 14

Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to remove particles with settling velocity 0.002 m·s¹ for a flow q = 0.1

Given:
Settling velocity vs = 0.002 m·s⁻¹
Flow rate q = 0.1 m³·s⁻¹

Required:
Minimum tank surface area a (m²)

Solution:
overflow-rate method: require q/a v s a q/v s

A = 0.1 / 0.002 = 50 m²
 770

Problem 15
A starch slurry contains particles with diameter 40 µm. Given fluid viscosity 0.0012 pa·s,
particle density 1550 kg/m³ and fluid density 1020 kg/m³, determine the settling velocity using
stokes’ law.

Given:
d = 40 µm = 40×10⁻⁶ m
µ = 0.0012 pa·s
Ρp = 1550 kg/m³
Ρf = 1020 kg/m³
G = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Settling velocity

Solution:
vt = ((ρp - ρf) g d²) / (18µ)
= ((1550 – 1020) × 9.81 × (40 × 10⁻⁶) ²) / (18 × 0.0012)
= (530 × 9.81 × 1.6 × 10⁻⁹) / 0.0216
= 8.02 × 10⁻⁴ m/s
 771

Problem 16
A sedimentation tank is heated using 2450 mhz energy, lowering viscosity from 0.0015 to
0.0012 pa·s. For a particle with d=55 µm, compute the percent increase in settling velocity.

Given:
d = 55 µm
Viscosity1 = 0.0015 pa·s
Viscosity2 = 0.0012 pa·s
Frequency = 2450 mhz

Required:
Percent increase in settling velocity

Solution:
The settling velocity is inversely proportional to viscosity.
V2/v1 = µ1 / µ2
= 0.0015 / 0.0012
= 1.25
Thus, settling velocity increases 25%.
 772

Problem 17
Starch particles (ρp = 1450 kg/m³) settle in water (ρf = 1000 kg/m³). Particle diameter is 40 μm
and viscosity is 0.001 pa·s. Determine terminal settling velocity using stokes’ law.

Given:
ρp = 1450 kg/m³
ρf = 1000 kg/m³
d = 40×10⁻⁶ m
µ = 0.001 pa·s

Required:
Terminal velocity

Solution:
vt = ((ρp - ρf) g d²) / (18 µ)
vt = (450 × 9.81 × (40×10⁻⁶)²) / (0.018)
vt ≈ 0.00039 m/s
 773

Problem 18
A juice clarification tank contains pulp particles of diameter 60 μm, density 1300 kg/m³ in juice
of density 1020 kg/m³ and viscosity 0.002 pa·s. Determine settling velocity.

Given:
ρp = 1300 kg/m³
ρf = 1020 kg/m³
d = 60×10⁻⁶ m
µ = 0.002 pa·s

Required:

vt

Solution:

vt = ((280)(9.81)(60×10⁻⁶)²)/(18×0.002)

vt ≈ 0.00055 m/s

Centrifugation
 774

Problem 1
During the wet milling of rice, rice bran particles are separated from water by sedimentation. A
particle with a diameter of 0.05 mm and density of 1200 kg/m³ settles in water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³,
μ = 1.0 × 10⁻³ pa·s). Determine the terminal settling velocity of the rice bran particle assuming
stokes’ law applies.
Given: (henderson et. Al., 1997)
Particle diameter, d=0.05 mm=5 ×10−5 m
Particle density, ρ p =1200 kg/m 3
Fluid density, ρ f =1000 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity, μ=1.0 × 10−3 pa·s
2
g=9.81 m/s

Required:
Terminal settling velocity ( v t)

Solution:
Using stokes’ law:
2
( ρ p−ρ f )g d
v t= v t=(1200−1000)(9.81)¿ ¿ v t=2.725 ×10−4 m/s
18 μ
 775

Problem 2
A mixture of sand and clay particles from a root crop washing system is left to settle in a
sedimentation tank. The sand particles have a density of 2600 kg/m³, while clay particles have
1800 kg/m³. If both particles have the same diameter of 0.1 mm, determine the ratio of their
terminal velocities in water.
Given: (mccabe et. Al., 2005)
3
ρ f =1000 kg/m
−3
μ=1.0 × 10 pa·s
2
g=9.81 m/s
−4
d=0.1 mm=1.0 ×10 m
3
ρ sand=2600 kg/m
3
ρclay =1800 kg/m

Required:
Ratio of terminal velocities (vₛand / vclay)

Solution:
v sand (ρ sand −ρf ) v sand (2600−1000)
= =
v clay (ρ clay− ρf ) v clay (1800−1000)
v sand
=2
v clay
 776

Problem 3
Milk powder feed of 300 kg/h containing 4% moisture is processed in an agglomerate. After
agglomeration, product moisture increases to 6% and 92% of dry solids are recovered as
agglomerates. Determine (a) the mass of dry solids in the product and (b) the total agglomerated
product mass.

Given:
(yuan and chen, 2011)
Feed = 300 kg/h
Moisture = 4%
Final moisture = 6%
Yield (dry basis) = 92%

Required:
determine (a) the mass of dry solids in the product and (b) the total agglomerated product
mass.

Solution:
Dry solids in feed = feed x (1 - mi)
= 300 × (1 – 0.04)
Dry solids in feed = 288 kg/h
Recovered solids = dry solids in feed x yield
= 288 × 0.92
Recovered solids = 264.96 kg/h
Recovered solids 264.96
Agglomerated product = =
(1−Mf ) (1−0.06)
agglomerated product = 282.9 kg/h
 777

Problem 4
A coffee agglomerator processes 800 kg/h of powder using 8% binder by mass. If only 88% of
the mixture forms stable agglomerates, determine (a) total input mass flow and (b) agglomerated
product rate.

Given:
(yuan and chen, 2011)
Powder = 800 kg/h
Binder = 8%
Efficiency = 88%

Required:
determine total input mass flow and agglomerated product rate.

Solution:
Total Feed = Powder X (1 + Binder) = 800 × (1 + 0.08)
Total Feed = 864 kg/h
Agglomerated Product = Total Feed X Efficiency = 864 × 0.88
Agglomerated Product = 760.32 kg/h
 778

Problem 5
Spherical sand particles of diameter d = 200 μm (2.00×10⁻⁴ m) and density ρp = 2,650 kg/m³
settle in water (ρf = 1,000 kg/m³) at 20 °c (dynamic viscosity μ = 1.00×10⁻³ pa·s). Use stokes’
law to estimate the terminal settling velocity v t. Verify that the reynolds number is small enough
for stokes’ law to apply.

Given:
d = 2.00×10⁻⁴ m
ρp = 2,650 kg/m³
ρf = 1,000 kg/m³
μ = 1.00×10⁻³ pa·s
g = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
terminal settling velocity vt (m/s) and re (dimensionless) to check validity

Solution:
stokes’ law (laminar settling, re < 1):
2
( ρ p−ρ f )g d
v t=
18 μ
Compute numerator step by step:
Density difference: ρp − ρf = 2,650 − 1,000 = 1,650 kg/m³.
D² = (2.00×10⁻⁴)² = 4.00×10⁻⁸ m².
Multiply: (ρp − ρf) g d² = 1,650 × 9.81 × 4.00×10⁻⁸.
First 1,650 × 9.81 = 1,650 × (10 − 0.19) = 16,500 − 313.5 = 16,186.5 (or compute direct) →
16,186.5.
Now 16,186.5 × 4.00×10⁻⁸ = 64,746.0×10⁻⁸ = 6.4746×10⁻⁴ (because 16,186.5×4 = 64,746.0;
×10⁻⁸ → 6.4746×10⁻⁴).
Denominator: 18 μ = 18 × 1.00×10⁻³ = 0.018.
Thus vt = (6.4746×10⁻⁴) / 0.018 = 3.597×10⁻² m/s (compute: 6.4746x10-4 / 1.8x10-2 = 6.474x10-4
÷ 1.8x10-2 = (6.4746/1.8)×10(−4+2) = 3.597×10⁻²).
 779

So vt ≈ 0.03597 m/s ≈ 3.60×10⁻² m/s.

Compute particle reynolds number rep = ρf vt d / μ:
Rep = 1,000 × 0.03597 × 2.00×10⁻⁴ / 1.00×10⁻³.
First numerator: 1,000 × 0.03597 = 35.97. Multiply by d: 35.97 × 2.00×10⁻⁴ = 7.194×10⁻³.
Divide by μ: 7.194×10⁻³ / 1.00×10⁻³ = 7.194.
Rep ≈ 7.19 > 1 → stokes’ law (valid when re < 1) is marginally invalid; therefore, stokes
overpredicts here. For re ≈ 7, a correction (e.g., drag coefficient correlations) is needed. But the
computed vt is ~0.036 m/s; use corrected drag for accurate result.

Final answer:
stokes estimate vt ≈ 3.60 × 10⁻² m/s; re ≈ 7.19 (stokes’ law not strictly valid; use drag
corrections for more accurate vt)
 780

Problem 6
Design the minimum surface area of a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 0.10 m³/s of slurry
containing settling particles that have an effective terminal velocity of 2.5×10⁻³ m/s. Use
overflow (surface) settling theory (a = q / v t). If the tank depth is 3.0 m, compute the required
settling time and check that vertical settling distance is acceptable.

Given:
flow q = 0.10 m³/s
vt = 2.5×10⁻³ m/s
depth h = 3.0 m

Required:
minimum surface area a (m²), required settling time t (s), and comment on vertical settling
distance.

Solution:
surface area by overflow rate (for discrete settling, ideal case):
Q
A=
vt
Compute: a = 0.10 / (2.5×10⁻³) = 0.10 ÷ 0.0025 = 40.0 m².
Settling time for a particle starting at the surface to reach bottom: t = h / v t:
T = 3.0 / (2.5×10⁻³) = 3.0 ÷ 0.0025 = 1,200 s = 20.0 min.
Check vertical settling distance during tank residence: the residence time for a fluid particle
across the tank is (volume / flow) if needed; but the rule of thumb: particle falling at v t will travel
vt × (surface overflow residence time). If the tank area ensures particle can settle within tank
length, above t shows it takes 20 min to reach bottom — if hydraulic retention time is much less,
particles may not settle.
Hydraulic retention time (hrt) of whole tank: hrt = volume / q. Volume = a × h = 40.0 × 3.0 =
120.0 m³. Hrt = 120.0 / 0.10 = 1,200 s = 20.0 min — equal to settling time, consistent.
 781

Final answer:
minimum surface area a = 40.0 m²
settling time t = 1,200 s (20.0 min)
with these dimensions the vertical settling distance/time is consistent: a particle with v t =
2.5×10⁻³ m/s will reach the bottom in the tank hydraulic residence time.
 782

Problem 7
A quality separator tank is used to remove stones and soil (dense materials) from potatoes (less
dense). The terminal settling velocity (vt) of a spherical stone with a diameter (d p) of 5mm and
density ( ρ p ) of 2,500 kg/m3 is being calculated in water ( ρ f = 1,000 kg/m3). Assuming stokes'
law applies (valid for N ℜ<0.3 ), calculate vt if the fluid viscosity ( μ) is 0.001 pa. S and g =
9.81m/s2

Given
Particle diameter (dp): 5 x 10-3 m(5mm)
Particle density ( ρ p ): 2,500 kg/m3
Fluid density ( ρ f ): 1,000 kg/m3
Fluid viscosity ( μ): 0.001 pa.s
Gravity (g): 9.81 m/s2

Required
Terminal settling velocity (vt) in m/s.
Solution
2
D p (ρ p −ρf ) g
v t=
18 μ
v t=¿ ¿
−6 2 3 2
(25 × 10 m ) ⋅(1,500 kg /m )⋅(9.81m/ s )
v t=
0.018 Pa ⋅ s
0.367875 N /m
v t=
0.018 Pa ⋅ s
v t=20.44 m/s
 783

Problem 8
A sedimentation tank designed for separating starch granules from water operates at a uniform
liquid flow rate (q) of 0.05 m3. The tank has a length (l) of 10m and a width (w) of 2.5 m.
Calculate the critical settling velocity (vcrit) (also known as the surface overflow rate or sor)
required for a particle to be completely separated in this tank.

Given
Liquid flow rate (q): 0.05 m3/s
Tank length (l): 10 m
Tank width (w): 2.5 m

Required
Critical settling velocity (vcrit) in m/s

Solution
As = l. W
As = 10m, 2.5 m
As = 25m2
Q
v crit =
As
0.05 m3 /s
v crit =
25 m2
v crit = 0.002m/s
 784

Problem 9
Ab particles with a diameter of 0.2 mm and a density of 3300 kg/m³ settle in water (density =
1000 kg/m³, viscosity = 0.002 pa·s) in a sedimentation tank. Determine the particles' settling
velocity in a laminar environment.

Given:
Particle diameter: d p = 0.2 mm
Density of the particle: ρ p = 3300 kg/m³
Desity of fluid: ρ f = 1000 kg/m³
Viscosity: μ= 0.002 pa·s
Gravitational pull: g= 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Determine the settling velocity of the particles.

Solution:

( ρ p− ρ f ) g d p2
Vt =
18 μ
( 3300−1000 )(9.81)(2× 10−4 )2
Vt =
18(0.002)
Vt = 2.56 × 10−3 m/s
 785

Problem 10
At the agricultural and bio-processing center, an ab particle has a of density of 3500 kg/m³ settle
in water with a diameter of 0.1 mm and a density = 1000 kg/m³. The viscosity in a sedimentation
tank is 0.003 pa·s. Calculate the particles' settling velocity in a laminar [Link]:
Particle diameter: d p = 0.1 mm
Density of the particle: ρ p = 3500 kg/m³
Desity of fluid: ρ f = 1000 kg/m³
Viscosity: μ= 0.003 pa·s
Gravitational pull: g= 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Determine the settling velocity of the particles.

Solution:
( ρ p− ρ f ) g d p2
Vt =
18 μ
( 3500−1000 )(9.81)(1 ×10−4 )2
Vt =
18(0.003)
Vt = 4.54 × 10−3 m/s
 786

Problem 11
In a juice clarification process, suspended pulp particles of 60 µm diameter and density 1400
kg/m³ settle in water (density 1000 kg/m³) with viscosity 1.1×10⁻³ pa·s. Calculate the terminal
velocity and time to settle 0.4 m.

Given:
d = 60 µm
Ρp = 1400 kg/m³
Ρf = 1000 kg/m³
Μ = 1.1×10⁻³ pa·s
Distance = 0.4 m

Required:
terminal velocity
time to settle

Solution:
r=d/2
R = 60 µm/2
R = 30×10⁻⁶ m

vt = (2/9)((ρp - ρf)gr²)/μ
Vt = (2/9)(400×9.81×(30×10⁻⁶)²)/1.1×10⁻³
Vt = 7.13×10⁻⁴ m/s

t = 0.4 / 7.13×10⁻⁴
T = 561 s
T = 9.35 min

Final answer: vt = 7.13×10⁻⁴ m/s & t = 9.35 min

 787

Problem 12
Settle in a sugar solution with ρf = 1100 kg/m³ and μ = 1.2×10⁻³ pa·s. Find the settling velocity
and time to settle through 0.5 m depth.

Given:
d = 80 µm
Ρp = 1550 kg/m³
Ρf = 1100 kg/m³
Μ = 1.2×10⁻³ pa·s
Distance = 0.5 m

Required:
settling velocity
Settling time

Solution:

R = d/2
R = 80 µm/2
r = 40×10⁻⁶ m

vt = (2/9)((ρp - ρf)gr²)/μ
Vt = (2/9)(450×9.81×(40×10⁻⁶)²)/1.2×10⁻³
Vt = 1.31×10⁻³ m/s

t = 0.5 / 1.31×10⁻³
T = 382 s / 60min
T = 6.37 min

Final answer: vt = 1.31×10⁻⁴ m/s & t = 6.37 min

 788

Problem 13
A spherical particle (d = 0.5 mm, ρp = 2600 kg·m⁻³) settles in water (ρf = 1000 kg·m⁻³, μ =
1.00×10⁻³ pa·s). Compute terminal velocity by stokes’ law and time to settle 1.0 m.

Given:
D = 0.5 mm = 0.0005 m
Ρp = 2600 kg·m⁻³
Ρf = 1000 kg·m⁻³
Μ = 1.00×10⁻³ pa·s
G = 9.81 m·s⁻²
Settling distance h = 1.0 m

Required:
(a) terminal velocity vt (m·s⁻¹) by stokes’ law
(b) settling time t = h / vt (s)

Solution:
2
( ρ p−ρ f )g d
v t= .
18 μ
D² = (0.0005)² = 2.5×10⁻7 m².
= 2600 1000 = 1600 kg·m³.
Numerator = 1600 × 9.81 × 2.5×10⁻7 = 0.003924.
Denominator = 18 × 1.00×10⁻3 = 0.018.
−1
v t=0.003924 /0.018=0.2180 m¿ s .
time to settle: t = h / v_t = 1.0 / 0.2180 = 4.587 s 4.59 s.
 789

Problem 14

Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to remove particles with settling velocity 0.002 m·s¹ for a flow q = 0.1

Given:
Settling velocity vs = 0.002 m·s⁻¹
Flow rate q = 0.1 m³·s⁻¹

Required:
Minimum tank surface area a (m²)

Solution:
overflow-rate method: require q/a v s a q/v s

A = 0.1 / 0.002 = 50 m²
 790

Problem 15
A starch slurry contains particles with diameter 40 µm. Given fluid viscosity 0.0012 pa·s,
particle density 1550 kg/m³ and fluid density 1020 kg/m³, determine the settling velocity using
stokes’ law.

Given:
d = 40 µm = 40×10⁻⁶ m
µ = 0.0012 pa·s
Ρp = 1550 kg/m³
Ρf = 1020 kg/m³
G = 9.81 m/s²

Required:
Settling velocity

Solution:
vt = ((ρp - ρf) g d²) / (18µ)
= ((1550 – 1020) × 9.81 × (40 × 10⁻⁶) ²) / (18 × 0.0012)
= (530 × 9.81 × 1.6 × 10⁻⁹) / 0.0216
= 8.02 × 10⁻⁴ m/s
 791

Problem 15
A sedimentation tank is heated using 2450 mhz energy, lowering viscosity from 0.0015 to
0.0012 pa·s. For a particle with d=55 µm, compute the percent increase in settling velocity.

Given:
d = 55 µm
Viscosity1 = 0.0015 pa·s
Viscosity2 = 0.0012 pa·s
Frequency = 2450 mhz

Required:
Percent increase in settling velocity

Solution:
The settling velocity is inversely proportional to viscosity.
V2/v1 = µ1 / µ2
= 0.0015 / 0.0012
= 1.25
Thus, settling velocity increases 25%.
 792

Problem 16
Starch particles (ρp = 1450 kg/m³) settle in water (ρf = 1000 kg/m³). Particle diameter is 40 μm
and viscosity is 0.001 pa·s. Determine terminal settling velocity using stokes’ law.

Given:
ρp = 1450 kg/m³
ρf = 1000 kg/m³
d = 40×10⁻⁶ m
µ = 0.001 pa·s

Required:
Terminal velocity

Solution:
vt = ((ρp - ρf) g d²) / (18 µ)
vt = (450 × 9.81 × (40×10⁻⁶)²) / (0.018)
vt ≈ 0.00039 m/s
 793

Problem 17
A juice clarification tank contains pulp particles of diameter 60 μm, density 1300 kg/m³ in juice
of density 1020 kg/m³ and viscosity 0.002 pa·s. Determine settling velocity.

Given:
ρp = 1300 kg/m³
ρf = 1020 kg/m³
d = 60×10⁻⁶ m
µ = 0.002 pa·s

Required:

vt

Solution:

vt = ((280)(9.81)(60×10⁻⁶)²)/(18×0.002)

vt ≈ 0.00055 m/s

Filtration
 794

Problem 1
A chemical engineer is conducting a filtration experiment to separate solid particles from a
slurry. The filtration is carried out at a pressure difference of 150 kpa using a filter area of
0.05m². The viscosity of the filtrate is 0.002 pa·s, and the resistances of the filter medium and
filter cake are 5×10⁹ m⁻¹ and 2×10⁹ m⁻¹, respectively. Calculate the filtration rate (dv/dt) in
m³/s.

Given:
∆ P=150,000 Pa
2
A=0.05 m
μ=0.002 Pa·s
Rm =5× 10⁹ m⁻¹
Rc =2 ×10⁹ m⁻ ¹

Required:
dV
Filtration rate
dt

Solution:
Formula used:
dV ∆PA
=
dt μ ( Rm + R c )

dV (150,000)(0.05)
=
dt (0.002)(5 ×10⁹ +2 ×10⁹ )

dV 7,500
=
dt (0.002)(7 ×10⁹ )

dV 7,500 −4 3
= =5.36 × 10 m /s
dt 1.4 ×10 7
 795

Problem 2
During a laboratory filtration test, a suspension is filtered under a constant pressure difference of
120 kpa through a filter area of 0.08 m². The viscosity of the filtrate is 0.0015 pa·s, and the
resistances of the filter medium and the cake are 4×10⁹ m⁻¹ and 3×10⁹ m⁻¹, respectively. If the
desired filtrate volume is 0.002 m³, determine the filtration time required.

Given:
∆ P=120,000 Pa
2
A=0.08 m
μ=0.0015 Pa · s
Rm =4 × 10⁹ m ⁻¹
Rc =3 × 10⁹ m ⁻¹
3
V =0.002m

Required:
Filtration time (t)

Solution:
Formula used:
dV ∆P A
=
dt μ ( R m + Rc )
V
t=
dV /dt
Compute filtration rate:
dV (120,000)(0.08)
=
dt (0.0015)(4 ×10⁹ +3 ×10⁹ )

dV 9,600
=
dt (0.0015)(7 × 10⁹)

dV −4 3
=19.4 ×10 m /s
dt
 796

Compute time:
V
t=
dV /dt

0.002
t= −4
19.4 ×10

t=2.9 s
 797

Problem 3
During a suspension filtration experiment in a chemical engineering laboratory, a 180 kpa
pressure drop across a filter yields a filtrate flow rate of 0.0028 m³/s through a filter area of 0.55
m².the fluid viscosity is 0.0018 pa·s, and the filter medium thickness is 1.50 mm. If the cake
resistance is negligible, determine the filter medium resistance.

Given:
∆ P = 180kpa
Q = 0.0038 m³/s
A = 0.55 m²
μ = 0.0018 pa·s
L = 1.50 mm

Required:
Determine the filter resistance.

Solution:
∆PA
Q=
μ Rm

Q μ Rm = ∆ P A

∆PA
Rm =
μQ

( 180,000 ) (0.55)
Rm =
( 0.0018 ) (0.0028)

Rm = 1.96 ×10 10 m−1

 798

Problem 4
During the clarification of a sugar solution using a pressure filter, the initial cake resistance was
2.5×1011 m−12.5 \times 10^{11}~\text{m}^{-1}2.5×1011 m−1. In a subsequent run, the cake
resistance increases to 1.8×1012 m−11.8 \times 10^{12}~\text{m}^{-1}1.8×1012 m−1. The
applied pressure difference is 310 kpa, the filtration area is 0.55 m², the viscosity of the sugar
solution is 0.0015 pa·s, and the filter medium thickness is 2.0 [Link] the same parameters as
in the initial run, calculate the new filtrate flow rate.

Given:
ΔP = 310 kPa
11
Rm =2.5 ×10
12
Rc =1.8 × 10
A = 0.55 m²
μ = 0.0015 Pa·s
L = 2 mm (not needed in the given formula)

Required:
New filtrate flow rate

Solution:
∆PA
Q=
μ (Rm + R c )
( 310000 ) (0.55)
Q=
0.0015[ ( 2.5 ×1011 ) + ( 1.8 ×1012 ) ]
Q = 5.55 ×10−5 m3 / s
 799

Problem 5
A centrifuge bowl rotates at 3000 rpm with a radius of 0.15 m. Determine the centrifugal
acceleration and the equivalent g-force experienced by the particles.

Given:
n = 3000 rpm
r = 0.15 m

Required:
Centrifugal acceleration, ac (m/s²)
G-force = ac / g

Solution:
angular velocity:
N 3000
ω=2 π =2 π =314.16 rad / s
60 60
Centrifugal acceleration:
2
a c =ω r=¿
Equivalent g-force:
a c 14,780
G= = =1,507
g 9.81

Final answer:
centrifugal acceleration = 1.48×10⁴ m/s²
g-force = 1,507 g
 800

Problem 6
A centrifuge bowl rotates at 3000 rpm with a radius of 0.15 m. Determine the centrifugal
acceleration and the equivalent g-force experienced by the particles.

Given:
n = 3000 rpm
r = 0.15 m

Required:
Centrifugal acceleration, ac (m/s²)
G-force = ac / g

Solution:
angular velocity:
N 3000
ω=2 π =2 π =314.16 rad / s
60 60
Centrifugal acceleration:
2
a c =ω r=¿
Equivalent g-force:
a c 14,780
G= = =1,507
g 9.81

Final answer:
centrifugal acceleration = 1.48×10⁴ m/s²
g-force = 1,507 g
 801

Problem 7
In a juice clarifier, spherical pulp particles (ρp = 1200 kg/m³) with diameter 80 μm settle in water
(ρf = 1000 kg/m³, μ = 1.1×10⁻³ pa·s). Determine (a) the terminal settling velocity (m/s) using
stokes' law, and (b) the time (minutes) for such particles to settle 2.5 m.

Given: (svoboda and fujita, 2003)

Ρp = 1200 kg/m³
Ρf = 1000 kg/m³
D = 80×10⁻6 m
Μ = 1.1×10⁻3 pa·s
G = 9.81 m/s²
Settling distance = 2.5 m ³

Required:
Determine the terminal settling velocity (m/s) using stokes' law, and the time (minutes)

Solution:
Stokes ¿ ¿ ¿
¿¿¿
Stokes ¿ 6.341818e-04 m/s
settling distance
Settling time =
Vt
= 3942.09 s
3,942.09 s
=
60 min
Settling time = 65.70 min
 802

Problem 8
Clarifier design requires that particles of 120 μm (ρp = 1400 kg/m³) settle out at feed flowrate 0.8
m³/min. If tank depth available is 3 m and fluid properties are ρf = 1000 kg/m³, μ = 1.0×10 ⁻³
pa·s, determine the minimum overflow (surface) area (m²) needed so that particles have time to
settle (use stokes' law to get vt and assume plug flow).

Given: (svoboda and fujita, 2003)

Flow q = 0.8 m³/min = 0.8/60 m³/s
Dp = 120×10⁻6 m
Ρp = 1400 kg/m³
Ρf =1000 kg/m³
Μ=1.0×10⁻3, depth = 3 m

Required:
Determine the minimum overflow

Solution:
Q
A=
Vt
Vt = ¿ ¿
Vt = 3.139200e-03 m/s
Q 1.333333 e−02
A= =
Vt 3.139200 e−03
A = 4.2474 m² v
 803

Problem 9
A slurry of 2.0 m³ of liquid containing suspended solids is to be filtered through a filter area of
1.0 m² under a constant pressure drop of 150 kpa. Assume that the cake resistance is much larger
than the filter medium resistance, the cake builds linearly, and the viscosity of the filtrate is 1.0
mpa·s (i.e., 0.001 pa·s). Where Rcake=kV and k =200,000 m−5, determine the time required to
filter the 2.0 m³ volume.

Assume initial resistance is negligible.

Given: (ullmann, 2016)

Filter area, A=1.0 m2
Pressure drop, Δ P=150 kPa=150,000 Pa
Filtrate viscosity, μ=0.001 Pa ¿
Volume filtered, V =2.0 m3
Cake resistance coefficient, k =200,000 m−5

Required:
Derive the time–volume relationship for cake filtration.
Compute the time (in hours) to filter 2.0 m³.

Solution:
t=(0.001)(200,000)¿ ¿
t=0.00267 s

Problem 10
 804

A funnel with a circular filter paper of area 0.005 m² is used for gravity filtration.
The liquid has a density of 1000 kg/m³, viscosity of 0.001 pa·s, and flows under gravity from a
height of 0.2 m. The filter has pores of radius r =10 µm=1 ×10−5 m . Assuming each pore
behaves as a cylindrical capillary, estimate the volumetric flow rate Q through one pore and
through the entire filter if the total pore area is 10% of the filter paper area.
Use poiseuille’s equation:

Given: (libretexts., n.d.)

Filter paper area, A=0.005 m2
Pore radius, r =1× 10−5 m
Filter thickness, L=1 ×10−3 m
Liquid density, ρ=1000 kg/m3
Viscosity, μ=0.001 Pa ¿
Height of liquid head, h=0.2 m
Gravitational acceleration, g=9.81 m/ s2

Required:
1. Calculate volumetric flow rate Q through the entire filter.
2. Determine new Q if pore radius is halved to 5 µm .

Solution:
Δ P=ρgh=1000(9.81)(0.2)=1962 Pa
4
π r ΔP
Q pore =
8 μL
Q pore =π ¿ ¿
−9 3
Q pore =7.7 ×10 m / s
2
A pores =0.1 A=0.0005 m
2 −10 2
A pore =π r =3.14 × 10 m

A pores 0.0005 6
N= = =1.59× 10
A pore 3.14 × 10−10
 805

6 −9 3
Qtotal=N Q pore =( 1.59× 10 )(7.7 ×10 )=0.0122 m /s
Q2=Q1 ¿
 806

Problem 11
In a constant-pressure filtration test, the following data are obtained: δp = 180 kpa, μ = 1.2×10⁻³
pa·s, α = 9×10¹⁰ m⁻², c = 0.06, a = 0.8 m², and v = 0.3 m³. Calculate the filtration time.

Given:
δp = 180 kpa
Μ = 1.2×10⁻³ pa·s
Α = 9×10¹⁰ m⁻²
C = 0.06
A = 0.8 m²
V = 0.3 m³

Required:
filtration time (t)

Solution:
t = (μ α c v²) / (2 a² δp)
t = (1.2×10⁻³×9×10¹⁰×0.06×0.3²) / (2×0.8²×1.8×10⁵)
T = 2550 s / 60min
T = 42.5 min
Final answer: t = 42.5min
 807

Problem 12
a filtration unit operates under a pressure of 160 kpa with α = 7×10¹⁰ m⁻², μ = 1×10⁻³
pa·s, c = 0.05, a = 0.6 m², and v = 0.25 m³. Find the time needed to filter the batch.

Given:
δp = 160 kpa
Μ = 1×10⁻³ pa·s
Α = 7×10¹⁰ m⁻²
C = 0.05
A = 0.6 m²
V = 0.25 m³

Required:
filtration time (t)

Solution:

t = (μ α c v²) / (2 a² δp)
t = (1×10⁻³×7×10¹⁰×0.05×0.25²) / (2×0.6²×1.6×10⁵)
T= 1420 s
T= 23.7 min

Final answer: t = 23.7min

 808

Problem 13
a filter operates at δp = 55 kpa, viscosity 0.001 pa·s, area 0.25 m², and total resistance 2.1
× 10¹¹ m⁻¹. Determine flow rate.

Given:
δp = 55,000 pa
µ = 0.001 pa·s
A = 0.25 m²
Rt = 2.1 × 10¹¹ m⁻¹

Required:
1. Flow rate (m³/s)

Solution:
q = δp a / (µ rt) = (55,000 × 0.25) / (0.001 × 2.1 × 10¹¹)
= 13,750 / 2.1 × 10⁸
= 6.55 × 10⁻⁵ m³/s
Answer: flow rate = 6.55×10⁻⁵ m³/s
 809

Problem 14
A juice filtration unit is pretreated using 2450 mhz frequency, reducing viscosity from 0.0012 to
0.0010 pa·s. If original flow rate was 4.2×10⁻⁵ m³/s, compute new flow rate.

Given:
frequency = 2450 mhz
µ1 = 0.0012 pa·s
µ2 = 0.0010 pa·s
Q1 = 4.2×10⁻⁵ m³/s

Required:
New flow rate

Solution:
flow rate q 1/µ
Q2 = q1 × (µ1 / µ2)
= 4.2 × 10⁻⁵ × (0.0012 / 0.0010)
= 4.2×10⁻⁵ × 1.2
= 5.04×10⁻⁵ m³/s
Answer: new flow rate = 5.04 × 10⁻⁵ m³/s
 810

Problem 14
A filter press operates at δp = 45 kpa, viscosity µ = 0.0012 pa·s, area a = 0.5 m², and total
resistance rt = 1.8×10¹¹ m⁻¹. Determine volumetric flow rate.

Given:
• δp = 45,000 pa
• µ = 0.0012
• a = 0.5 m²
• rt = 1.8×10¹¹

Required:
q

Solution:
q = δp·a / (µ·rt)
q = (45,000 × 0.5) / (0.0012 × 1.8×10¹¹)
q ≈ 1.04×10⁻⁴ m³/s

Answer:
1.04×10⁻⁴ m³/s
 811

Problem 15
A vacuum filter processes slurry with δp = 55 kpa, µ = 0.002 pa·s, a = 0.25 m², rt = 3×10¹¹.
Compute q.

Given:
• δp = 55,000 pa
• µ = 0.002
• a = 0.25 m²
• rt = 3×10¹¹

Required:
flow rate

Solution:
q = 55,000×0.25 / (0.002×3×10¹¹)
q = 13,750 / 600,000,000
q ≈ 2.29×10⁻⁵ m³/s

Answer:
2.29×10⁻⁵ m³/s
 812

Magnetic Separation

Problem 1
A magnetic drum separator treats a stream of 10,000 kg/h containing 3% magnetic minerals. If
the tailing stream contains 0.5% magnetic minerals, find the recovery percentage and purity of
the magnetic concentrate.

Given:
Feed = 10,000 kg/h
Feed magnetics = 3% = 0.03
Tailing magnetics = 0.5% = 0.005

Required:
Magnetic recovery (%)
Purity of concentrate (%)

Solution:
Feed magnetics = 10,000 × 0.03 = 300 kg/h.
Tailing magnetics = 10,000 × 0.005 = 50 kg/h.
Recovered magnetics = 300 − 50 = 250 kg/h.
Magnetic recovery = (250 / 300) × 100 = 83.3%.

Concentrate mass
= feed − tailings
= assume tailings fraction equals uncollected mass.

If 9,500 kg/h tailings → concentrate = 500 kg/h.

Purity = (250 / 500) × 100 = 50%.
Final answer:
Magnetic recovery = 83.3%
Purity = 50%
 813

Problem 2
A single spherical steel particle (ρp = 7850 kg/m³) of diameter 0.4 mm must be lifted out of a dry
granular stream by a magnetic pull. The separator provides h = 1.8×10⁵ a/m and the particle's
effective susceptibility in the design field is approximated as χp = 0.9. Approximating the
magnetic force by

Given: (wang and li, 2022)

D = 0.4 mm = 4.0×10⁻4 m
Vp = (π/6) d³

Required:
Determine the minimum field gradient

Solution:
fm = vp (χp − χf) h (dh/dx)
π
vp = x (4.0×10⁻4)³
6
vp = 3.3510e-11 m³

dh
≥ (ρp g) / (χp h)
dx
ρp = 7850 kg/m³
g = 9.81 m/s²
χp = 0.9
h = 1.8×10⁵ a/m.
dh/dx ≥ 0.475 a/m²
 814

Problem 3
One hundred thirty (130) kg/h of an ab mixture with 38% magnetic particles is processed by a
magnetic separator. The magnetic fraction recovered following separation is 30 kg/h. Find the
efficiency of magnetic recovery.

Given:
Feed: 130 kg/h
Fraction magnetic: 130 0.38 = 49.4 kg/h
Recovered magnetic: 30 kg/h

Required:
The efficiency of the magnetic recovery

Solution:

Recovery magnetic
Efficiency = ×100
Theoretical magnetic

30
Efficiency = ×100
49.4

Efficiency = 60.73 ≈ 61%

 815

Problem 4
A mineral feed weighing 1,000 kg/h contains 6% magnetic ore. After magnetic separation, the
concentrate obtained contains 80% magnetic ore. If the magnetic separator operates at an
efficiency of 70%, determine the mass flow rate of the magnetic product (mₚ).

Given:
Mf=1000 kg/h
Ff=6%
Fp=80%
Em=70%

Required:
Mass of magnetic product (mp)

Solution:

Formula used:
mp f p
Em =
mf f f

(m¿ ¿ f f f )
m p=E m ¿
fp

( 0.70 ) (1000)(0.06)
m p=
(0.80)

42
m p=
0.80

m p=52.5 kg /h
 816

Problem 5
A grain line processes 800 kg/h feed with 4% ferromagnetic contaminants. Magnetic separator
removes 18 kg/h containing 75% ferromagnetic particles. Determine magnetic separation
efficiency.

Given:
feed = 800 kg/h
ferromagnetic = 4%
magnetic product = 18 kg/h
ferromagnetic fraction = 75%

Required:
efficiency

Solution:
em = (mp fp) / (mf ff) × 100
em = (18×0.75)/(800×0.04)×100
em = 13.5 / 32 ×100
em = 42.2%
 817

Problem 6
A separator is energized with 2450 mhz to enhance magnet strength. If metal captured increases
from 10 kg/h to 14 kg/h, determine percent improvement.

Given:
Frequency = 2450 mhz
Initial capture = 10 kg/h
Final capture = 14 kg/h

Required:
Percent improvement

Solution:
Improvement = (14 – 10) / 10 × 100
Improvement = 40%
 818

Problem 7
A magnetic separator is used to remove iron particles from crushed rice grains before milling.
The feed rate of the material to the separator is 500 kg/h, and the feed contains 1% iron particles
by mass. After separation, the iron content in the product is reduced to 0.05%, and 90% of the
total feed mass is recovered as clean product.
Determine the mass of magnetic (iron) material removed per hour and efficiency of magnetic
separation in terms of iron recovery.

Given: (bennett, 2018)

Feed rate, F=500 kg /h
Iron content in feed, x F =1 %=0.01
Iron content in product, x P =0.05 %=0.0005
Product recovery, R P=90 %=0.9

Required:
1. Mass of magnetic (iron) material removed per hour.
2. Separation efficiency (%).

Solution:
L F=P+T
P=0.9(500)=450 kg/h T =500−450=50 kg/h
F x F =500 (0.01)=5 kg Fe/h
P x P=450(0.0005)=0.225 kg Fe/h
T x T =5−0.225=4.775 kg Fe/h
Iron∈magnetic fraction
Recovery= × 100
Iron∈ feed
Iron∈magnetic fraction
Recovery= × 100
Iron∈ feed
4.775
Recovery= ×100 =95.5 %
5
 819

Problem 8
A batch of flour contains 0.8 g of metal fragments per 150 kg. A magnetic separator removes
85% of the contaminants. Calculate the remaining contamination in ppm.

Given:
metal fragments = 0.8 g
Flour = 150 kg
Efficiency = 85%

Required:
final contamination (ppm)

Solution:

initial ppm = (0.8 / 150,000) × 10⁶

Initial ppm = 5.33 ppm

remaining ppm = (1 - 0.85) × 5.33

Remaining ppm = 0.8 ppm
Final answer: remaining ppm = 0.8 ppm
 820

Problem 9
Feed = 2000 kg·h⁻¹ with 4.0% magnetic mineral. Concentrate produced = 80 kg·h⁻¹ with
grade 60% magnetic. Calculate mass of magnetic in concentrate and recovery.

Given:
Feed = 2000 kg·h⁻¹
Feed grade (magnetic) = 0.04
Concentrate = 80 kg·h⁻¹
Concentrate grade = 0.60

Required:
(a) magnetic mass in concentrate (kg·h⁻¹)
(b) recovery (%)

Solution:
(a) magnetic in concentrate = 80 × 0.60 = 48.0 kg·h⁻¹.
Magnetic in feed = 2000 × 0.04 = 80.0 kg·h⁻¹.
(b) recovery = 48.0 / 80.0 = 0.60 = 60.0%.
 821

Problem 10
Estimate the magnetic force on a ferrous particle (1 mm diameter) in a field strength of
2×10⁵ a/m with gradient 5×10⁵ a/m². Assume (χp - χf) = 0.02 and use fm = vp(χp - χf)h(dh/dx).

Given:
D = 1×10⁻³ m
Χp - χf = 0.02
H = 2×10⁵ a/m
Dh/dx = 5×10⁵ a/m²

Required:
Magnetic force, fm

Solutions:
Vp = πd³ / 6 = π (1×10⁻³)³ / 6
Vp = 5.236×10⁻¹⁰ m³
fm = vp (χp - χf) h (dh / dx)
fm = 5.236×10⁻¹⁰ × 0.02 × (2×10⁵ × 5×10⁵)
fm = 5.236×10⁻¹⁰ × 0.02 × 1×10¹¹
Fm = 1.05 N
822
 823

MIXING OF AB MATERIALS

Definition:

Mixing of Agricultural and Biosystems (AB) materials is the process of combining two or

more substances—such as solids, liquids, or gases—to achieve a uniform and consistent

composition. In agricultural and food systems, this includes blending ingredients like grains,

powders, feeds, juices, slurries, or additives to ensure even distribution of components. Mixing

may involve mechanical agitation, stirring, tumbling, or high-shear actions depending on the

material properties and desired product outcome.

Importance:

Mixing is important because it ensures the homogeneity essential for product quality,

safety, and performance in various AB applications. Uniform mixing improves the consistency of

food products, enhances the effectiveness of additives or preservatives, and ensures accurate

nutrient distribution in animal feeds. It also supports efficient downstream processes such as

fermentation, drying, extrusion, and packaging by providing a stable and predictable material

mixture. Proper mixing reduces variability, improves process control, and contributes to higher

productivity in agricultural and food processing systems.

 824

MIXING OF AB MATERIALS

Mixing Uniformity

Problem 1
A powdered supplement batch was sampled at 5 locations giving vitamin concentrations (by
mass %) of 4.2, 4.5, 4.1, 4.4, and 4.3. Evaluate the mean, the standard deviation (use population
formula: divide by n), and the coefficient of variation (CV). Is the batch uniform if the
acceptance criterion is CV < 5%?

Given:
concentrations = 4.2, 4.5, 4.1, 4.4, 4.3 (%).

Required:
mean, σ (population),
CV (%),
pass/fail vs CV < 5%.

Solutions:
Mean: x ˉ =(4.2+4.5+ 4.1+4.4 + 4.3)/5=4.30 % .
Population standard deviation: σ =√ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿
. Compute deviations:
σ = 0.14142 %. (computed using population formula)
CV = (σ / x ˉ ) × 100
CV = (0.14142 / 4.30) ×100 3.29 %.
 825

Problem 2

A premix is targeted at 10.0% copper supplement. Four samples measure 9.6, 10.2, 10.4, and 9.8%. (a) Calculate

Given:
samples = 9.6, 10.2, 10.4, 9.8 (%).
Target mean 10.0%.
CV criterion = 5%.

Required:
(a) mean, σ, CV;
(b) allowable σ for CV=5%; pass/fail.

Solutions:
(a) Mean = (9.6+10.2+10.4+9.8)/4 = 10.00%.
Population = [(xmean)² / 4] = 0.3162 % (approx).
CV = (0.3162 / 10.00)×100 = 3.16%.
(b) Allowable σ for CV=5%:
σallow = (CVtarget/100) × mean
σallow = 0.05 × 10.00 = 0.50 %.
 826

Problem 3
In a chemical mixing process, a tank with a total volume of 1000 L contains two liquids with
different viscosities. The aim is to achieve a uniform mixture in 10 minutes. If the viscosity of
liquid A is 1.5 Pa·s and liquid B is 3.0 Pa·s, determine the mixing time required to achieve a
uniform mixture based on the known viscosities of both liquids.

Required:
Mixing time for uniform mixture.

Solution:
Viscosities:
Liquid A: 1.5 Pa·s
Liquid B: 3.0 Pa·s
General Approach:
The mixing time is influenced by the viscosity ratio of the two liquids. A more viscous
liquid will generally require more time to mix with a less viscous liquid.
To calculate the mixing time, we can use empirical models or correlations such as the
Boussinesq model or similar relations. However, a common approach for mixing time estimation
is based on the average viscosity of the two liquids.
● he average viscosity ( μavg ) can be estimated as:
μA ​+ μB 1.5 Pa·s+ 3.0 Pa·s
μavg= = =2.25 Pa·s
2 2

Given the liquid properties and the goal to achieve a uniform mixture, the required
mixing time can be estimated using empirical data for similar mixtures. Based on typical
behavior in such systems, the mixing time for achieving a uniform mixture in a 1000 L tank is
approximately 10 minutes, as already specified in the problem.

Conclusion:
The mixing time required to achieve a uniform mixture, based on the known viscosities
of the liquids, is approximately 10 minutes. This estimation aligns with the empirical behavior of
mixing in a tank with these viscosities.
 827

Problem 3
A feed mixture consists of cornmeal and soybean meal. After 8 minutes of mixing in a ribbon
blender, samples show a coefficient of variation (CV) of 12%. The target CV for uniform mixing
is 5%. Estimate the additional mixing time required assuming the relationship between CV and
mixing time follows the equation: CV = k / (t)0.5.

Given:
Initial CV = 12%
Target CV = 5%
Initial mixing time = 8 min

Required:
Additional mixing time required to reach target CV.

Solution:
CV1/CV2 = (t2/t1)0.5
(12/5) = (t2/8)0.5
(2.4)2 = t2/8
t2 = 8 × 5.76 = 46.08 min
Additional time = 46.08 - 8 = 38.08 min
 828

Problem 4
A fertilizer blend has an initial standard deviation of nutrient concentration σ = 4%. After 6
minutes of mixing, the σ reduces to 2%. If uniform mixing requires σ = 1%, how long should the
mixing continue? Assume σ ∝ 1/t.

Given:
σ1 = 2%
σ2 = 1%
t1 = 6 min

Required:
Mixing time (t2) for σ = 1%.

Solution:
σ1/σ2 = √ (t 2/t 1)
(2/1) = √ (t 2/6)
4 = t2/6
t2 = 24 min
 829

Problem 5
A batch mixer blends powdered ingredients. Six samples show nutrient percentages: 8.0%, 8.5%,
7.5%, 8.3%, 7.8%, and 8.1%.

Given:
concentrations: 8.0%, 8.5%, 7.5%, 8.3%, 7.8%, and 8.1%.

Required:
Find the coefficient of variation (CV) and interpret the mixing uniformity.

Solution:

Mean (x) = (8.0 + 8.5 + 7.5 + 8.3 + 7.8 + 8.1)/6 = 48.2/6 = 8.03%
= 4.48%

Therefore, CV = 4.48%.
Explanation: Since CV < 10%, the mixture is considered uniform.
 830

Problem 6
A continuous mixer operates at 50 kg/min with output samples having a standard deviation of
0.4% and mean of 8.0%.

Given:
S= 0.4
x̄ = 8.0

Required:

Solution:

CV = (s / x̄ ) × 100 = (0.4 / 8.0) × 100 = 5.00%

Therefore, CV = 5.00%.
Explanation: The CV meets the acceptable uniformity threshold.
 831

Problem 7
A lab stirred tank (perfectly mixed) initially contains 10.0 L of water. At time t = 0 a tracer is
injected as a step change so that the inlet concentration jumps from 0 to C₀. For a perfectly
mixed tank the concentration followsC (t)=C 0 (1−e−t /τ )where τ =V /Q is the mean residence
time. If the tank volume V =10.0 Land the flowrate Q=2.0 L/min , find the mixing time t 95(time
to reach 95% of final concentration).

Given:
V = 10.0 L = 0.0100 m3
Q = 2.0 L/min = 2.0 x 10-3 m3/s
Target: 95% C (t 95)=0.95 C 0

Required:
t 95(s)

Solution:
Mean residence time
V 0.0100
τ= = =5.0 s .
Q 2.0 ×10−3
Set C (t 95)=0.95 C 0:
−t 95 −t 95
τ τ
0.95=1−e ⇒e =0.05 t 95
¿−τ ln ( 0.05 ) =−5.0 ×ln ( 0.05 )
¿ 5.0 ×2.9957=14.98 s .≈ 15.0 s
Final answer:
t 95 ≈ 15.0 s
 832

Problem 8
A 100 kg batch of feed contains an added ingredient (total 2.0 kg) that must be uniformly
distributed. The batch is divided into 10 equal samples for assay (each sample = 10 kg). In the
“unmixed” extreme all additive is in one sample; after mixing 10 sample assays give (mass
fraction of additive): 0.021, 0.019, 0.020, 0.022, 0.018, 0.020, 0.020, 0.021, 0.019, 0.020.
Compute (a) the mean and standard deviation of the measured sample concentrations, (b) the
σ mix
mixing index defined as MI=1− , where σ unmixedis the standard deviation in the unmixed
σ unmixed
extreme (all additive in one 10-kg sample).

Given:

Assay fractions after mixing: 0.021,0.019,0.020,0.022,0.018,0.020,0.020,0.021,0.019,0.020

Required:
(a) C ˉ and σ mix(fraction), (b) MI (%)

Solution:
Mean (should equal overall 0.02):
1 0.021+ 0.019+ ⋯+0.020
Cˉ= ∑ Ci = =0.0200 .
10 10

Compute variance (population form):

summing squared deviations:

−6 −6 −6 −6 −6 −6
1 ×10 , 1 ×10 , 0 , 4 × 10 , 4 × 10 , 0 , 0 ,1 ×10 ,1 ×10 , 0
−5
sum = 1.2 ×10 .
Population variance σ 2mix=1.2 ×10−6

σ mix= √ 1.2 ×10−6 =0.001095(fraction) = 0.1095% (absolute)

Unmixed case: concentrations = [0.20, 0, 0, …,0] with mean 0.02
 833

Compute variance:
2 1
σ unmixed = ¿
10

σ unmixed =√ 0.0036=0.06(fraction) ¿ 0.06 (6.0%).

Mixing index:
σ mix 0.001095
MI=1− =1− =1−0.01825≈ 0.982 98.2% uniform
σ unmixed 0.06
 834

Problem 9

Blend trial produced five samples with protein contents: 12.4, 12.7, 12.1, 12.9, and 12.6%. Calculate the mean, s

Given: (Chhabra and Richardson, 2011)

12.4, 12.7, 12.1, 12.9, 12.6 (%)

Required:
Determine whether the batch passes

Solution:
Σx
x=
n
12.4+12.7+12.1+12.9+ 12.6
=
5
62.7
x= =12.54 %
5

From the standard deviation:

2
Σ ( x −x ) = 0.0196 + 0.0256 + 0.1936 + 0.1296 + 0.0036
2
Σ ( x −x ) = 0.372

√
2
Σ ( x−x )
σ=
n

=
√ 0.372
5
σ =0.2728 %

Coefficient of Variation:
σ
CV = × 100
x

0.2728
= × 100= 2.10% The batch pass the uniformity requirement
12.54
 835

Problem 10

Seasoning mix sampling gives concentrations (g/kg) of micro ingredient in samples: 5.4, 2.7, 4.1, 3.9, and 5.6%.

Given: (McCabe et al., 2005)

5.4, 2.7, 4.1, 3.9, 5.6 (%)

Required:
Determine whether the batch passes
Solution:
Σx
x=
n

5.4+2.7+ 4.1+3. 9+5.6

=
5
21.7
x= =4.34 %
5

From the standard deviation

2
Σ ( x −x ) = 1.1236 + 2.6896 + 0.0576 + 0.1936 + 1.5876
2
Σ ( x −x ) = 5.652

√
2
Σ ( x−x )
σ=
n

=
√ 5.652
5
σ =1.06 %

Coefficient of Variation:
σ
CV = × 100
x
 836

1.06
= ×100 = 24.42% The batch does not pass the uniformity requirement.
4.34
 837

Problem 11
In a feed manufacturing plant, samples are collected after mixing to check the uniformity of a
vitamin supplement blend. Ten samples (each 100 g) are taken and analyzed for vitamin
concentration (%). The results are as follows:
Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Vitamin % 2.8 3.0 2.7 3.1 2.9 3.2 2.8 3.0 2.9 3.1

Determine the mixing uniformity using the coefficient of variation (CV) and comment on whether the mix is acc

Given: (Montgomery, 2017)

Number of samples: 10
Concentration data (%): 2.8, 3.0, 2.7, 3.1, 2.9, 3.2, 2.8, 3.0, 2.9, 3.1
Acceptable limit: CV ≤ 10 %

Required:
Calculate the mean concentration.
Compute the standard deviation.
Determine the coefficient of variation (CV).

Solution:
Mean:
∑ X i 2.8+3.0+ 2.7+3.1+2.9+3.2+2.8+3.0+ 2.9+3.1
X ˉ= = =2.95
n 10

Standard deviation:
s= √ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿

Coefficient of Variation:
s 0.15
CV = ×100= ×100=5.08 %
Xˉ 2.95

Problem 12
 838

In a feed mill, a nutrient premix is prepared using a horizontal mixer. To evaluate

mixing uniformity, twelve (12) samples were taken at different points in the mixer
and analyzed for calcium concentration (%). The target calcium content is 2.5%,
and a uniform mixture should have a CV ≤ 10%. Determine whether the mixture is
uniform and whether the mean concentration significantly differs from the target
value.
Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ca (%) 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4

Given: (McCoy, 2017)

Number of samples: 12
Calcium concentration data (%): 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.3, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4
Target mean concentration: 2.5%
Acceptable coefficient of variation (CV): 10%
Significance level: α =0.05

Required:
Compute the mean and standard deviation.
Determine the coefficient of variation (CV).
Perform a t-test to verify if the mean differs significantly from 2.5%.
Conclude whether the mix is uniform.
 839

Solution:
∑ X i 2.4+ 2.5+2.6+2.7+ 2.3+2.6+2.5+ 2.4+2.7+ 2.6+2.5+2.4
X ˉ= = X ˉ =2.53
n 12

s= √ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿

s 0.12
CV = ×100= ×100=4.74 %
Xˉ 2.53

X ˉ −μ0 2.53−2.50 0.03

t= = = =0.87
s/√n 0.12 / √ 12 0.0346

For n−1=11and α =0.05 (two-tailed),

critical t 0.05 ,11 =2.201
Since ∣t calc ∣=0.87< 2.201, fail to reject H₀.
 840

Problem 13
A powder mixing process produces samples with mass fractions of an active ingredient as
follows: 0.18, 0.22, 0.20, 0.21, and 0.19. Calculate the coefficient of variation (CV) to evaluate
the uniformity of mixing. (Adapted from Paul et al., 2004).

Given:
Samples = [0.18, 0.22, 0.20, 0.21, 0.19]

Required:
Coefficient of variation (CV)

Solution:

Mean composition, x = (0.18 + 0.22 + 0.20 + 0.21 + 0.19)/5 = 0.20

 841

Problem 14
A tracer test in a liquid mixer gives a standard deviation of concentration as σ = 0.02 mol/L and
the mean concentration as 0.50 mol/L. Determine the mixing index (MI).
(Based on Tatterson, 1991).

Given:
σ = 0.02 mol/L, C̄ = 0.50 mol/L

Required:
Mixing index, MI

Solution:
MI = 1 - (σ/C̄ ) = 1 - (0.02/0.50) = 0.96

Final Answer:
Mixing index = 0.96 (Well-mixed system)
 842

Problem 15
A and B are two liquid solutions together. With a solute concentration of 20 g/L, Solution A
contains 30 L. With a solute concentration of 6 g/L, Solution B contains 50 L. After thorough
mixing, what is the solute's final concentration?

Given:
LIQUID A LIQUID B

VOLUME A = 30 L VOLUME B = 50 L
CONCENTARTION A = 20 g/L CONCENTARTION B = 6 g/L

Required:
Calculate the final concentration of the solution.

Solution:
CA V A+ CBV B
FINAL CONCENTRATION =
V A +V B
( 20 ) ( 30 ) +(6)(50)
FINAL CONCENTRATION =
30+50
FINAL CONCENTRATION = 11.25 g/L
 843

Problem 16
In a laboratory center of the university, a professor/chemist wishes to mix Solution A (17 g/L)
and Solution B (8 g/L) to create 60 L of a 9 g/L solution. What is the required volume of each
solution?

Given:
CONCENTRATION A: 17 g/L
CONCENTRATION B: 8 g/L
FINAL CONCENTRATION: 9 g/L
TOTAL VOLUME: 60 Liter

Required:
Find the volumes of A and B.

Solution:
C A V A + C B (60−V A )
FINAL CONCENTRATION =
V A +V B

(17)(V A )+8 (60−V A )

9=
60
(9)(60) = (17)(V A )+8 (60−V A )
540 = 17 V A + ¿480 - 8 V A
540 – 480 = 17V A - 8 V A
60 = 9 V A
60 9 V A
=
9 9
V A = 6.67 L – 60 = V B= 53.33 L
 844

Problem 17
A powder mixture contains Component A (40% w/w) and Component B (60% w/w). Ten
samples are collected to evaluate uniformity. The measured weight fractions of Component A
are: 0.39, 0.41, 0.40, 0.38, 0.42, 0.40, 0.39, 0.41, 0.40, 0.39.

Determine the standard deviation and evaluate if the mixture meets the uniformity requirement ( 0.015).

Given:
Target weight fraction = 0.40
Ten measured sample values (listed above)
Acceptable uniformity: 0.015

Required:
Standard deviation
Assessment of uniformity

Solution:
x ˉ =0.399

σ =√ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿

0.012 ≤ 0.015⇒ Uniform

 845

Problem 18

In a 2450 MHz microwave-assisted mixing process (Basa, 2016), 12 samples are analyzed for Component B con

Given:
Target fraction = 0.60
12 measured values
Acceptable CV 5%
Frequency = 2450 MHz (Basa, 2016)

Required:
Coefficient of variation
Uniformity status

Solution:
x ˉ =0.602 σ =0.0122
σ
CV = × 100=2.03 %
xˉ

2.03 % ≤ 5 % ⇒ Uniform
 846

Problem 19
A mixer is used to combine 99 kg of wheat flour with 1kg of a fortification agent (component
A). After a specific mixing time, five random samples of 10g each are taken, and the mass
fractions of component A are measured: 0.0090, 0.0110, 0.0095, 0.0105, 0.0100. Calculate the
Coefficient of Variation (CV) for component A, which is a measure of mixing uniformity.

Given
Theoretical Mass Fraction of A ( x T ): 1 kg / 100 kg = 0.0100
Sample Mass Fractions of A ( x i): 0.0090, 0.0110, 0.0095, 0.0105, 0.0100
Number of samples (n): 5

Required
Coefficient of Variation (CV)

Solution
∑ x i 0.0090+ 0.0110+0.0095+ 0.0105+0.0100
x̄= =
n 5

0.0500
x̄= =0.0100
5
2
s =∑ ¿ ¿
2
s =¿ ¿

2
s =¿ ¿
−6 −6 −6 −6
2 1 ×10 +1 ×10 +0.25 ×10 + 0.25 ×10
s=
4
−6
2 2.5 ×10
s=
4

s= √ s2 =√ 6.25 × 10−7

s = 0.0007906
 847

CV = s/x x 100
CV = 0.0007906/0.0100 x 100
CV = 7.91%
 848

Problem 20
In a batch blending process for a dry animal feed, the Standard Deviation (s) of the tracer
ingredient concentration needs to be reduced from an initial value of 0.05 to a final value of
0.005. If the initial quality index (M0) is considered to be 100% (1.0), and the mixing process is
modeled by a first-order kinetic equation (ln(M) = -k . t)), calculate the required change in the
Quality Index (M, where M = s/s random) assuming the standard deviation of a perfectly random
mix (srandom) is 0.001.

Given
Initial Standard Deviation (s0): 0.05
Final Standard Deviation (sf): 0.005
Standard Deviation of Random Mix (srandom): 0.001
Mixing Model: ln(M) = -k .t

Required
Change in Quality Index ( ΔM = Mf – M0).

Solution
s0 0.05
M 0= =
s random 0.001

M 0=¿ 50
sf 0.005
Mf = =
s random 0.001

M f =5

ΔM =M f −M 0

ΔM =5−50

ΔM =−45
 849

Problem 21
Samples from a mixed batch of powdered fertilizer show nutrient concentrations of 9.2%, 8.8%,
9.0%, 9.3%, and 8.7%. Calculate the mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation (CV).
Determine if the mixture is considered uniform if CV < 10%.

Given:
x 1=9.2 %

x 2=8.8 %

x 3=9.0 %

x 4 =9.3 %

x 5=8.7 %

Uniformity criterion: CV < 10%

Required:
Mean, ( x )
Standard deviation, ( σ )
Coefficient of variation, (CV )
Uniformity condition

Solution:
Formula Used:

√
Σχ ( )2 σ
χ= , σ = Σ x− χ , CV = × 100
n n χ
Compute Mean (χ):
(9.2+8.8+ 9.0+9.3+8.7)
χ=
5

χ =9.00 %

Compute Standard Deviation (σ):

 850

σ=
√
( 9.2−9.0 )2 + ( 8.8−9.0 )2 + ( 9.0−9.0 )2+ ( 9.3−9.0 )2+ ( 8.7−9.0 )2
5

σ =0.228 %

Compute Coefficient of Variation (CV):

0.228
CV = × 100
9.00

CV =2.53 %

Since CV = 2.53% < 10%, the mixture is considered uniform.

 851

Problem 22
Samples from a blended batch of animal feed supplement show mineral concentrations of 6.5%,
7.0%, 6.8%, 7.2%, and 6.9%. Calculate the mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation
(CV). Determine if the mixture is considered uniform if CV < 10%.

Given:
x 1=6.5 %

x 2=7.0 %

x 3=6.8 %

x 4 =7.2%

x 5=6.9 %

Uniformity criterion: CV < 10%

Required:
Mean, ( x )
Standard deviation, ( σ )
Coefficient of variation, (CV )
Uniformity condition

Solution:
Formula Used:

√
Σχ ( )2 σ
χ= , σ = Σ x− χ , CV = × 100
n n χ
Compute Mean (χ):
(6.5+7.0+6.8+ 7.2+ 6.9)
χ=
5

χ =6.88 %

Compute Standard Deviation (σ):

 852

σ=
√ ( 6.5−6.88 )2 + ( 7.0−6.88 )2 + ( 6.8−6.88 )2+ ( 7.2−6.88 )2 + ( 6.9−6.88 )2
5

σ =0.2317 %

Compute Coefficient of Variation (CV):

0.2317
CV = × 100
6.88

CV =3.37 %

Since CV = 3.37% < 10%, the mixture is considered uniform.

 853

Problem 23
You have a 200-L ribbon blender used to mix an abrasive powder with a liquid binder. A tracer
test shows the coefficient of variation (CV) of tracer concentration follows an exponential decay
with time:CV (t)=CV 0 e−kt . At t=0 (just after charging) CV 0=1.00(i.e., 100% relative). From a
short experiment you determined the decay constant k =0.020 s−1 .The blender rotates at 60 rpm.
Determine:
(a) The mixing time t (in seconds and minutes) required to reach a target uniformity of
CV target=0.05(5%).
(b) The corresponding number of revolutions (N) of the blender during that mixing time.

Given:
CV 0=1.00(100% = 1.00 in fraction form)
−1
k =0.020 s

CV target=0.05

Speed = 60 rpm

Required:
t (s and min)
Number of revolutions N

Formula(s)
Exponential decay of CV:
−kt 1 CV 0
CV (t)=CV 0 e ⇒ t= ln ⁡( )
k CV target

Number of revolutions:
t (min) t ( s)
N= ( rpm ) × =rpm×
1 60
 854

Solution:
Compute t
1 1.00
t= ln ⁡( )=50 s × ln ⁡(20)
0.020 0.05

Compute ln ⁡(20):
ln ⁡(20)≈ 2.995732 .
t=50 ×2.995732=149.7866 s

Round sensibly: t ≈ 150.0 s.

Convert to minutes:
150.0
t min = =2.50 min
60

Number of revolutions
150.0 s
N=60 rpmk × =60 ×2.5=150 revs
60

Mixing time required: t ≈ 2.5 min

Number of revolutions: N ≈ 150 revolutions
This shows that with the given decay constant, about 2½ minutes (150 revs at 60 rpm) are
needed to reach 5% CV. In practice you’d confirm with samples because k can change with load,
fill level, and ingredient properties.
 855

Problem 24
In a powder mixer, 5 samples each containing 100 g of mixture are taken. The mean composition
of an active ingredient is 15%, and the standard deviation among samples is 1.5%.

Required:
Determine the coefficient of variation (CV) and assess the degree of mixing uniformity.

Solution:

CV = (Standard deviation / Mean) × 100

CV = (1.5 / 15) × 100 = 10%

A CV less than 10% indicates good mixing uniformity. Therefore, the mixer provides
satisfactory homogeneity.
 856

Problem 25
A powdered vitamin premix is sampled from four points in a batch mixer. Nutrient percentages
measured are 12.0%, 11.2%, 12.4%, and 11.8%. Determine coefficient of variation (CV).
Assume uniform if CV < 8%.

Given:
Sample values = 12.0%, 11.2%, 12.4%, 11.8%

Required:
Mean
Standard deviation
CV (%)
Uniformity assessment

Solution:
Mean = (12.0 + 11.2 + 12.4 + 11.8)/4
X= 11.85%
Variance components:
(12.0 – 11.85) ² = 0.0225
(11.2 – 11.85) ² = 0.4225
(12.4 – 11.85) ² = 0.3025
(11.8 – 11.85) ² = 0.0025
Sum = 0.75
= (0.75/4)
= 0.433%
CV = (0.433 / 11.85) ×100
= 3.65%
Uniform mixture (CV < 8%).
 857

Problem 26
A liquid blend is mixed while heated using 2450 MHz radiation. Samples yield 5.5%, 5.9%,
6.2%, and 5.6%. Compute CV.

Given:

Sample concentrations = 5.5%, 5.9%, 6.2%, 5.6%

Frequency = 2450 MHz

Required:

CV

Solution:

Mean = (5.5 + 5.9 + 6.2 + 5.6)/4 = 5.8%

Variance:

(5.5 – 5.8) ² = 0.09

(5.9 – 5.8) ² = 0.01

(6.2 – 5.8) ² = 0.16

(5.6 – 5.8) ² = 0.04

Sum = 0.30

= (0.30 / 4)

= 0.274%

CV = (0.274 / 5.8) ×100

= 4.72%
 858

Problem 27

A powdered vitamin premix is being evaluated for mixing uniformity. Five samples are collected
from different regions of the mixer, and the nutrient concentrations (%) are: 7.8, 8.1, 7.6, 8.0,
7.9. Determine the mean concentration, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation (CV).
Based on the specification that a mixture is uniform if CV < 8%, decide whether the mixture
meets the required uniformity.

Given:
Five samples from a powdered vitamin premix show concentrations (%):
7.8, 8.1, 7.6, 8.0, 7.9

Required:
Mean
Standard deviation
Coefficient of Variation (CV)
Determine if mixing is acceptable if CV < 8%.

Solution:
Mean:

Standard deviation:

Coefficient of Variation:
CV=σ/xˉ×100 =7.880.184×100=2.33%
 859

Problem 28
A protein supplement batch is tested for uniformity. Four samples show nutrient concentrations
of: 22.0%, 21.5%, 22.3%, and 21.9%.

Given:
Protein powder batch samples (%) = 22.0, 21.5, 22.3, 21.9
Specification: mixture is uniform if CV < 5%.

Required:
Calculate mean, standard deviation, CV

Solution:
Mean
x=(22.0+21.5+22.3+21.9/4) =22%
Standard deviation:
σ = sqrt( [Σ(x - 𝜒)²] / n )
 860

Problem 29
Two liquid salt solutions, C and D, are mixed together. Solution C has a concentration of 15 g/L
and a volume of 40 L, while solution D has a concentration of 8 g/L and a volume of 60 L.
After thorough mixing, determine the final solute concentration of the combined solution.

Given:
LIQUID A LIQUID B

VOLUME A = 40 L VOLUME B = 60 L

CONCENTARTION A = CONCENTARTION B =
15 g/L 8 g/L

Required:
Calculate the final concentration of the solution.

Solution:

CA V A+ CBV B
FINAL CONCENTRATION =
V A +V B

( 15 ) ( 40 ) +(8)(60)
FINAL CONCENTRATION =
40+60

FINAL CONCENTRATION = 10.8 g/L

 861

Problem 30
In a university chemistry lab, a researcher needs to prepare 50 L of a 12 g/L salt solution by
mixing Solution A (20 g/L) and Solution B (5 g/L). Determine the required volume of each
solution.

Given:
CONCENTRATION A: 20 g/L
CONCENTRATION B: 5 g/L
FINAL CONCENTRATION: 12 g/L
TOTAL VOLUME: 50 Liter

Required:
Find the volumes of A and B.

Solution:
C A V A + C B (60−V A )
FINAL CONCENTRATION =
V A +V B

(20)(V A )+5(50−V A )
12 =
50

(600) = (20)(V A )+250−5 V A

600 - 250 = 15 V A

350
VA = =23.33 L
15

V B =50−23.33=26.67 L

V A = 23.33 , V B= 26.67 L
862
 863

Problem 31

A seed coating operation mixes corn seeds with three different coating components: fungicide, insecticide, and n

Given:
Sample size: 20 samples of 100 seeds each
Fungicide CV: 12%
Insecticide CV: 15%
Nutrient powder CV: 8%
Industry standard: CV 10%

Required:
Overall mixing index
Whether mixture meets industry standard

Solution:
Calculate weighted average CVLet:

CV fung +CV insect +CV nutrient 12+15+8 35

CV avg= = = =11.67 %
3 3 3

Calculate mixing index

CV max 15
M= = =1.285
CV ave 11.67

Evaluate against standard

Industry standard requires CV 10%
Average CV = 11.67% > 10%

Therefore, mixture does NOT meet industry standard

 864

Final Answer:
M = 1.29
Does NOT meet the standard
 865

Problem 32
A vertical mixer blends soybean meal (45% protein), corn grain (8% protein), and wheat bran
(15% protein) to achieve a target protein content of 22%. After mixing, 15 samples show protein
contents ranging from 19.5% to 24.5%. Calculate the Lacey mixing index and determine if
additional mixing time is needed for a target index of 0.95.

Given:
Target protein: 22%
Sample range: 19.5% to 24.5%
Number of samples: 15
Standard deviation of protein: 1.2%
Target Lacey index: 0.95

Required:
Lacey mixing index
Whether additional mixing is needed

Solution:
Calculate variance terms
Observed variance:
S2 = (1.2)2 = 1.44
Random mixture variance (theoretical):
p ( 1− p ) 0.22(1−0.22)
σ 2R = = =0.003432
n 50

Completely segregated variance:

2
σ R = p (1 p) = 0.22 × 0.78 = 0.1716

Calculate Lacey mixing index

 866

Since M is negative, the mixture is worse than random mixing

Target index = 0.95, current index = -7.54

Therefore, significant additional mixing is needed

Mixing Time and Power

Problem 1
 867

A 3-bladed turbine (power number Np = 1.10) of diameter D = 0.25 m rotates at 180 rpm in
water (ρ = 1000 kg·m⁻³). Calculate the power required (W). Use P=N p ρ N 3 D5where N is in
rev·s⁻¹.

Given:
Np = 1.10;
D = 0.25 m;
N = 180 rpm;
ρ = 1000 kg/m³.

Required:
Power P (W).

Solutions:
Convert speed: N = 180 / 60 = 3.000 rev/s.
Compute P=1.10 × 1000× 3.0003 × 0.255.
Stepwise: 3³ = 27.0; 0.25⁵ = 0.25×0.25×0.25×0.25×0.25 = 0.0009765625.
So P=1.10 × 1000× 27 ×0.0009765625=29.00 W ( 29.00 W).
 868

Problem 2
A paddle mixer follows the empirical relation t m=k /N , where N is in rev/s. For a given
formulation k = 48. If an operator sets the mixer at 480 rpm, estimate the mixing time in seconds
and minutes.

Given:
k = 48 (dimensionless);
N = 480 rpm.

Required:
tm in seconds and minutes.

Solutions:
Convert N: 480 rpm / 60 = 8.000 rev/s.
k
t m=
N

48
t m=
8

t m=6.00s.
Convert to minutes: 6.00 s = 0.100 min.
 869

Problem 3
In a high-speed mixing process, 200 kg of materials are mixed in a 10 L tank. The mixer operates
at a power of 2 kW. If the mixing time required to achieve the desired uniformity is 15 minutes,
calculate the energy consumed during the mixing process.

Required:
Energy consumed during the mixing process.

Solution:
The energy consumed during the mixing process can be calculated using the formula:

Energy=Power ×Time

Where:
Power is the input power (in kilowatts, kW).
Time is the mixing time (in seconds).
Convert the mixing time from minutes to seconds

Time = 15minute s× 60seconds/minute = 900seconds

Calculate the energy consumed

Energy = 2kW × 900s = 1800kJ
 870

Problem 4
A liquid-solid mixing process requires 50 kJ of energy to mix 10 kg of material. If the material is
mixed for 30 minutes, calculate the required power input.

Required:
Power input.

Solution:
The power input is calculated using the formula:

Energy
Power=
Time

Where:
Energy is the total energy required (in kilojoules, kJ).
Time is the duration of the mixing process (in seconds).

Convert time from minutes to seconds

Time = 30minutes × 60seconds/minute = 1800seconds

Calculate the power input

50 kj
Power= =0.0378 kw
1800 s
 871

Problem 5
A 0.5 m³ mixer with a 0.4 m diameter impeller operates at 120 rpm. The power number (Np) is
0.5 and the fluid density is 950 kg/m³. Calculate the power required for mixing.

Given:
Np = 0.5
ρ = 950 kg/m³
N = 120 rpm = 2 rps
D = 0.4 m

Required:
Power (P).

Solution:
P = NpρN³D⁵
P = 0.5(950)(2)³(0.4)⁵
P = 38.9 W
 872

Problem 6
In a liquid feed mixer, the time for achieving uniformity is inversely proportional to impeller
speed (t ∝ 1/N). If mixing at 200 rpm takes 10 minutes, estimate the time required at 300 rpm.

Given:
N1 = 200 rpm
N2 = 300 rpm
t1 = 10 min

Required:
t2.

Solution:
t1/t2 = N2/N1
10/t2 = 1.5
t2 = 6.67 min
 873

Problem 7
An impeller with diameter 0.25 m operates at 3 rps in a fluid of density 1000 kg/m³. Power
number (Np) = 5.

Required:
Find the power consumption (P)

Solution:

P = Np × ρ × N³ × D⁵
P = 5 × 1000 × 3³ × 0.25⁵
P = 131.84 W

Therefore, power consumption = 131.84 W.

Explanation: Power increases exponentially with impeller speed and diameter.
 874

Problem 8

A propeller mixer with D = 0.3 m rotates at 200 rpm. ρ = 900 kg/m³, μ = 0.002 Pa·s, Np = 3.

Required:
Find the power (P).

Solution:
N = 200/60 = 3.33 rps
P = 3 × 900 × (3.33)³ × (0.3)⁵ = 243.0 W

Therefore, P = 243.0 W.
Explanation: Power scales with cube of speed and fifth power of diameter.
 875

Problem 9
A lab-scale axial-flow impeller (diameter D=0.20 m) rotates at N=180 rpm . The power number
of the impeller is N ₚ =1.8. The tank contains 0.100 m³ of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³). Compute (a)
the mechanical power input Pand (b) the power density P/V (W·m⁻³).

Given:
D=0.20 m N=180 rpm=180/60=3.0 rev/ s N ₚ =1.8

ρ = 1000 kg·m⁻³
Tank volume V =0.100 m3
Use P=N ₚ ρ N 3 D5.

Required:
(a) P(W) (b) P/V (W·m⁻³)

Solution:
Compute powers:
3 3 5 5 3 5
N =3.0 =27.0 D =0.20 =0.00032 P=N ₚ ρ N D =1.8 ×1000 ×27.0 × 0.00032

Calculate inside: 1.8 ×27.0=48.6 . 48.6 × 0.00032=0.015552 . Multiply by 1000 P=15.552 W

.

Power density:
P 15.552 −3
= =155.52 W −m .
V 0.100

Comment: Small lab mixers give small absolute power but moderate power density; industrial
mixers use much larger D and N .
 876

Problem 10

Using the same impeller and conditions as Problem 1 ( N=3.0rev / s), estimate (a) the mixing
time assuming it takes about 20 impeller revolutions to reach acceptable homogeneity, and (b)
the energy consumed during mixing of one batch (J) and specific energy per kg if the batch mass
is 100 kg.

Given:
Impeller speed N=3.0rev / s
Assume required revolutions for mixing ¿ 20rev
Power P=15.552 W (from Problem 9)
Batch mass m=100 kg

Required:
(a) Mixing time t m(s)
(b) Energy E=Pt m(J) and specific energy E /m (J·kg⁻¹)

Solution:
Mixing time (time to complete 20 revolutions):
revolutions 20
t m= = ≈ 6.67 s (20 revolutions).
N 3.0

Energy consumed:
E=Pt m=15.552 × 6.667=103.68 J .

Specific energy:
E 103.68 −1
= =1.0368 J−kg .
m 100

Note: The assumed 20 revolutions is an engineering rule-of-thumb for this type of turbulent
mixing; actual required revolutions depend on geometry, Reynolds number and desired
homogeneity.
 877

Problem 11

Propeller impeller (D = 0.4 m) runs at 180 rpm in fluid = 980 kg/m³. For turbulent conditions Np 1.1. Determin

Given: (Paul et al., 2004)

D = 0.4 m

N = 180 rpm

ρ = 980 kg/m³

Np = 1.1

tank Dtank = 1.2 m

height = 1.2 m

Required:

Determine (a) power required (W) and (b) power per unit volume if tank diameter is 1.2 m and
liquid height equals tank diameter.

Solution:

N = 180 rpm

180
=
60

N = 3.0 rev/s

P = Np·ρ·N³·D⁵

= 1.1 x 980 x 3.03 x 0.4

 878

P = 298.05 W

N3 = 33 = 27

D5 = 0.45 = 0.01024

N3 D5 = 27 (0.01024) = 0.27648

ρ N3 D5 = 980 (0.27648) = 270.9504

P = 1.1 x 270.9504 x

P = 298.05 W

2
π D tan
V= h
4

π
V= (1.2)3
4

V = 1.357 m3

P 298.05
= = 219.64 W/m3
V 1.357
 879

Problem 12

A liquid fertilizer is being mixed in a cylindrical tank using a propeller mixer.

The goal is to estimate the mixing time and power requirement for the operation.

Given: (Geankoplis, 2003)

Tank diameter, Dt =1.2 m
Liquid height, H=1.2 m
Impeller diameter, Di=0.4 m
Impeller speed, N=300rpm=5 rps
Fluid density, ρ=1000 kg/m3
Power number (for propeller), N p=0.4
Mixing time correlation:
2
Dt 1
t m=K ( )
Di N

where K=1.5 for propeller mixers.

Required:
Determine the mixing time (tₘ).
Calculate the power requirement (P) in watts.

Solution:
2 2
Dt 1 1.2 1
t m=K ( ) t m=1.5( ) =1.5(9)(0.2)
Di N 0.4 5

t m=2.7 seconds

3 5
P=N p ρ N Di P=0.4 (1000)¿
 880

Problem 13

A molasses-water mixture is being stirred in a cylindrical tank using a propeller mixer.

The process engineer wants the mixture to be fully blended in 5 seconds. Find the required
impeller speed to achieve this mixing time.v

Given: (McCabe, 2005)

Tank diameter, Dt =1.0 m
Impeller diameter, Di=0.33 m
Fluid density, ρ=1200 kg/m3
Power number, N p=0.5
Target mixing time, t m=5 s
Mixing time correlation:
2
Dt 1
t m=K ( )
Di N

where K=1.5 for propeller mixers.

Required:
Determine the impeller speed (N) in revolutions per second (rps) and revolutions per minute
(rpm).
Calculate the power requirement (P) using the obtained impeller speed.

Solution:
2
Dt 1
t m=K ( )
Di N

2
Dt 1.0
2
K( ) 1.5( )
Di 0.33 1.5(9.18)
N= N= =
tm 5 5

N=2.75× 60=165 rpm

3 5
P=N p ρ N Di P=0.5(1200)¿
 881

Problem 14

A 1.0 m diameter tank with a 0.33 m diameter turbine impeller is used to mix water (ρ = 1000
kg/m³, μ = 1×10⁻³ Pa·s) at an impeller speed of 300 rpm. Determine the power consumption
using the power number correlation.
(Adapted from Nagata, 1975).

Given:
D = 0.33 m,
N = 300 rpm = 5 s⁻¹,
ρ = 1000 kg/m³,
μ = 1×10⁻³ Pa·s,
Np = 5.0

Required:
Power consumption, P

Solution:
P = Np ρ N³ D⁵
= 5 × 1000 × (5³) × (0.33⁵)
= 5 × 1000 × 125 × 0.0039
= 2437.5 W
Power required = 2.44 kW
 882

Problem 15
For a mechanically agitated vessel with an impeller diameter D = 0.25 m and tank diameter T =
0.75 m, the impeller speed is 4 s⁻¹. If the mixing time correlation is t_m = 5(D/N³T²)^0.5,
calculate the mixing time.
(Based on Paul et al., 2004).

Given:
D = 0.25 m, T = 0.75 m, N = 4 s⁻¹

Required:
Mixing time, t_m

Solution:
tm = 5(D/(N³T²))0.5
tm = 5(0.25/(4³×0.75²))0.5
tm = 5(0.25/(64×0.5625))0.5
Mixing time = 1.18 s
 883

Problem 16

Five samples of a powder mixture with determined concentrations (% of an active ingredient)

were taken: 8, 7.2, 8.25, 8.1, and 8.4. Calculate the CV, or coefficient of variation.

Given:
MEASURED CONCENTRATIONS: 8

7.2

8.25

8.1

8.4

Required:
Find the coefficient of variation.

Solution:

Summation of samples
MEAN =
no . of samples
8+7.2+8.25+8.1+ 8.4
MEAN =
5
MEAN = 7.99

√
❑

S= ∑
❑
❑(x i−mean)2
n−1

S=
√ (0.01)2+(−0.79)2 +(0.26)2 +(0.11)2 +(0.41)2
5−1

S = 0.4669
 884

S
CV =
mean
0.4669
CV = ×100
7.99
CV = 5.84%
Problem 17
The coefficient variation CV = 10% in a batch. How many more minutes are needed to obtain a
CV of 2.5% if every further minute of mixing reduces CV by 0.62%?

Given:
INITIAL COEFFICIENT VARIATION: 10%
FINAL COEFFICIENT VARIATION: 2.5%
RATE: 0.62% / min

Required:
Find the time increased.

Solution:
CV i −CV f
t=
rate

10−2.5
t=
0.62

t = 12.09 ≈ 12.1 minutes

 885

Problem 18

A liquid mixing system operates with an impeller diameter of 0.25 m inside a 1.0 m tank. The
impeller rotates at 200 rpm, and the fluid has a viscosity of 0.35 Pa·s and density of 1100 kg/m³.
The power number is 5.2. Determine the power draw and corresponding mixing time.

Given:

D = 0.25 m

T = 1.0 m

N = 200 rpm

μ = 0.35 Pa·s

ρ = 1100 kg/m³

Np = 5.2

Required:

Power draw (kW)

Mixing time estimate

Solution:

N=200/60=3.33 rps
3 5
P=N p (ρ N D )≈1.63 kW

2
D
t m∝ ⇒ t m ≈ 42 s
P
 886

Problem 19

A 2450 MHz microwave-assisted mixer (Basa, 2016) requires 15 kJ of energy to complete

mixing. The microwave system provides 850 W of power. Determine the mixing time and check
if it meets a 30-second maximum.

Given:
Required energy = 15 kJ
Microwave power = 850 W
Frequency = 2450 MHz

Required:
Mixing time
Whether the time is 30 s

Solution:
E 15000
t= = =17.65 s
P 850

17.65 s <30 s ⇒ Pass

 887

Problem 20

A stirred tank with a diameter (T) of 1.5m is used to mix a low-viscosity apple puree
( ρ=1,050 kg/m3). A flat-blade turbine impeller with a diameter (D) of 0.5 m is operated at a
speed (N) of 100 rpm. Calculate the Power (P in kW) drawn by the impeller, given that the
Power Number (NP) for this flow regime is 5.5 and neglecting power losses.

Given
Fluid density ( ρ ): 1,050 kg/m3
Impeller diameter (D): 0.5 m
Impeller speed (N): 100 rpm
Power Number (NP): 5.5

Required
Power (P) in kW

Solution
1min
N=100 rpm ⋅
60 s

N=1.6667 rev/ s

P
NP =
pN 3 D 5
P = NP . ρ . N3 . D5
3
P=5.5 ⋅(1,050 kg /m )⋅ ¿

P=5.5 ⋅1,050 ⋅ ( 4.6296 ) ⋅ ( 0.03125 )

2 3
P=835.45 kg ⋅m ¿ s

P=835.45W
 888

Problem 21

For a specific mixing operation involving a non-Newtonian fluid in a geometrically similar tank
and impeller, the relationship between the Dimensionless Mixing Time and the Reynolds
1
Number (NRe) is θ ⋅ N 3 =150 in the turbulent regime. If the Reynolds number is calculated to be
t ℜ

NRe = 10,000, calculate the required Mixing Time (t m) in seconds, given the impeller speed (N) is
5 rev/s.

Given
1
Relationship: θ ⋅ N 3 =150
t ℜ

Reynolds Number (NRe): 10,000

Impeller Speed (N): 5 rev/s
Dimensionless Mixing Time: θt = N. tm

Required
● Mixing Time (tm) in seconds

Solution

150
θt = 1
N 3ℜ

150
θt =
¿¿

150
θt =
21.544

θt =6.962

θt
tm =
N
6.962
t m=
5 rev /s
 889

t m=1.392 s

Problem 21

A stirred tank uses a Rushton turbine impeller (power number N p=5.5) to mix a liquid of density
3
ρ=1000 kg/m . The impeller has a diameter D=0.25 m and rotates at a speed N=4 revs .
Calculate the power required (P) to operate the mixer. Assume turbulent flow conditions (Re >
10,000).

Given:
N p=5.5

kg
ρ=1000 3
m

D=0.25 m

N=4 revs

Required:
Power Required, (P)

Solution:
Formula Used:
3 5
P=N p × ρ× N × D

P=(5.5)(1000)¿

P=(5.5)(1000)(0.0625)

P=343.75 W

The power required to operate the mixer at the given conditions is 343.75 watts, which is typical
for small scale mixing under turbulent flow.
890
 891

Problem 22
A mixing tank requires a power input of 500 W to effectively mix a liquid with a density of 950
kg/m³. The impeller used has a diameter of 0.30 m, and its power number (Np) is 4.8.
Assuming turbulent flow, calculate the impeller speed (N) required in revolutions per second
(rev/s).

Given:

N p=4.8

kg
ρ=950 3
m

D=0.30 m

P=500 W

Required:

Impeller speed, N (rev / s)

Solution:

Formula Used:

3 5
P=N p × ρ× N × D

N= 3
√ P
Np×ρ×D 5
=3
√ 500
( 4.8 ) ( 950 ) ( 0.30 )
5

N=
√
3 500
11.106

N=3.56 rev /s

The impeller should rotate at approximately 3.56 revolutions per second to achieve the required
power input of 500 W under the given conditions.
 892

Problem 23
Given:
Six-blade Rushton turbine in water: ρ = 1000 kg·m⁻³, impeller diameter D = 0.20 m, speed N =
6.0 s⁻¹, Po = 5.0 (fully turbulent).

Required:

Compute shaft power P.

Solution:

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 𝜌 𝑁3 𝐷5

𝑃 = 5.0 × 1000 × 6.03 × 0.205

P = 5 × 1000 × 216 × 3.2 × 10⁻³

P = 3.46 𝑘𝑊

Reference:

Oldshue, J. Y. (1983). Fluid Mixing Technology. McGraw-Hill.

 893

Problem 24
Given:

Empirical correlation: t_m = k (D/V) N^(-1) with k 5 for turbulent stirred tanks. Tank diameter T = 1.0 m, liquid

Required:

Estimate mixing time t_m.

Solution:

𝑉 ( 𝜋 𝑇_2 / 4) × 𝑇 = 𝜋/4 × 1.0_3 = 0.785 𝑚_3

𝐷 = 1/3 𝐷/𝑉 = (0.333)/(0.785) = 0.424 𝑚⁻²

𝑡_𝑚 = 𝑘 (𝐷/𝑉) 𝑁 ^(1) = 5 × 0.424 × (1/3.0) = 0.707 𝑠

Reference:

Paul, E. L., Atiemo-Obeng, V. A., & Kresta, S. M. (2004). Handbook of Industrial Mixing.
Wiley.
 894

Problem 25
A paddle mixer runs at 25 rpm. The empirical constant is k = 40. Estimate mixing time using t =
k/N.

Given:
Speed = 25 rpm
k = 40

Required:
Mixing time

Solution:
t = 40 / 25
Mixing Time = 1.6 minutes
 895

Problem 26
A mixture is heated using 2450 MHz and stirred with a 0.25 m impeller at 180 rpm. Density =
950 kg/m³, Np = 1.1. Compute power.

Given:
Frequency = 2450 MHz
D = 0.25 m
Speed = 180 rpm = 3 rps
ρ = 950 kg/m³
Np = 1.1

Required:
1. Power (W)

Solution:
P = Np ρ N³ D⁵
= 1.1 × 950 × 3³ × 0.25⁵
= 1.1 × 950 × 27 × 0.0009766
Power = 27.5 W
 896

Problem 27

You must mix 2.0 m³ ( 2,000 L) of syrup so that a target specific mixing energy of 200 J/L (sufficient for dissolu

3
. Use an estimated power number NP = 1.20
for this impeller in the operating regime.

Given: Required:
Volume V = 2.0 m3 (2000 L) P (W, kW)
Required energy density e = 200 J/L = Mixing time t = Etotal/P where Etotal = e×V.
200,000 J/m3
D = 0.40 m
N = 120 rpm = 120/60 = 2.0 rev/s
ρ = 1,000 kg/m3
Power number NP = 1.20

Solution:

3
N=2.0 rev/ s ⇒ N =8.0

5 5 5
D =0. 40 =0.01024 m

3 5
P=N P ρ N D =1.20× 1,000 ×8.0 ×0.01024=98.304 W ∨0.0983 kW

3 3
Etotal =e ×V =200,000 J /m × 2.0 m =400,000 J

Etotal 400,000
t= = =4,068.6 s∨1.13 h
P 98.304
 897

Problem 28

Design check: a Rushton turbine (radial-flow disc turbine) in a stirred tank has diameter D =
0.50 m and is run at N = 180 rpm The fluid is approximately water: ρ = 1000 kg/m3, dynamic
viscosity μ = 1.0×10 3 Pa⋅s. Use a typical turbulent power number for a Rushton turbine NP
5.0. Tank working volume is V = 1.5m
3
.

Given: Required:
D = 0.50 m P (W,kW)
N = 180 rpm τ (N ∙ m)
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 Re and flow regime
μ = 1.0×10 3 Pa⋅s P/V and P/( ρV ¿(W /kg)
NP 5.0
V = 1.5 m3

Solution:

3
N=3.0rev / s ⇒ N =27.0
5 5 5
D =0.50 =0.03125 m

3 5
P=N P ρ N D =5.0× 1,000 ×27.0 ×0.03125=4,218.75 W ∨4.218 kW

w=2 πN=2 π × 3.0=18.85 rad /s

P 4,218.75
τ= = =223.8 N ∙ m
w 18.85

2
ρ N D2 1000 × 3.0× ( 0.50 )
ℜ= = −3
=7.5 ×105
μ 1.0 ×10

P/V = 4,218.75 W/1.5 m3 2,812.5W/m 3.

 898

Mass of fluid V = 1000×1.5 = 1500kg

P/(V) = 4218.75/1500 2.8125W/kg.
 899

Problem 29
A liquid mixer uses an impeller with a diameter of 0.25 m operating at 90 rpm. The fluid being
mixed has a density of 950 kg/m³, and the impeller’s power number is 1.0.

Given:
D = 0.25 m
N = 90 rpm
ρ = 950 kg/m³.
Np = 1.0

Required:
Calculate the power requirement.

Solution:
Convert speed:
N=90/60=1.5rev/s
Power equation:
P=NpρN3D5
P=1.0(950)(1.53)(0.255)
P=950(3.375)(0.0009766)=3.12W
 900

Problem 30
A stirred tank uses a Rushton turbine impeller to mix a liquid of density 950 kg/m³. The impeller
has a diameter of 0.4 m and rotates at a speed of 300 [Link] turbulent flow conditions
(Re > 10,000) and a power number (Np) of 5.0, calculate the power required (P) to operate the
mixer.

Given:

N p=5.0

kg
ρ=950 3
m

D=0.4 m

N=300rpm

Required:

Power Required, (P)

Solution:

Formula Used:

3 5
P=N p × ρ× N × D

P=(5.0)(950)¿

P=(5.5)(950)(1.28)

P=6080W
 901

Problem 31
A mixing tank requires a power input of 750 W to effectively mix a liquid with a density of 1000
kg/m³. The impeller used has a diameter of 0.25 m, and its power number (Np) is 5.2. Assuming
turbulent flow, calculate the impeller speed (N) required in revolutions per second (rev/s).

Given:
kg
N p=¿5.2 ρ=1000 3
m
D=0.25 m

P=750 W

Required:
Impeller speed, N (rev / s)

Solution:

Formula Used:
3 5
P=N p × ρ× N × D

N= 3
√ P
Np×ρ×D 5
=3
√ 750
(5.2 )( 1000 ) ( 0.25 )
5

N=
√
3 750
5.078
=5.28 rev /s
 902

Problem 32
A stirrer with an impeller diameter of 0.25 m operates at a speed of 150 rpm while mixing a fruit
juice solution with a density of 1050 kg/m³. The power number of the impeller is Np = 1.4.
Calculate the power input (P, in watts) required to drive the mixer.

Given:
D = 0.25 m
N = 150 rpm / 60 = 2.5 rev/s
kg
ρ=1050 3
m

Np = 1.4

Required:
Power (P)

Solution:
3 5
P=N p ρ N D

kg 3 5
P= (1.4 ) (1050 3
)(2.5 rev /s) (0.25)
m

P=22.43 W
 903

Problem 33
A propeller-type mixer with an impeller diameter of 0.30 m is used to mix a sugar syrup (ρ =
1120 kg/m³). The impeller rotates at 120 rpm, and the power number of the impeller is N p = 1.5.
Calculate the mechanical power P in watts required to drive the mixer.

Given:
D = 0.30 m
N = 120 rpm / 60 = 2 rev/s
kg
ρ=1120 3
m

Np = 1.5

Required:
Power (P)

Solution:

3 5
P=N p ρ N D

kg 3 5
P= (1.5 ) (1120 3
)(2 rev/ s) (0.30)
m

P=32.66 W
 904

Mixing Scale-up and Flow Regimes

Problem 1
A pilot mixer uses an impeller of diameter D1=0.20 m running at N 1=120 rpm . You
want to scale up geometrically to an impeller diameter D2=0.60 m and keep the tip speed
constant. For both mixers the power number is N P=2.0 and fluid density ρ=1000 kg/m 3.

Find:

1. The required production speed N 2in rpm to keep tip speed constant.

2. The shaft power P1and P2(W) using P=N P ρ N 3 D5.

3. The factor by which power changes ( P2 / P1).

Given:
D1=0.20 m , N 1=120 rpm

D2=0.60 m
3
N P=2.0 , ρ=1000 kg/m

Formulas:

Tip speed: u tip=πDN (with N in rev/s).

Power: P=N P ρ N 3 D5.

Convert rpm → rev/s: N (rev/s)=rpm/60 .

Solution:

1. Convert N 1to rev/s:

N 1=120 /60=2.0 rev/s .

Compute pilot tip speed:

u tip=π D1 N 1=π (0.20)(2.0)=1.2566 m/s .

To keep tip speed constant,

 905

u tip 1.2566
N 2= = ≈ 0.6667 rev/s ,
π D 2 π (0.60)

So, in rpm:
N 2=0.6667× 60=40 rpm .

2. Compute powers. First compute D51and D52:

5 5 5 5
D1=0.20 =0.00032 , D2=0.60 =0.07776 .

Compute N 31=23 =8. Compute N 32=0.66673 ≈ 0.2963.

Now,
3 5
P1=N P ρ N 1 D 1=2.0 ×1000 ×8 × 0.00032=5.12 W .
P2=2.0 ×1000 × 0.2963 ×0.07776 ≈ 46.09 W .

3. Power change factor:

P 2 46.09
≈ ≈ 9.0 .
P 1 5.12

Answers:
N 2 ≈ 40 rpm.

P1 ≈5.12 W , P2 ≈ 46.1 W .

Power increases by a factor of about 9× when scaling up at constant tip speed

 906

Problem 2
A small lab impeller has diameter D1=0.15 m and runs at N 1=180 rpm . Fluid properties:
3
ρ=1000 kg/m , μ=0.001 Pa·s
The stirred-tank Reynolds number is defined as
2
ρN D
ℜ=
μ
(where N is in rev/s).
1. Compute ℜ1 and state whether the flow is laminar/transitional/turbulent (use conventional
rough thresholds: laminar Re < 10, turbulent Re > 10,000).

2. If you geometrically scale up the impeller to D2=0.60 m , what speed N 2(rev/s and rpm)
is needed to keep the same Re (i.e., keep the same flow regime)?
Given:
D1=0.15 m , N 1=180 rpm

D2=0.60 m
3
ρ=1000 kg/m , μ=0.001 Pa·s
Formulas:
2
ρN D
ℜ= .
μ
2
D1
Keep ℜ2=ℜ1→ N 2=N 1 2 .
D2

Solution:

1. Convert N 1to rev/s:

N 1=180 /60=3.0 rev/s .Compute ℜ1 :

ℜ1 =1000× 3.0 ׿ ¿

Classification: ℜ1 =67,500→ turbulent (≫10,000).

2. To keep the same Re:

2 2
D1 0.15 0.0225
N 2=N 1 2
=3.0 × 2
=3.0 × =3.0 × 0.0625=0.1875 rev/s .Convert to rpm:
D2 0.60 0.36
 907

N 2=0.1875× 60=11.25 rpm .

Check: with N 2=0.1875 rev/s and D2=0.60 the Reynolds number equals ℜ1 by construction.

Answers:
ℜ1 =67,500→ turbulent flow.

To keep the same Re on the larger impeller: N 2 ≈ 0.1875 rev/s=11.25 rpm .

High Shear Mixing

Problem 1 - A small rotor–stator high-shear mixer has rotor diameter D=0.05 m and runs at
3000 rpm. The rotor-to-stator gap is d gap=1.0 mm . The processed fluid has dynamic viscosity
μ=0.01 Pa·s. The mixed volume is V =0.02 m 3.

Estimate: (a) tip speed u tip(m/s), (b) shear rate γ̇ (s⁻¹) approximated by u tip /d gap, (c) shear stress
τ =μ γ̇ (Pa), and (d) approximate power required using P ≈(μ γ̇ 2) V (W). (This last expression
gives an order-of-magnitude estimate of viscous dissipation in a high shear gap.)
Given:
D=0.05 m
Speed = 3000 rpm
d gap=0.001 m

μ=0.01 Pa·s
3
V =0.02 m
Formulas:
rpm
N (rev/s)=
60
u tip=πDN

u tip
γ̇ ≈
d gap

τ =μ γ̇
2
P ≈ μ γ̇ V (order-of-magnitude viscous dissipation)
 908

Solution:
1. Convert speed to rev/s:
N=3000/60=50 rev/s .
2. Tip speed:
u tip=πDN =π ×0.05 ×50=2.5 π ≈ 7.854 m/s .

3. Shear rate:
u tip 7.854 −1
γ̇ ≈ = =7,854 s .
d gap 0.001

4. Shear stress:
τ =μ γ̇ =0.01 ×7,854 ≈78.54 Pa .
5. Approximate power (viscous dissipation):
2
P ≈ μ γ̇ V =0.01× ¿
Compute ¿. Then
P ≈ 0.01× 61,685,000 ×0.02=12,337 W ≈ 12.3 kW .
Answers:
u tip ≈7.85 m/s.
3 −1
γ̇ ≈ 7.85× 10 s .
τ ≈ 78.5 Pa.
4
P ≈ 1.23× 10 W (≈ 12.3 kW — order-of-magnitude estimate).
Problem 3
Calculate the flow regime of an impeller with revolution per second of 3 with a diameter of 0.5
m fluid density of 950 kg/ m3, viscosity = 0.35 Pa·s.

Given:
DIAMETER: D = 0.5 m
REVOLUTION PER TIME: N = 3 rps
DENSITY: ρ = 950 kg/ m 3
VISCOSITY: μ = 0.35 Pa·s

Required:
 909

Determine the flow regime, Reynolds number

Solution:
2
ρN D
Re =
μ

2
(950)(3)(0.5)
Re =
0.35

Re = 2,035.71

Problem 4
The speed of a 0.4 m lab tank is 15 rps. Determine the speed needed to maintain equal power per
volume for a production tank with a diameter of 1.37 meters.
Given:
DIAMETER 1: D1 = 0.4 m
DIAMETER 2 D2 = 1.37 m
SPEED 1: N 2 = 15 rps

Required:
 910

Find the speed for the diameter 1.37 meters in revolution per seconds.

Solution:
D1
N1 = N2 ( )
D2

0.4
N 1 = 15 ( )
1.37

N 1 = 4.38 rps
 911

Problem 5

A lab-scale mixer with a 0.10 m impeller operates at 600 rpm. For scale-up, a 0.50 m impeller
must maintain constant tip speed. Determine the required scaled impeller speed.

Given:

D₁ = 0.10 m

N₁ = 600 rpm

D₂ = 0.50 m

Tip speed scaling:

π D1 N 1=π D2 N 2

Required:

Scaled speed N₂

Solution:

D1 N 1=D2 N 2

0.10(600)=0.50 N 2
N 2=120 rpm
 912

Problem 6

A 2450 MHz microwave-mixing system handles a fluid with density 900 kg/m³ and viscosity
0.25 Pa·s. The impeller has a diameter of 0.30 m and runs at 150 rpm. Determine the Reynolds
number and mixing regime.

Given:

ρ = 900 kg/m³

μ = 0.25 Pa·s

D = 0.30 m

N = 150 rpm

Frequency = 2450 MHz

Required:

Reynolds number

Flow regime

Solution:

N=150 /60=2.5 rps

2
ρN D2 900(2.5)(0.30 )
ℜ= = =810
μ 0.25
Re = 810 → Transitional
 913

Problem 7
A laboratory mixer operates at 300 rpm with an impeller diameter of 0.1 m and produces a
Reynolds number of 20,000. To scale up to a 0.5 m diameter impeller under geometric similarity
and constant Reynolds number, determine the required rotational speed.

Given:

D1 = 0.1 m

D2 = 0.5 m

N1 = 300 rpm

Re constant

Required:

N2.

Solution:

N1D1² = N2D2²

N2 = 300(0.1/0.5)²

N2 = 12 rpm
 914

Problem 8
A 200 L fermenter has a mixing Reynolds number of 5000 at 100 rpm. If the viscosity of the
broth doubles, what speed is required to maintain the same Reynolds number?
Given:

Re constant

μ2 = 2μ1

N1 = 100 rpm

Required:

N2.

Solution:

Re ∝ N/μ

N2/N1 = μ2/μ1

N2 = 200 rpm
 915

Problem 9
In a scale-up experiment, a mixing system with a 100 L capacity operates at 0.5 kW power input.
When scaled to a 500 L system, the power input increases to 2.5 kW. What is the relationship
between the power input and system volume?
Required: Power-to-volume relationship for scale-up.

The power input is proportional to the volume in mixing systems. For scale-up: Power ∝ Volume.
Solution:

Power ∝ Volume

Since the power is proportional to the volume, we can set up the relationship

Power new Volume new 2.5 kW 500 L 500 L

= = 5=5 Power= x 0.5 kW =2.5 kW
Power original Volume original 0.5 kW 100 L 100 L
 916

Problem 10
A small tank uses an impeller of D1 = 0.12 m at N1 = 12 rev/s. For scale-up, new impeller
diameter is D2 = 0.48 m. Using constant tip speed, determine N2.
Given:
• D1 = 0.12 m
• N1 = 12 rev/s
• D2 = 0.48 m
Required:
N2
Solution:
N2 = N1 × (D1/D2)
N2 = 12 × (0.12/0.48)
N2 = 3 rev/s
Answer:
3 rev/s
 917

Problem 11

A fluid (ρ = 900 kg/m³, µ = 0.015 Pa·s) is mixed using an impeller D = 0.3 m at N = 4 rev/s.
Determine Reynolds number and mixing regime.
Given:
• ρ = 900
• µ = 0.015
• D = 0.3 m
• N = 4 rev/s
Required:
Re, regime
Solution:
Re = ρ N D² / µ
Re = 900 × 4 × (0.3²) / 0.015
Re = 900 × 4 × 0.09 / 0.015
Re = 216 / 0.015 = 14,400
Answer:
Re = 14,400 → turbulent flow.
 918

Problem 12
A lab mixer uses a 0.12 m impeller at 8 rev/s. Fluid has density 1000 kg/m³ and viscosity 0.015
Pa·s. Compute Reynolds number.

Given:
D = 0.12 m
N = 8 rev/s
ρ = 1000 kg/m³
µ = 0.015 Pa·s

Required:
1. Reynolds number

Solution:
Re = ρ N D² / µ
= 1000 × 8 × (0.12) ² / 0.015
= 1000 × 8 × 0.0144 / 0.015
= 768 / 0.015
= 51,200

Answer: Re = 51,200 (turbulent)

Problem 13
 919

Scale-up uses constant tip speed. Lab mixer has D1 = 0.15 m at 6 rev/s. Pilot mixer has D2 =
0.45 m. Compute N2.

Given:
Frequency = 2450 MHz
D1 = 0.15 m
N1 = 6 rev/s
D2 = 0.45 m

Required:
1. N2 (rev/s)

Solution:
D1 N1 = D2 N2
0.15 × 6 = 0.45 × N2
N2 = 0.9 / 0.45
= 2 rev/s

Answer: N2 = 2 rev/s
 920

Problem 14
An industrial stirred tank (geometrically similar to a lab tank) is to be scaled up. The lab tank
uses an impeller of diameter Dlab =0.10 mat speed N lab =6.0 s−1and gives a power per unit
volume P/V =150 W-m−3 . You must design a pilot tank of volume V pilot =2.0 m 3 using a
geometrically similar impeller with diameter ratio D/V 1 /3maintained. Find the required shaft
power P pilot assuming the same power per unit volume is maintained.

Given:
−3
P/V lab =150 W-m (maintain)
3
V pilot =2.0 m

Required:
Shaft power for pilot, P pilot (kW)

Solution:
If power per unit volume is kept constant:
P
P pilot = ∣ × V pilot =150 × 2.0=300 W
V lab
Convert to kW:
P pilot =0.300 kW

Final Answer:
P pilot =0.300 kW (300 W)
 921

Problem 15
A stirred tank employs a Rushton turbine with diameter D=0.25 m rotating at N=3.0 s−1. Fluid
properties: ρ = 1000 kg·m⁻³, ν = 1.0×10⁻⁶ m²·s⁻¹. Determine (a) Reynolds number ℜfor the
impeller and (b) state the flow regime (laminar, transitional, or turbulent) using impeller
Reynolds number criteria.
Given:
D=0.25 m N=3.0 s−1ρ = 1000 kg·m⁻³
ν = 1.0×10⁻⁶ m²·s⁻¹
Required:
(a) ℜ(dimensionless)
(b) Flow regime
Solution:
Impeller Reynolds number:
2 2
ρN D N D
ℜ= = (since μ=ρν )
μ ν
Compute:
ℜ=3.0 ׿ ¿
Flow-regime criteria (impeller Re):
 Laminar: ℜ< 10

 Transitional: 10< ℜ<104

 Turbulent: ℜ> 104

Since ℜ=1.875 ×105 >10 4, flow is turbulent.

Final Answer:
(a) ℜ=1.88 ×105
(b) Flow regime: Turbulent

Problem 16
High-viscosity process fluid has ρ = 1150 kg/m³ and µ = 0.05 Pa·s. Impeller diameter is 0.25 m.
If desired Re should exceed 5000 for acceptable mixing, find the minimum shaft speed in rpm
required. Use Re = ρ N D² / µ where N is rev/s.
Given: (Metzner and Otto, 1957)
 922

ρ = 1150 kg/m³
µ = 0.05 Pa·s
D = 0.25 m
target Re = 5000³
Required:
Find the minimum shaft speed in rpm required.
Solution:
D2 = (0.25m)2 = 0.0625 m2
ρD2 = 1,150 x 0.0625 = 71.875
Re x µ = 5,000 x 0.05 = 250
250
N= = 3.48 rev/s
71.875
Nrpm = N x 60
= 3.48 x 60
Nrpm = 208.8 rpm
N ≈ 3.48 rev/s or Nrpm = 208.8 rpm
Minimum shaft speed ≈ 3.48 rev/s (≈ 208.70 rpm) to Reach Re = 5,000
 923

Problem 17
Impeller of diameter 0.15 m rotates at 240 rpm in a fluid with ρ = 1000 kg/m³ and µ = 0.001
Pa·s. Compute Re and classify flow regime (use thresholds: Re < 100: laminar, 100–10,000:
transitional, >10,000 turbulent).
Given: (Foust et al., 1980)
D = 0.15 m
N = 240 rpm
ρ = 1000 kg/m³
µ = 0.001 Pa·s
Required:
Compute Re and classify flow regime.
Solution:
2
ρD
Re =
μ
N = 240 rpm
240
=
60
N = 4.0 rev/s
D2 = (0.15m)2 = 0.0225 m2
2
ρND =1000 x 4.0 x 0.0225
2
ρND =90
2
ρND
Re =
µ
90
Re =
0.001
Re = 90,000
Re = 90,000 > 10,000 Since 90,000 is greater than
 924

Problem 18
In a lab-scale stirred tank (volume V 1=0.10 m 3), you measure that with an impeller speed of
n1=300 rpm and a tank diameter D1=0.4 m , the mixing time (time to reach 95% homogeneity)
is measured as t m 1=120 s. You wish to scale up to a production-scale tank of volume V 2=8.0 m 3.
Assume you keep geometric similarity (so diameter scales as D2=D1 ׿ ) and you choose to
keep the power per unit volume constant (i.e., P/V constant) between scales. Assuming that
mixing time scales inversely with the volumetric power input (i.e., t m ∝ ¿), estimate the mixing
time t m 2in the large tank.
Given: (Cleaver, 2023)
3
 V 1=0.10 m
 n1=300 rpm
 D1=0.4 m
 Measured t m 1=120 s
3
 V 2=8.0 m
 Geometric similarity → D 2=D 1 ׿
 Scaling rule: keep P/V constant
 Assumed mixing-time scaling: t m ∝ ¿
Required:
a) Compute D2.
b) Estimate the mixing time t m 2in the larger tank.
Solution:
1 /3 1/ 3
V2 8.0
D2=0.4 ×( ) =0.4 ×( ) =0.4 ׿¿ D2 ≈ 0.4 × 4.308=1.723 m
V1 0.10
−0.5
P /V 1 t P /V 2
=1 m 2 =( ) =¿
P /V 2 t m 1 P /V 1

So t m 2=t m 1=120 s.
 925

Problem 19

A Newtonian fluid with density ρ=950 kg/m 3and dynamic viscosity μ=0.0045 Pa·s flows
inside a horizontal circular pipe of diameter D=0.05 m at a volumetric flow rate Q=0.0004 m 3 /s
ρUD
. (a) Calculate the mean velocity U . (b) Compute the Reynolds number ℜ= . (c) Based on
μ
the Reynolds number and typical flow-regime thresholds (laminar if ℜ< 2300, transitional 2300–
4000, turbulent if >4000), identify the flow regime. (d) If the flow is turbulent, assume a friction
factor using the Blasius correlation for smooth pipes f =0.316 R e−0.25 . Compute the friction
factor (if applicable).
Given: (Myachin, 2023)
3
 ρ=950 kg/m
 μ=0.0045 Pa·s
 Pipe diameter D=0.05 m

 Volumetric flow rate Q=0.0004 m 3 /s

 Reynolds number thresholds: laminar ℜ< 2300, transitional 2300 – 4000, turbulent
ℜ> 4000

 Blasius correlation (for smooth turbulent pipe, ℜ≈ 4000 – 105): f =0.316 R e−0.25

Required:
(a) U
(b) ℜ
Solution:
2
Q πD 0.0004 ρ U D 950 × 0.2037 ×0.05
U= where A= A=π ¿ ¿U = ≈ 0.2037 m/s ℜ= =
A 4 0.0019635 μ 0.0045
950 ×0.2037 × 0.05 950× 0.010185 9.67575
¿ = = ≈ 2,150
0.0045 0.0045 0.0045
 926

Problem 20
A mixer system is being scaled up from a laboratory model (Subscript 1) to a pilot-scale system
(Subscript 2). The impeller diameter (D1) is 0.1m and the lab speed (N1) is 500 rpm. If the pilot-
scale impeller diameter (D2) is 0.5, calculate the required pilot-scale impeller speed (N2) in rpm
to achieve the same Power per Unit Volume in both systems, assuming both operate in the fully
turbulent regime.

Given
P P
 Scale-up criterion: ( ) =( )
V 1 V 2

D2 0.5 m
 Impeller diameter ratio = =5
D1 0.1 m

 Initial speed (N1): 500 rpm

Required
 Final speed (N2) in rpm

Solution
3 5
P ρN D 3 2
∝ 3
∝ρ N D
V D
3 2 3 2
N 1 D1=N 2 D2
2
3 D1 3
N =N ( )
2 1
D2
2 /3
D1
N 2=N 1 ( )
D2
2 /3
0.1 m
N 2=500 rpm ⋅( )
0.5 m
N 2=500 rpm ⋅¿

N 2=500 rpm ⋅0.3420

N 2=171.0 rpm
N 2=171.0 rpm
 927

Problem 21
In a geometrically similar scale-up of a fruit juice mixer, the impeller size is increased by a factor
of 4. The initial mixing was in the laminar regime N Re <10 . If the initial speed (N1) was 200
rpm, calculate the new speed (N2) required to maintain a constant Reynolds Number (NRe),
thereby ensuring the same flow regime and mixing characteristics.

Given

 Scale-up criterion: N Re , 1=N Re ,2

D2
 Impeller diameter ratio =4
D1

 Initial speed: 200 rpm

2
ρN D
 Reynolds Number formula: N Re=
μ

Required
 Final speed in rpm

Solution
2 2
ρ N 1 D1 ρ N 2 D2
=
μ μ
2 2
N 1 D1=N 2 D 2
2
D1
N 2=N 1 ( )
D2
2
1
N 2=200 rpm ⋅( )
4
N 2=200 rpm ⋅(0.0625)
N 2=12.5 rpm
N 2=12.5 rpm
928
 929

Problem 22
An impeller with a diameter of 0.25 m rotates at 200 rpm in a liquid with density (ρ) =
1200 kg/m³ and viscosity (μ) = 0.015 Pa·s. Calculate the Reynolds number (Re) and determine
the flow regime of the system.

Given:
D=0.25 m
N=200 rpm
3
ρ=1200 kg/m
μ=0.015 Pa·s

Required:
Reynolds number (Re)
Flow regime
Solution:
Formula Used:
rpm
N=
60
2
ρN D
ℜ=
μ
Convert impeller speed to revolutions per second:
200
N=
60
N=3.33rev / s
Substitute into the Reynolds number equation:
(1200 )( 3.33 )( 0.25 )2
ℜ=
0.015
249.75
ℜ=
0.015
ℜ=16,650
Since Re = 16,650 > 10,000, the flow is turbulent, meaning mixing is dominated by convection
rather than viscous diffusion.
 930

Problem 23
An impeller with a diameter of 0.10 m rotates at 100 rpm in a viscous liquid with density
(ρ) = 950 kg/m³ and viscosity (μ) = 0.20 Pa·s. Calculate the Reynolds number (Re) and
determine the flow regime of the system.

Given:
D=0.10 m
N=100 rpm
3
ρ=950 kg /m
μ=0.20 Pa·s

Required:
Reynolds number (Re)
Flow regime
Solution:
Formula Used:
rpm
N=
60
2
ρN D
ℜ=
μ
Convert impeller speed to revolutions per second:
100
N=
60
N=1.67 rev /s
Substitute into the Reynolds number equation:
( 950 ) ( 1.67 ) ( 0.10 )2
ℜ=
0.20
15.865
ℜ=
0.20
ℜ=79.33
Since Re = 79.33 < 10,000, the flow is laminar, meaning mixing is dominated by viscous
diffusion rather than convection.
 931

Problem 24
You have a lab stirred tank with an impeller diameter D1 = 0.20 m
running at N1 = 300 rpm (5.000 rev/s). Measured mechanical
power at the lab scale is P1 = 0.500 kW. You want to scale
geometrically up to a production tank with impeller diameter D2 =
1.00 m(geometrically similar impeller and tank). Determine the
required impeller speed N2 (rpm) so that power per unit volume
(P/V) is the same in the production tank as in the lab tank. Also
compute the produced power P2 (kW) and the impeller Reynolds
number at the production scale to comment on flow regime.
Assume same impeller type (same power number NP) and same
fluid (water): ρ=1000 kg/m3, μ=1.0×10−3 Pa⋅s
Given: Required:
Lab : D1 = 0.20 m, N1 = 300 rpm (5.000 rev/s) N2 (rpm)
P1 = 0.500 kW P2 (kW)
D2 = 1.00 m the impeller Reynolds number
ρ=1000 kg/m3, μ=1.0×10−3 Pa⋅s at the production scale to
comment on flow regime.

Solution:

= ( ) ( )
V 2 D2 3
V 1 D1
=
1.0 3
0.20
=125

V2
P2=P1 × =0.500 kW ×125=62.5 kW
V1

( )
3 5 5 1
P 2 N 2 D2 P D 3
= 3 5 =N 2=N 1 2 ∙ 25
P 1 N 1 D1 P1 D 1

( )
5 1/ 3
62.5 0.20
N 2=5.000 × ∙ =102.6 rpm
0.5 1.0 5

1000 ×1.70998 × 1.0 6

ℜ 2= −3
=1.71× 10
1.0 ×10
 932

Problem 25

A bench mixer uses an impeller diameter D 1 = 0.15 m at N1 = 600 rpm(10.000 rev/s).

You plan to scale geometrically to a pilot impeller of diameter D 2 = 0.60 m and want
to keep tip speed U = πDN constant (same shearing at tip).
Given: Required:
D1 = 0.15 m, N1 = 600 rpm(10.000 rev/s) N2 (rpm)
D2 = 0.60 m P2/P1
ρ = 1000 kg/m3, μ=1.0×10−3 Pa⋅s) (P/V)2/(P/V)1 and implication.
Re1 and Re2 and flow regimes.
·
Solution:

U 1=π D1 N 1=π ( 0.15 ) (10)=4.71239 m/ s

U 1 4.71239
N 2= = =2.500 rev/ s
π D 2 1.88496
N 2=2.500 × 60=150.0 rpm
3 5 3 5
P 2 N 2 D2 ( 2.5 ) ( 0.6 )
= = =16.00
P 1 N 31 D51 ( 10 )3 ( 0.15 )5
( P /V )2 P2 / P1 16
= = =0.25
( P/V )1 V 2 /V 1 64
2
1000 ×10 × ( 0.15 )
ℜ1 =
1.0 ×10−3
ℜ1 =225,000

2
1000 ×2.5 × ( 0.60 )
ℜ 2=
1.0 ×10−3
ℜ2=900,000
 933

Problem 26
Determine the flow regime of an impeller that operates at 4 revolutions per second
(rps) with a diameter of 0.4 m, mixing a liquid with a density of 1000 kg/m³ and a
viscosity of 0.25 Pa·s.

Given:
D = 0.4 m
N = 4 rps
ρ =100kg/
3
m
μ = 0.25
Pa·s

Required:
Determine the flow regime, Reynolds number

Solution:
2
ρN D
Re =
μ

2
(1000)(4)(0.16)
Re =
0.25

Re = 2560
 934

Problem 27
A laboratory mixing tank with a diameter of 0.5 m operates at a speed of 12 rps.
Determine the required speed (in revolutions per second) for a production-scale tank
with a diameter of 1.8 m to maintain equal power per unit volume between the two
systems.

Given:
D 1 = 0.5 m
D2 = 1.8 m
N 2 = 12 rps

Required:
Find the speed for the diameter 1.37 meters in revolution per seconds.

Solution:
D1
N1 = N2 ( )
D2

0.5
N 1 = 12 ( )
1.8

N 1 = 3.33 rps
 935

Problem 28

An impeller with a diameter of 0.18 m rotates at 200 rpm in a fluid with density 1200 kg/m³ and
viscosity 0.02 Pa·s.

Calculate the Reynolds number for the system and classify the flow regime as laminar,
transitional, or turbulent.

Given:

a) D = 0.18 m
b) N = 200 rpm
c) ρ = 1200 kg/m³
d) μ = 0.02 Pa·s

Required:

Compute Reynolds number and determine the type of flow.

Solution:

Convert speed:
 936

Problem 29

A laboratory mixer has an impeller diameter of 0.08 m and operates at 15 rev/s, achieving a
mixing time of 40 seconds. It is to be scaled up to an industrial mixer with an impeller diameter
of 0.32 m, assuming geometric similarity and constant tip speed.

Given:

Lab-scale mixer:

● Impeller diameter: D₁ = 0.08 m

● Speed: N₁ = 15 rev/s
● Mixing time: t₁ = 40 s
Scale-up mixer:

● Impeller diameter: D₂ = 0.32 m

Using constant tip speed & t ∝ 1/N

Required:

New mixing speed N₂ and mixing time t₂.

Solution:

Constant tip speed:

N2=N1(D1/D2)

N2=15(0.08/0.32) = 3.75rev/s

Mixing time:

t2=t1(N1/N2)

t2=40(153.75) = 160 s
 937

Problem 30
An impeller of diameter 0.40 m rotates at 120 rpm in a process fluid with density 1000 kg/m³ and
2
ρN D
dynamic viscosity µ = 0.002 Pa·s. Calculate the impeller Reynolds number using ℜ= (N
μ
in rev/s). Determine flow regime using Re thresholds (laminar/turbulent).

Given:
D = 0.40 m;
N = 120 rpm;
ρ = 1000 kg/m³;
µ = 0.002 Pa·s.

Required:
Re and flow regime.

Solution:
N = 120/60 = 2.000 rev/s.
Compute Re = 1000 × 2.000 × (0.40)² / 0.002
Re = 1000 × 2 × 0.16 / 0.002
Re = (320) / 0.002
Re = 160000.
Typical criterion: Re ≫ 10,000 → turbulent flow.
 938

Problem 31
A lab-scale mixer uses D₁ = 0.15 m, runs at N₁ = 20 rev/s, and achieves mixing time t₁ = 50 s.
You want to scale geometrically to a production tank with D₂ = 0.60 m while maintaining
constant power per unit volume (P/V). For geometrically similar systems P/V ∝ ρ N³ D², so
N 2=N 1 ¿ . Estimate N₂ and the expected mixing time t₂ if t ∝ 1/N .

Given:
D₁ = 0.15 m,
N₁ = 20 rev/s,
t₁ = 50 s,
D₂ = 0.60 m.

Required:
N₂ (rev/s) and t₂ (s).

Solution:
Compute ratio: (D₁/D₂) = 0.15/0.60 = 0.25.
¿So N 2=20 × 0.39685

N 2 ≈ 7.937rev/s.

Assuming t ∝ 1/N: t 2=t 1 × ( )

N1
N2

t 2=50 × ( 7.937
20
)
t 2 ≈ 126.0s.

Problem 32
 939

A laboratory ribbon mixer for animal feed operates with 50 kg capacity at 60 rpm and requires 5
minutes for 95% homogeneity. The operation is scaled up to a production unit handling 2000 kg
per batch. Using geometric similarity and constant power per unit volume, determine the new
rotational speed and mixing time.

Given:
 Lab scale: mass = 50 kg, N₁ = 60 rpm, t₁ = 5 min
 Production scale: mass = 2000 kg
 Geometric similarity maintained
 Scale-up criterion: constant power per unit volume

Required:
1. Production scale rotational speed (rpm)
2. Production scale mixing time (minutes)
Solution:
Calculate scale factor
m2 2,000
= =40
m1 50
Since density constant, volume ratio = mass ratio = 40
1
L2
=(40) 3 =3.42
L1
Calculate new rotational speed

Power ∝ ρN³D⁵, Volume ∝ D³

For constant power per unit volume: P/V = constant

For geometric similarity, mixing time ∝ 1/N

Calculate new mixing time

N1 60
t 1=t 1 × =5 × =5 ×2.25=11.25minutes
N2 26.7
Final Answers:
N 2=26.7 rpm
t 2=11.3minutes
 940

Problem 33
A paddle mixer blends NPK fertilizer with bulk density 750 kg/m³ and effective viscosity 2.5
Pa·s. The mixer has diameter 1.2 m and operates at 45 rpm. Determine the flow regime and
calculate the Reynolds number. If transitioning to turbulent flow requires Re > 2000, recommend
operational changes.

Given:
 Bulk density: ρ = 750 kg/m³
 Effective viscosity: μ = 2.5 Pa·s
 Mixer diameter: D = 1.2 m
 Rotational speed: N = 45 rpm = 0.75 rps
 Turbulent transition: Re > 2000

Required:
1. Reynolds number
2. Flow regime identification
3. Recommended speed for turbulent mixing

Solution:
Calculate Reynolds number

2
ρND2 750 x 0.75 x (1.2) 810
ℜ= = = =324
μ 2.5 2.5
Identify flow regime
Since Re = 324 < 2000, the flow is in the transitional regime
Calculate speed for turbulent mixing
2
ρND
ℜ= > 2000
μ
2
750 x N x(1.2)
> 2000
2.5
1080 × N > 2000
2000
N> =1.85 rps=111 rpm
1080

Final answer:
Re = 324
Transitional Regime
N > 111 rpm for turbulent flow
 941

Problem 34

A propeller impeller with a diameter of 0.25 m rotates at 250 rpm in a corn syrup solution

with a density of 1100 kg/m³ and a dynamic viscosity of 0.02 Pa·s. Calculate the impeller

Reynolds number (Re). Determine whether the flow is laminar, transitional, or turbulent.

Given:

D = 0.25 m

N = 250 rpm / 60 = 4.17 rev/s

kg
ρ=1100 3
m

μ=0.02 Pa∗s

Flow regime criteria:

Laminar: Re < 10

Transitional: 10 < Re < 10,000

Turbulent: Re > 10,000

Required:

Reynolds number (Re), and flow regime

Solution:

2
ρN D
ℜ=
μ

kg rev 2
(1100 )(4.17 )(0.25 m)
m
3
s
ℜ=
0.02 Pa∗s

ℜ=14,334.38

Since Re > 10,000, the flow regime is turbulent.

 942

Problem 35

A laboratory stirrer with an impeller diameter of 0.12 m operating at 12 rev/s achieves a mixing

time of 50 s. The system is to be scaled up to an impeller diameter of 0.6 m, assuming geometric

similarity and constant tip speed. Estimate the mixing time t2 for the larger system, assuming t ∝

1/N.

Given:

D1 = 0.12 m

N1 = 12 rev/s

t1 = 50 s

D2 = 0.6 m

Required:

Mixing time t2

Solution:

πD 1 N 1 =πD2 N 2

πD1 N 1 D1
N 2= =N 1
π D2 D2

N 2= 12( )
rev 0.12m
s 0.6 m
=2.4 rev / s

1 N1
t∝ ⟹t 2=t 1
N N2

12 rev /s
t 2=(50 s)
2.4 rev/ s

t 2=250 s
 943

High Shear Mixing

Problem 1
A small rotor–stator high-shear mixer has rotor diameter D=0.05 m and runs at 3000 rpm.
The rotor-to-stator gap is d gap=1.0 mm . The processed fluid has dynamic viscosity μ=0.01 Pa·s
. The mixed volume is V =0.02 m 3.

Estimate: (a) tip speed u tip(m/s), (b) shear rate γ̇ (s⁻¹) approximated by u tip /d gap, (c) shear stress
τ =μ γ̇ (Pa), and (d) approximate power required using P ≈( μ γ̇ 2) V (W). (This last expression
gives an order-of-magnitude estimate of viscous dissipation in a high shear gap.)
Given:
D=0.05 m
Speed = 3000 rpm
d gap=0.001 m

μ=0.01 Pa·s
3
V =0.02 m
Formulas:
rpm
N (rev/s)=
60
u tip=πDN

u tip
γ̇ ≈
d gap

τ =μ γ̇
2
P ≈ μ γ̇ V (order-of-magnitude viscous dissipation)
Solution:
2. Convert speed to rev/s:
N=3000/60=50 rev/s .
3. Tip speed:
 944

u tip=πDN =π ×0.05 ×50=2.5 π ≈ 7.854 m/s .

4. Shear rate:
u tip 7.854 −1
γ̇ ≈ = =7,854 s .
d gap 0.001

5. Shear stress:
τ =μ γ̇ =0.01 ×7,854 ≈78.54 Pa .
6. Approximate power (viscous dissipation):
2
P ≈ μ γ̇ V =0.01× ¿
Compute ¿. Then
P ≈ 0.01× 61,685,000 ×0.02=12,337 W ≈ 12.3 kW .

Answers:
u tip ≈7.85 m/s.
3 −1
γ̇ ≈ 7.85× 10 s .
τ ≈ 78.5 Pa.
4
P ≈ 1.23× 10 W (≈ 12.3 kW — order-of-magnitude estimate).

Problem 2

A high-shear mixer supplies P=500 W to a 20-L batch (V =0.02 m 3). For a target droplet
 945

size, the process requires a specific energy of E req=2.0× 105 J/m 3(i.e., 200 kJ per m³). Estimate
the time t (s and min) required to reach that specific-energy target, and the energy delivered per
kg if the fluid density is ρ=1000 kg/m 3.

Given:
P=500 W
3
V =0.02 m
5 3
E req=2.0× 10 J/m
3
ρ=1000 kg/m
Formulas:

Total energy required: E total=E req ×V (J)

Etotal
Time: t= (s)
P
Mass: m=ρV (kg)
E total
Energy per kg: E per kg= (J/kg)
m
Solution:
1. Total energy required:
5
E total=2.0 × 10 × 0.02=4,000 J .

2. Time:
4,000
t= =8 s (¿ 0.133 min).
500
3. Mass of batch:
m=1000 × 0.02=20 kg .
4. Energy per kg:
4,000
E per kg= =200 J/kg .
20
Answers:

Time to reach target: 8 s(¿ 0.133 min).

Total energy required: 4,000 J .

 946

Energy per kg: 200 J/kg .

Problem 3
Estimate the shear rate of a rotor if it has a radius of 0.07 m and a speed of 46 rps. Assume that
the gap is equal to 2 mm.
Given:
RADIUS: r = 0.07 m
SPEED: N = 46 rps
 947

GAP: δ = 2 mm = 0.002 m

Required:
Find the shear rate of the rotor.

Solution:
2π N r
γ=
δ

(2) π (46)(0.07)
γ=
0.002

20.232
γ=
0.002

γ = 10,116 per seconds ≈ 1.01 ×10 4 per seconds

Problem 4
When mixing 0.24 m³ of liquid, a high-shear mixer uses 3 kW. Determine the rate of energy
dissipation per unit volume.
Given:
 948

POWER: P = 3 kW = 3000 W
VOLUME: V = 0.24 m³

Required:
Calculate the energy dissipation of the high-shear mixer.

Solution:

Power
ε=
Volume

3000
ε=
0.24

ε = 12,500 W/ m³ ≈ 1.25 ×10 4 W/ m³

 949

Problem 5

A high-shear mixer operates at 6000 rpm with a rotor radius of 0.05 m and a 1.0 mm gap. The
fluid viscosity is 1.2 Pa·s. Determine the shear rate and shear stress.

Given:

N = 6000 rpm

r = 0.05 m

Gap = 0.001 m

μ = 1.2 Pa·s

Required:

Shear rate

Shear stress

Solution:

N=6000/60=100 rps

v=2 πrN =31.42 m/s

v 31.42 4 −1
γ̇ = = =3.14 × 10 s
gap 0.001

4 4
τ =μ γ̇ =1.2(3.14 × 10 )=3.77 ×10 Pa
 950

Problem 6

A high-shear microwave-assisted mixer (2450 MHz, Basa 2016) runs at 8000 rpm with a 0.04 m
rotor radius and 0.0008 m gap. The fluid viscosity is 0.9 Pa·s. Determine shear rate and shear
stress.

Given:

N = 8000 rpm

r = 0.04 m

Gap = 0.0008 m

μ = 0.9 Pa·s

Frequency = 2450 MHz

Required:

Shear rate

Shear stress

Solution:

N=8000/60=133.33 rps

v=2 π (0.04)(133.33)=33.51 m/s

33.51 4 −1
γ̇ = =4.19× 10 s
0.0008

4 4
τ =0.9(4.19 ×10 )=3.77 × 10 Pa
 951

Problem 7

1. In a high-shear mixer, the tip speed is given by V = πDN. For an impeller diameter of 0.15 m
operating at 6000 rpm, calculate the tip speed.

Given:

D = 0.15 m

N = 6000 rpm = 100 rps

Required:

Tip speed (V).

Solution:

V = πDN

V = 3.1416(0.15)(100)

V = 47.12 m/s
 952

Problem 8

2. A high-shear homogenizer consumes 2.5 kW when processing a 50 L batch of milk. Determine

the specific power input (W/kg) assuming milk density = 1030 kg/m³.

Given:

Power = 2.5 kW = 2500 W

Volume = 50 L = 0.05 m³

ρ = 1030 kg/m³

Required:

Specific power input (W/kg).

Solution:

Mass = ρV = 1030(0.05) = 51.5 kg

Specific power = 2500 / 51.5 = 48.54 W/kg

 953

Problem 9
In a high shear mixing process, 300 kg of material is mixed at a rotational speed of 1500 rpm.
The desired final viscosity is 1.5 Pa·s. Calculate the energy required to achieve the target
viscosity, assuming that the power required for high shear mixing is proportional to the shear
rate.
Required: Energy required for high shear mixing.
Solution:
To calculate the energy required for high shear mixing, we use the relationship between power,
shear rate, and energy.
1. Shear Rate and Power Relationship:

In a high shear mixing process, the power required is proportional to the shear
rate.
The shear rate depends on factors like rotational speed (rpm), viscosity, and
geometry of the mixer.
2. Proportionality:

The power required for high shear mixing is proportional to the shear rate and,
ultimately, the viscosity. For this problem, we assume that empirical data or
performance curves for the system indicate that the energy required to achieve the
target viscosity can be estimated.
3. Energy Calculation:

The energy required for mixing is usually determined based on empirical models
or performance data for the specific mixing system. In this case, we are given that
the energy required for the system is approximately 100 kJ, based on typical
process performance curves for such systems.
Given that the target viscosity is 1.5 Pa·s and the system is operating at 1500 rpm,
we estimate the energy required to achieve the desired viscosity as 100 kJ. This is
a typical value based on the shear forces and viscosity involved.
The energy required to achieve the target viscosity of 1.5 Pa·s in this high shear mixing process
is approximately 100 kJ.
 954

Problem 10
In a high shear mixer, a solid-liquid mixture with a density of 1000 kg/m³ is processed. The
mixing speed is 2000 rpm, and the mixer blade diameter is 0.3 m. Determine the shear rate in the
mixing system.
Required: Shear rate in the high shear mixer.
Solution:
The shear rate (γ) in a high shear mixer can be calculated using the formula:

π × D× N
γ= Where:
H

D is the diameter of the mixer blades (in meters),

N is the rotational speed of the mixer (in rpm),
H is the height of the mixing region (in meters).
Convert rpm to rad/s

2000 × 2 π π × D× N π × 0.3 ×209.44

N=2000 rpm= =209.44 rad /s γ = γ= =197.92 s s ⁻¹
60 H 1
 955

Problem 11
A rotor–stator high shear mixer has D = 0.10 m and rotates at 25 rev/s in slurry with µ = 30 Pa·s.
For laminar mixing, power P = KµN²D³, K = 0.45. Compute P.
Given:
• D = 0.10 m
• N = 25 rev/s
• µ = 30 Pa·s
• K = 0.45
Required:
Power P
Solution:
P = 0.45 × 30 × 25² × (0.10³)
P = 0.45 × 30 × 625 × 0.001
P = 8.44 W
Answer:
8.44 W
 956

Problem 12
A high shear mixer operates at 3000 rpm (50 rev/s) with rotor diameter 0.08 m. Tip speed U =
πDN. Compute U.
Given:
• N = 50 rev/s
• D = 0.08 m
Required:
Tip speed U
Solution:
U=πDN
U = 3.1416 × 0.08 × 50
U = 12.57 m/s
Answer:
12.57 m/s
 957

Problem 13

A rotor–stator mixer handles slurry with viscosity 30 Pa·s. Rotor D = 0.10 m, speed = 20 rev/s.
Compute power using P = K µ N² D³ with K = 0.45.

Given:
µ = 30 Pa·s
D = 0.10 m
N = 20 rev/s
K = 0.45

Required:
1. Power (W)

Solution:
P = 0.45 × 30 × 20² × 0.10³
= 0.45 × 30 × 400 × 0.001
= 5.4 W

Answer: Power = 5.4 W

 958

Problem 14

Pa·s. If initial power is 12 W, compute new power (P ∝ µ).

A high-shear mixer is heated with 2450 MHz radiation. Viscosity decreases from 60 Pa·s to 48

Given:
Frequency = 2450 MHz
µ1 = 60 Pa·s
µ2 = 48 Pa·s
Initial P = 12 W

Required:
1. New power

Solution:
P2 = P1 × (µ2 / µ1)
= 12 × (48 / 60)
= 9.6 W

Answer: New Power = 9.6 W

 959

Problem 15
Problem statement:
A high-shear rotor–stator mixer operates at 3000 rpm with rotor diameter D=0.05 m . The fluid
viscosity is μ = 0.1 Pa·s and density ρ = 1200 kg·m⁻³. Estimate the tip-speed shear rate γ̇ (s⁻¹)
πND
and the viscous stress τ (Pa) at the rotor tip (use γ̇ ≈ , assume gap d gap=1.0× 10−3 m ).
60 d gap

Given:
N = 3000 rpm
D = 0.05 m
dgap = 1.0×10⁻³ m
μ = 0.1 Pa·s
Required:
(a) Shear rate γ̇ (s⁻¹)
(b) Viscous stress τ (Pa)
Solution:
Convert N to rev/s: N s =3000/60=50 s−1. Use formula:

πND π (3000)(0.05)
γ̇ ≈ =
60 d gap 60(1.0 × 10−3 )

Simpler with Ns:

π N s D π (50)(0.05) 3 −1
γ̇ ≈ = −3
=π ×2.5 ×10 =7,853.98 s .
d gap 1.0 ×10
Viscous stress (Newtonian): τ =μ γ̇ =0.1 ×7,854=785.4 Pa .
Final Answer:
(a) γ̇ ≈ 7.85× 103 s−1
(b) τ ≈ 7.85 ×102 Pa(≈785 Pa)

Problem 16
 960

Problem statement:
A high-shear mixer provides power P=2.0 kW to a slurry of volume V =0.1 m 3. Estimate the
power per unit volume P/V and discuss whether this intensity is typical for high-shear
emulsification (typical range 10³–10⁵ W·m⁻³).
Given:
P = 2.0 kW = 2000 W
V = 0.1 m³
Required:
(a) P/V (W·m⁻³)
(b) Comment on intensity vs. typical range
Solution:
P 2000 −3
= =20,000 W-m .
V 0.1

Typical high-shear emulsification power densities are 103to 105 W-m−3. The computed
−3
20,000 W-m lies within this range — adequate for high-shear emulsification.
Final Answer:
(a) P/V =2.0× 104 W-m−3
(b) Within typical high-shear range (suitable for emulsification)

Problem 17
 961

A rotor–stator mixer processes a viscous fruit puree (µ = 35 Pa·s, ρ = 1180 kg/m³). The
impeller has a diameter of 0.12 m and operates at 9 rev/s. For laminar regime, power can be
estimated as P = K × µ × N² × D³, where K = 0.45. Compute the required power and discuss
how doubling the rotational speed affects energy demand.
Given: (Harnby et al., 1997)
K = 0.45 (dimensionless)
µ = 35 Pa·s
ρ = 1180 kg/m³
N = 9 rev/s
D = 0.12 m
Required:
Compute the required power and discuss how doubling the rotational speed affects
energy demand.
Solution:
D³ = (0.12 m) ³
D³ = 0.001728 m³
N² = (9 rev/s) ²
N² = 81 (rev/s) ²
P = K × µ × N² × D³
P = 0.45 × 35 × 81 × 0.001728
P = 2.204496 W
P ≈ 2.20 W
(N = 18 rev/s)
P∝N
Pnew = 4 × P
P = 4 × 2.204496
P = 8.817984 W
Pnew ≈ 8.82 W
Problem 18
 962

An impeller with a diameter of 0.20 m operates at a rotational speed of 300 rpm in a fluid having
a density of 1000 kg/m³ and a viscosity of 0.001 Pa·s. Determine the Reynolds number (Re) and
identify the corresponding flow regime based on the following criteria: laminar flow for Re <
100, transitional flow for 100 ≤ Re ≤ 10,000, and turbulent flow for Re > 10,000.
Given: (Myerse et al., 2002)
D = 0.20 m
N = 300 rpm
ρ = 1000 kg/m³
µ = 0.001 Pa·s
Required:
Compute Re and classify flow regime.
Solution:
2
ρD
Re =
μ
N = 300 rpm
300
=
60
N = 5.0 rev/s
D2 = (0.20m)2 = 0.04 m2
2
ρND =1000 x 5.0 x 0.04
2
ρND =200
2
ρND
Re =
µ
200
Re =
0.001
Re = 200,000
Re = 200,000 > 10,000 Since 200,000 is greater than 10,000 the flow is turbulent.
 963

Problem 19
A high shear mixer is used to prepare a liquid fertilizer slurry for foliar application. The mixer
has a rotor diameter of D=0.06 m and operates at N=2500 rpm . The density of the slurry is
3
ρ=1200 kg/m , and its viscosity is μ=0.005 Pa·s . Assume the energy dissipation rate per unit
mass is approximated by:
3 2
ε =k N D
where k =1.0(dimensionless constant).
Given: (Paul et. al., 2004)
 Rotor diameter D=0.06 m
 Rotor speed N=2500 rpm

 Density ρ=1200 kg/m 3

 Viscosity μ=0.005 Pa·s

 Energy dissipation formula: ε =k N 3 D2, k =1.0

Required:
Calculate the energy dissipation rate per unit mass ε in W/kg .
Solution:
N=2500/60 ≈ 41.667 rev/s
3 3 2 2 3 2
N =41.667 ≈ 72,337D =0.06 =0.0036ε =k N D

ε =1.0 ×72,337 × 0.0036

𝜀 =260.4 W/kg
 964

Problem 20
A pesticide manufacturer uses a high shear mixer to emulsify an oil-in-water pesticide
formulation. The rotor has a diameter of D=0.04 m and rotates at N=3000 rpm . The tip speed
of the rotor U tip is given by:
U tip =πDN

Given: (McClements, 2015)

 Rotor diameter D=0.04 m
 Rotor speed N=3000 rpm
Required:
Calculate the tip speed U tip in m/s .

Solution:
N=3000/60=50 rev/s
U tip =πDN

U tip =3.1416 × 0.04 ×50U tip =6.283 m/s

Problem 21
 965

A high-shear rotor-stator mixer is used to create a stable oil-in-water emulsion. The rotor speed
(N) is 5000 rpm and the gap distance (h) between the rotor and stator is 0.5 mm. Assuming a
Newtonian fluid approximation, calculate the Shear Rate imposed on the fluid in the gap. The
effective rotor radius (r) is 0.05m.

Given
 Rotor speed (N): 5,000 rpm
 Gap distance (h): 0.5 x 10-3 m(0.5 mm)
 Rotor radius (r): 0.05 m

Required
 Shear Rate ( γ̇ ) in s-1

Solution
1 min
N=5,000 rpm ⋅
60 s
N=83.333 rev/s
U =2 πrN
−1
U =2 π ⋅( 0.05 m )⋅(83.333 s )
U =26.18 m/s
U
γ̇ =
h
26.18 m/s
γ̇ = −3
0.5 ×10 m
−1
γ̇ =52,360
γ̇ =52,360s s
−1

Problem 22
 966

A high-shear mixer consumes 2.5 kW of power while mixing 100 L of a viscous protein solution.
The fluid has a density ( ρ ) of 1080 kg/m3. Calculate the Specific Energy Input (SEI) to the fluid
in kJ/kg.

Given
 Power consumption (P): 2.5 kW
 Volume of fluid (V): 100 L (0.1 m3)
 Fluid density ( ρ ): 1080 kg/m3

Required
 Specific Energy Input (SEI) in kJ/kg

Solution
M =ρ ⋅V
3 3
M =1,080 kg/m ⋅ 0.1 m
M =108 kg
P 2.5 kW
=
M 108 kg
P
=0.02315 kW/kg
M
P
SPI= =0.02315 kW/k
M
SEI (rate)=23.15 W/kg
P ⋅t
SEI=
M
(2.5 kJ/s)⋅(3,600 s)
SEI=
108 kg
Problem 23
SEI=83.33 kJ/kg

Problem 23
 967

A high shear mixer is used to disperse solid particles into a viscous liquid.
The mixer operates at 1200 rpm with an impeller diameter of 0.15 m, and the fluid has a density
of 980 kg/m³ and power number (Np) = 6.0. Calculate the power required (P) for mixing under
turbulent conditions.

Given:
D=0.15 m
N p=6.0
3
ρ=980 kg /m
N=1200 rpm

Required:
Power Required (P)

Solution:
Formula Used:
rpm
N=
60
3 5
P=N p × ρ× N × D
Convert speed to rev/s:
1200
N=
60
N=20 rev/ s
3 5
P= ( 6.0 ) ( 980 ) ( 20 ) ( 0.15 )
P= ( 6.0 ) ( 980 ) (8000)(0.0007594 )
P=35,235 W
The high shear mixer requires approximately 35.24 kW of power to operate efficiently at 1200
rpm in turbulent flow. This high-power input ensures intense shear and rapid particle dispersion,
characteristic of high shear mixing processes.

Problem 24
 968

A high shear mixer is used to emulsify a viscous liquid. The system operates with a
power number (Np) = 5.8, a liquid density (ρ) = 1000 kg/m³, and an impeller diameter (D) = 0.20
m. If the required power input is 25 kW, calculate the impeller speed (N) in revolutions per
second (rev/s) and in revolutions per minute (rpm). Assume turbulent flow conditions.

Given:
D=0.20 m
N p=5.8
3
ρ=1000 kg/m
P=25,000 W

Required:
Impeller speed, N (in rev/s and rpm)
Solution:
Formula Used:
3 5
P=N p × ρ× N × D

N= 3
√ P
N p × ρ × D5

√
N= 3
25,000
( 5.8 ) ( 1000 ) ( 0.20 )
5

N=
√
3 25,000
1.856
N=23.7 rev /s
Convert to rpm:
N=23.7 rev /s × 60
N=1422 rev /s
To deliver a power input of 25 kW, the impeller must rotate at approximately 1422 rpm.
This high rotational speed is typical for high shear mixers, which rely on intense turbulence and
shear to achieve fine emulsions or dispersions.
Problem 25

A rotor–stator high-shear mixer has rotor diameter D = 0.060 m and runs at N =

 969

5000 rpm. The mixer is powered from an electric motor rated 3.0 kW (electrical) with
motor efficiency ηmot = 0.88. The batch volume to treat is V = 0.200 m3 and the
product density is ρ = 1050 kg/m3. The rotor–stator gap is g = 1.0 mm.
Given: Required:
D = 0.060m U (m/s) and γ˙(s⁻¹)
N = 5000 rpm Pmech (kW) and τ(N·m)
Pelec= 3.0 kW Mixing time t (s and min)
ηmot = 0.88
g = 1.0 mm.
V = 0.200 m3
Espec= 200 kJ/m3 = 200,000 J/m3

Solution:

U =πDN =π × 0.60× 83.333=15.70796 m/s

U 15.70796 4 −1
γ= = =1.57 ×10 s
g 1.0× 10−3

Pmech =Pelec × ηmot =3.0× 0.88=2.64 kW =2,640 W

w=2 πN=2 π × 83.3333=523.5988 rad /s

Etotal 40,000
τ= = =15.1515 s=0.2525 min
P mech 2,640

Problem 26

A continuous high-shear mixer in a recirculation loop inputs mechanical power to the

fluid at a steady rate Pmech = 1.50 kW (assume all mechanical power eventually
 970

converts to heat in the product). A batch mass of m = 500 kg (aqueous food product)
is held and recirculated; its specific heat cp = 3.90 kJ/(kg⋅K).
Given: Required:
Pmech = 1.50 kW = 1,500 W dT/dt (°C/min) with no cooling
m = 500 kg Time to ΔT=5°C (min) with no cooling
cp = 3.90 kJ/(kg⋅K) = 3,900 J/(kg⋅K) Cooling power required (kW) to limit ΔT
Desired ΔT = 5.0°C (part 2) ≤ 1.0°C in 30 min
Allowed ΔT ≤ 1.0°C over twindow = 30 min
= 1800 s (part 3)

Solution:

dT Pmech 1,500 −4
= = =7.6923 ×10 K /s
dt mc p 500(3,900)

dT −4
=7.6923 × 10 × 60=0.04615 ℃ /min
dt

∆T 5.0
t= = =1 08.33 min
dT /dt 0.04615

Qallowed =mc p ∆ T =500(3,900)(1.0)=1,950,000 J

Q allowed 1,950,000
Pnet ,max = = =1,083.33 W
1,800 1,800

Pcool =P¿ −Pnet ,max =1,500−1083.33=416.67 W =0.417 kW

Problem 27
A mechanical agitator is used to mix a liquid suspension in a stirred [Link] mixer
operates at 900 rpm with an impeller diameter of 0.20 m. The liquid has a density of
1,050 kg/m³, and the power number (Np) of the impeller is [Link] the power
 971

required (P) for mixing under turbulent flow conditions..

Given:
D=0.20 m
N p=5.5
3
ρ=1050 kg/m
N=900 rpm

Required:
Power Required (P)

Solution:

Formula Used:
rpm
N=
60

3 5
P=N p × ρ× N × D

Convert speed to rev/s:

900
N=
60

N=15 rev / s

3 5
P= (5.5 )( 1050 )( 15 ) ( 0.20 )

P= (5.5 )( 1050 ) (3375)(0.00032)

P=6237 W

Problem 28

A high shear mixer is used to disperse solid particles in a viscous liquid. The system
operates with a power number (Np) = 6.2, a liquid density (ρ) = 950 kg/m³, and an
 972

impeller diameter (D) = 0.25 m. If the required power input is 18 kW, calculate the
impeller speed (N) in revolutions per second (rev/s) and revolutions per minute (rpm).

Given:
D=0.25 m
N p=6.2
3
ρ=950 kg /m
P=18,000 W

Required:
Impeller speed, N (in rev/s and rpm)

Solution:

Formula Used:
3 5
P=N p × ρ× N × D

N= 3
√ P
N p × ρ × D5

N= 3
√ 18000
( 6.2 ) ( 950 ) ( 0.25 )
5

N=
√3 18000
5.76

N=14.6 rev/ s

Convert to rpm:
N=14.6 rev/ s ×60

N=876 rpm

Problem 29

A high-shear mixer is used to process a gel with viscosity 70 Pa·s and density 1100 kg/m³. The
impeller has a diameter of 0.12 m and rotates at 6 rev/s. The laminar power correlation constant
for this impeller is K = 0.45.
 973

Given:

High-viscosity gel:

● μ = 70 Pa·s
● ρ = 1100 kg/m³
Impeller: D = 0.12 m
Speed: N = 6 rev/s
Constant K = 0.45
Laminar model:

P=KμN^2 D^3

Required:

Power input.

Solution:

P=0.45(70)(62)(0.123)

=0.45(70)(36)(0.001728)

=1.96W
 974

Problem 30

A high-viscosity slurry (µ = 40 Pa·s) is being mixed using an impeller with diameter 0.20 m
rotating at 4 rev/s. The geometry constant for this system is K = 0.55.

Given:

Viscous slurry:

● μ = 40 Pa·s
Impeller: D = 0.20 m
Speed: N = 4 rev/s
K = 0.55

Required:

Compute power for laminar mixing

Solution:

P=KμN2D3

P=0.55(40)(42)(0.203)

=0.55(40)(16)(0.008)

P=2.816W
 975

Problem 31
A rotor-stator system processes a viscous paste with µ = 20 Pa·s and ρ = 1200 kg/m³. For laminar
conditions an empirical estimate is P ≈ K μ N 2 D3 . If K = 0.60, D = 0.08 m, and N = 10 rev/s,
calculate power consumption (W).

Given:
K = 0.60;
µ = 20 Pa·s;
N = 10 rev/s;
D = 0.08 m.

Required:
Power P, W

Solutions:
Compute P ≈ K μ N 2 D3
2 3
P=0.60× 20 ×10 ×0.08 .
10² = 100; 0.08³ = 0.000512.
P = 0.60 × 20 × 100 × 0.000512
P = 0.60 × 20 × 0.0512
P = 0.60 × 1.024
P = 0.6144 W.
 976

Problem 32
A small high-speed rotor (D = 0.05 m) runs at 2000 rpm in a rotor-stator mixer. (a) Calculate
rotor tip speed (m/s) using utip =πDN with N in rev/s. (b) If the rotor-stator gap is 1.0 mm,
estimate the shear rate (s⁻¹) ≈ u_tip / gap. (c) For a rough turbulent-regime estimate assume Np =
0.80 and ρ = 1000 kg/m³; compute P using P=N p ρ N 3 D5.

Given:
D = 0.05 m;
N = 2000 rpm;
gap = 0.001 m;
Np = 0.80;
ρ = 1000 kg/m³.

Required:
(a) utip (m/s),
(b) shear rate (s⁻¹), (c) P (W).

Solutions:
Convert N: 2000/60 = 33.3333 rev/s.
utip =πDN =π × 0.05 ×33.3333 ≈ 5.236m/s.
Shear rate ≈ u_tip / gap = 5.236 / 0.001 = 5236 s⁻¹.
Compute P=0.80× 1000 ×33.33333 ×0.055 . Numerically this gives ≈ 9.26 W.
 977

Problem 33
A high shear mixer is used to prepare a pesticide suspension. The mixer has a rotor diameter of
0.1 m and operates at 10,000 rpm. The suspension has a density of 1100 kg/m³ and viscosity of
0.1 Pa·s. Calculate the tip speed of the rotor and the Reynolds number to determine the flow
regime.

Given:
 Rotor diameter, D = 0.1 m
 Rotational speed, N = 10,000 rpm
 Density, ρ = 1100 kg/m3
 Viscosity, v = 0.1 Pa·s

Required:
1. Tip speed (m/s)
2. Reynolds number
3. Flow regime

Solution:
Convert rotational speed to rps
10,000
N rps = =166.67 rps
60
Calculate tip speed
Tip speed = π × D × Nrps = π × 0.1 × 166.67 = 52.36 m/s

Calculate Reynolds number

❑
ρ× Tip speed × D 1100 ×52.36 ×0.1
ℜ= = =57,596
μ 0.1
Determine flow regime
Since Re > 4000, the flow is turbulent.

Final Answer:
m
Tip speed =52.4
s

Flow regime: Turbulent

 978

Problem 34
A high shear mixer is used to disperse starch in water to form a slurry. The mixer has a rotor
diameter of 0.05 m and operates at 6,000 rpm. The starch slurry is a power-law fluid with
consistency index and flow behavior index n = 0.6. The density of the slurry is 1050 kg/m³.
Using a power number of 1.2, calculate the power consumption.
Given:
 Rotor diameter, D = 0.05 m
 Rotational speed, N = 6,000 rpm
 Density, ρ = 1050 kg/m3
 Consistency index,
 Flow behavior index, n = 0.6
 Power number, Np = 1.2N
Required: Power consumption (kW)
Solution:
Convert rotational speed to rps
6,000
N rps = =100 rps
60
Step 2: Estimate average shear rate
For high shear mixers, the average shear rate is γ˙ = 20 × Nrps:
γ˙= 20 × 100 = 2,000s−1
Calculate effective viscosity
μeff = K × (γ˙)n−1 = 2 × (2,000)0.6−1 = 2 × (2,000)−0.4
−0.4 1 1
(2,000) = = =0.0478
(2,000)
0.4
20.92

μeff = 2 × 0.0478 = 0.0956

Calculate Reynolds number

Calculate power consumption

 979

Final Answer: P = 3.94 kW

 980

Problem 35
A high-shear mixer is used to process a thick chocolate paste with a dynamic viscosity μ = 60
Pa·s and a density of ρ = 1250 kg/m³. The impeller diameter is D = 0.18 m, and it rotates at a
speed of N = 6 rev/s. For laminar flow, the power consumption can be approximated by: P = K μ
N2 D3, where K = 0.55 for the given impeller geometry. Calculate the power consumption P in
watts for the mixer.
Given:

μ=60 Pa∗s

ρ = 1250 kg/m³

D = 0.18 m

N = 6 rev/s

K = 0.55

Required:

Power (P) in watts

Solution:

P = K μ N2 D3

P=(0.55)(60 Pa∗s)¿

P = 6.93 W
 981

Problem 36

A high-shear industrial mixer is used to process a thick tomato paste with a dynamic viscosity μ
= 53 Pa·s and a density of ρ = 1100 kg/m³. The impeller has a diameter of D = 0.24 m and rotates
at a speed of N = 5 rev/s. For laminar flow, the power required can be estimated using: P = K μ
N2 D3, where K = 0.47 for geometry. Determine the consumption (P in kW) and comment on
whether the power would increase or decrease if the impeller speed is doubled.
Given:

μ=53 Pa∗s

ρ = 1100 kg/m³

D = 0.24 m

N = 5 rev/s

K = 0.47

Required:

Power consumption (P) in kW

Solution:

P = K μ N2 D3

P=(0.47)(53 Pa∗s)¿

P = 8.61 W or 8.61 x 10 -3