Wheat Technology

Dr. Md. Moshiur Rahman

Professor
Department of Agronomy
BAU, Mymensingh
Email: rahamnag63@[Link]
Mobile : 01711-072561

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L) (2N = 14, 28, 42)

An annual grass that can grown upto 50-
150 cm in height depending on cultivar character
Being a monocot belong to family Gramineae/Poaceae, sub-family Pooideae, tribe Triticeae and
genus Triticum
A grass, originally from the Fertile Crescent region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide
Has fibrous shallow root, jointed stem (know as culm), rather flat leaves and terminal panicles;
wheat fruit is botanically caryopsis
Normally needs between 110 and 130 days between planting and harvest, depending upon climate,
seed type and soil conditions
A key factor enabling the emergence of city-based societies at the start of civilization
Importance
Most widely grown in world and eaten in various form by
>1000 million human beings in world, a staple food for more population in the developed countries
of Europe and American continents
A staple food for nearly 40 per cent of the world population covering at least 43 countries
Leads first position in area and third position in production (690 million tons in 2008) and
productivity: world
Third important food crop after rice and maize in Nepal Globally, leading source of vegetable
protein in human food,
having a higher protein content than either maize (corn) or rice, the other major cereals
Global per capita wheat consumption: ≥67 kg Contribution: 7.14% of AGDP
Provides 20 per cent of food calories and more protein to the mankind in the world’s diet
than any other food crops
 Components Amount Components Amount

Water (g) 11 Magnesium (mg) 239

Energy (kJ) 1506 Phosphorus (mg) 842
Protein (g) 23 Potassium (mg) 892
Fat (g) 10 Zinc (mg) 12.3
Carbohydrates (g) 52 Panthothenic acid (mg) 0.1
Fibers (g) 13 Vit B6 (mg) 1.3
Sugars (g) 0.1 Folate (μg) 281
Iron (mg) 6.3 Thiamin (mg) 1.9
Manganese (mg) 13.3 Riboflavin (mg) 0.5
Calcium (mg) 39 Niacin (mg) 6.8

 Absorption rate of wheat protein: 95%

 Relatively high content of niacin and thiamine
 Gluten protein: very essential for bakers that determine baking quality as it provides
structural frame-work for the familiar spongy, cellular texture of bread and other baked
products
Wheat grains:
 Used to make flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads
 Consumed as suji, maida, dhindo, halwa, flakes, porridge, biscuits, cookie, cakes, breakfast
cereal, pasta, noodles, couscous, etc.
 Major ingredients of breadrolls, ice cream cones, etc.
 Used for fermentation to make beer, other alcoholic beverages, or biofuel
Wheat straw:
 Used as feedstuff for livestock as it is good nutritious feed; as a roofing materials
Wheat bran:
 Husk of grain; Nutritious feed so used as a feedstuff for livestock
Health concern: Coeliac (also written as celiac) disease
 a condition that is caused by an adverse immune system reaction to gliadin, a gluten protein
found in wheat
Origin and history
Vavilov (1926, 1935):
 Abyssynian centre: T. durum, T. turgidum, T. dicoccum
  Near east or Asia minor centre: 9 species of Triticum
 Mediterranean centre: T. durum, T. dicoccum
 Central Asia centre: T. aestivum, T. compactum
Zeven and Zhukovsky (1975), Zeven and de Wet (1982): regions of diversity of wheat
 Central Asian region: Bread/Club/Shot wheat
 Near-Eastern region: Einkorn, Durum, Bread wheat
 Mediterranean region: Durum, Turgidum wheat
 African region: Durum , Emmer, Bread wheat
Feldman (1970): Middle East Asia, comprising the Anatolia, Syrian mountainous region and
Balkans, also called the ‘fertile crescent’, provides archaeological evidence for domestication of
wheat around 7,000 to 10,000 BC
Wild progenitors occur in abundance within the fertile crescent
T. monococcum var. boeticum (Einkorn wheat): predominant in its primary centre of origin
comprising Greece, Turkey, Iran, Armenia and Transcaucasus
T. turgidium var. diococoides (Emmer wheat): seems sparse around the fertile crescent
Carbonized spikelets and fossil impressions indicate domestication of tetraploids around 6700 to
7000 BC in Armenia and Transcaucasia
First grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey: Genetic analysis of wild einkorn
wheat and also confirmed by dated archeological remains of einkorn wheat in this region including
those at Abu Hureyra
The earliest carbon-14 date for the einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years
BCE
Özkan H et al. 2002: both emmer wheat and durum (hard pasta wheat) originated from Karacadag
region of southeastern Turkey (indicated by genetic and archeological discoveries) and the remains
of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8,800
BCE and 8,400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period
In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse the spikelets
(Tanno & Willcox, 2006) and the incidental selection for such traits made the crop being
domesticated
The tetraploid and hexaploid wheat originated from its wild diploid species by mutation and
intercrossing of at least 3 related wild ancestors resulting in a wide range of adaptability in the
modern wheat
Occurrence of T. aestivum: in Middle East Asia, around the seventh millennium During 6 th century:
received T. aestivum in Iran, Iraq and the Nile basin in Egypt Around 4th century: reached central
and western Europe from the fertile crescent
During 3rd century: cultivation began in slightly warmer climates of Indus valley and China
During 5th and 4th millenium: trasported to Europe in the north, Ethiopia and India in the east
After 1963: came a turining point in wheat with the introduction of dwarf, photo insensitive, high
yielding mexican wheat breeding materials (norin-10-gene) developed by Late Dr. N.E. Borlaug
 Traits found: increased no. of fertile florets, length and density of spike, reduction of
shattering, disease resistance and greater responsiveness to fertilizer without lodging
 Borlaug crossed the traditional tall lodging type varieties with the norin 10 gene varieteis
and developed the modern superior varieties

Percival (1921): described and recognized 18 species of wheat but only a few are importance in
agriculture
Known species of wheat can be put into three broad groups depending on their chromosome
number:

Chromosome pairs
7 (2n = 14)
14 (2n = 28)
21 (2n = 42)

Based on commercial types

a) Common wheat (Triticum aestivum)
A hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world Almost all area of wheat
covered by this species in Nepal
Kernels:
 Colour: red, yellowish-brown, white, purple or blue
 Texture: ranges from hard to soft
This species includes both winter and spring wheat
b) Durum wheat (Triticum durum)
A tetraploid form of wheat and second most widely grown in world Also called macaroni wheat
Kernels:
 Colour: white, red, purple or yellowish brown
 Texture: hard
Used in pasta production as the ground durum wheat flour holds together when made into a paste
c) Emmer or club wheat (Triticum dicoccum)
A tetraploid wheat that closely related to common wheat Cultivated in ancient times but no longer
in widespread use Kernels:
 Colour: red, white,
  Texture: usually soft
May be winter or spring wheat

Series Common name Cultivated/wild Chromosome Hulled or

No. (N) naked
Einkorn Series (Diploid)
Triticum aegiloploids Wild Einkorn Wild 7 Hulled
Triticum Einkorn Cultivated 7 Hulled
monecoccum
Einkorn Series (tetraploid)
Triticum dicoccoides Wild Emmer Wild 14 Hulled
Triticum timopheevi Timopheri Wild 14 Hulled
Triticum persicum 14
Triticum polonicum Polish Cultivated 14 Naked
Triticum turgidum Rivet Cultivated 14 Naked
Triticum orientale 14
Triticum durum Durum Cultivated 14 Hulled
Triticum dicoccum Emmer Cultivated 14 Hulled
Dinkale series (hexaploid)
Triticum spelta Spelt/Dinkel Cultivated 21 Hulled
Triticum macha Macha Cultivated 21 Hulled
Triticum aestivum or Common wheat Cultivated 21 Naked
vulgare
Triticum compactum Club Cultivated 21 Naked
Triticum Shot Cultivated 21 Naked
sphaerococcum

Based on growing habit of wheat

a) Winter wheat
 Grown predominantly in the northern hemisphere, roughly between 20 o and 40oN
latitude, in the early fall when the soil temperature drops below 13 oC; after
 germination, it overwinters as a seedling and then resumes growth with the onset of
spring
 Tillers, elongates and the flowers in late spring or early summer and ripens in June,
July or August, depending on the latitude
 Requires vernalization (exposure to near freezing temperatures in the seedling stage)
to induce flowering
 grown mostly in Europe and America
b) Spring wheat
 grown in the spring and summer season
 occupy about 5-7% of the world wheat area
 spring type varieties grown in north and south of the winter wheat areas.
 They have a continuous short growth cycle of 3-6 months.
 They are sown in the early spring (April or May), it germinates grows and ripens
during the spring and summer, and is harvested in the late summer or early fall
(August to September).
 However, in Nepal and India, spring wheat is grown and raised in winter. It is only in
some high hills in Nepal that wheat is grown in winter as well as in summer
(Mustang, Rasuwa, Manang, Dolpa, Humla etc). Spring wheat cannot survive very
low temperature and in areas having severe winters, they are planted in spring
season

S.N. Characters Semi dwarf cultivar Tall indigenous wheat

(Modern) (Traditional)
1 Plant character Dwarf (50-100 cm), Tall (125-150 cm), weak plants
stiff plants, strong and
crown roots, which do lodge under high dose of
not lodge even under fertilizer and water
high dose of fertilizer
and water
2 Sink (photosyntha High Low
te
capacity
accumulatio
n)
3 Tillering habit High so bear more Low so bear less productive
productive plants per plants per unit area
unit area
4 Leaves and efficiency Broad and dark green, Narrower, long and drooping
erect types; types
 effectively use the ‘inefficient utilization of solar
solar energy for energy for photosynthate
photosynthate formation
formation
5 Vegetative and reproductive Shorter longe Longer an shorte
growth r vegetative d r
vegetative
periods reproductive
and periods
reproductive
growth periods
6 Sensitivity adjustmen to Thermo and photo- Thermo and photo-sensitive,
and t insensitive and can hence cannot be fitted in high
cropping easily be fitted in high intensity cropping system
system intensity cropping
system
7 Grain quality Better protein quality Poor protein quality but better
but poor chapatti- chapatti- making quality
making quality
8 Grains production 120-150 grains per 50-60 grains per spike
spike
9 Harvest index High Low
10 Maturity Early maturing Late maturing
11 Climatic adjustment Wide range of agro- Narrow rang o agro-
climatic conditions condition e f climatic
s

Adaptation: Climatic factors

A worldwide crop, grown mostly under various climatic conditions between 47 0S and 570N
latitudes
Also grown in temperate zone and cold tracts of far north, beyond the 600N latitude
Requires moderately cool condition for germination, followed by a cooler period for tiller
formation, grain mature best under warm, dry conditions that are also ideal for harvesting the crop
Best produced with cool, moist weather during major portion of the growing period followed by
dry warm conditions to enable the grain to ripe properly
Cultivated from sea level to the height of 3,300 masl Take 100 -180 days to mature the crop
depending upon the climatic condition of the particular regions
Temperature
Can tolerate very cold temp and even snow during early stages of growth and resumes growth and
development with the setting of warm weather
Cultivated during cool season with temp of less than 250C
Optimum temp for ideal germination: 20-250C (ranges from 3.5-350C)
Intensity of assimilation or photosynthesis: sharply declines with the higher temperature regime of
350C-360C
Growth and development of root and shoot system: interrelated with poor intensity of light,
insufficient soil moisture and nutrients as well as lower temp regime, the growth and development
of both root and shoot systems decline
During booting and flowering stage: excessively high or low temp and drought are harmful to
wheat
Cloudy weather with high humidity and low temp is conducive for rust attack
Prevalence of warm temp during early growth of wheat may retard heading
Vernalization: exposure to prolonged cold period during seedling stage to induce
flowering…….requires by winter wheat
Cold temp along with short days also favour the initiation of tillering Winter wheat if planted in
spring
 Seed germinate but inflorescence do not form
 Culm do not elongate
 Plant remain in a short, vegetative cluster
 Do not flower
Optimum average temp at the time of ripening: 14-150C
Ripen grain prematurely if temp above 320C prevails 3-4 weeks after flowering
Temp condition during grain filling and development are very crucial for yield
 >250C, tend to depress grain wt
If temp high
 too much energy lost through the process of transpiration by the plants and the reduced
residual energy results in poorer grain formation and lower yields
Results in grain shriveling if very hot temperature prevails during grain- ripening period
Solar radiation
Play important role in growth and yield of wheat
Radiation is main source of energy and grain yield is proportional to solar radiation
Intensity of light plays a crucial role in the growth and development of wheat plant
Higher intensity of light along with optimum temp and soil moisture regime promote the process of
tillering and seed formation
Shading during floret development results in fewer floret and fewer kernels per spikelet
Area with warm and damp climate are not suitable for growing wheat
Wheat is a long day plant so it requires long day for flowering
Traditional varieties found photoperiod sensitive but modern varieties have
photoperiod insensitive character

Rainfall
Grown in post rainy season in Nepal so it utilizes the receding soil moisture during early growth
stages, which in turn requires changing soil profile either by irrigation or by natural precipitation
Can not germinate in dry soil
Both amount and distribution of natural precipitation are of prime concern
Requires: 250-1750 mm precipitation on an average depending on cultivars, temp, soil condition,
etc.
Optimum moisture requirement: 625-825 mm
High yielding var need 400-900 mm during vegetative period Transpiration coefficients: 250-350
Rain just after sowing hamper germination and encourage seedling blight (Helminthosporium
sativum)
Moisture should be available in soil at planting
Rain during late vegetative stage of growth cause lodging; excessive moisture favours some foliar
diseases and late rains interrupt or delay harvesting
Moisture deficit at the time of heading stage results in shriveled grains and low yield
In absence of adequate early fall rains before planting, winter wheat may be sown into dry
soils……..
If there is inadequate moisture for germination and seedling development, the seed may rot in the
ground, causing a crop failure
 If rains arrive too late, seedling may not be vigorous growth enough to survive the winter
After seeds start to germinate, favourable condition enable them to utilize their reserve energy
(endosperm) to produce most vigorous seedling possible, roots must develop to provide water and
minerals for the top (leaf) growth that will provide energy for respiration during winter and at the
onset of spring growth. In addition, root growth must be extensive enough to anchor the seedling
firmly and to support spring growth.
Any condition that reduces root growth (eg. moisture stress, improper balance of nutrition or pest)
reduces the survival potential of crops by causing the growth of weaker seedling
Moisture stress during tillering
 reduces the no. of tillers per plant
 reduces yield
Moisture stress during the development of floral parts
  reduces the no. of spikelets per spike or no. of floret per spikelet, depending on when the
stress occurs
Stress during flowering can cause pollen sterility
Moisture stress after pollination, during caryopsis development, causes plants to develop pinched
or shriveled kernels, which results in low quality, low test wt crop
High temp, wind and lower RH increase a plant’s water need

Adaptation: Edaphic factor (soil)

Can grown in diverse soil condition- oxisols, ultisols, inceptisols, vertisols, alfisols
Ideal soil: clay loam or loam texture, good structure, neutral pH and moderate water holding
capacity
Care should be taken to avoid very porous and excessively drained soils
Heavy soils with good drainage and structure are suitable for wheat cultivation under dry
conditions
 Absorb and retain rain water well
Heavy soils with poor structure and poor drainage are not suitable as wheat is sensitive to water
logging
Can successfully grown on lighter soils provided their water and nutrient holding capacities are
improved
durum wheat: more suitable for cultivation in heavy and black soils; when grown in light soils tend
to express yellow berry problem, resulting in poor quality grains
aestivum wheat: grown in all types of soil pH: 6-7.5

Growth stages of wheat

Understanding of growth stages are important and is referred to with respect to fertilization,
irrigation scheduling, weeding, disease pest occurrence, harvesting, etc They are also correlated to
critical development phases of the yield component and
the stages are generally categorized as:
1. Germination and Seedling stage
Stages from seed germination to emergence i.e. 1-4 leaf differentiation stage Crop establishment
takes 5-7 days
Sequential events
 Starting imbibition and completion
 Radicle emergence from caryopsis
 Leaf just at coleoptile tips
 First leaf through coleptile
  First leaf emerged and unfolded
 9 or more leaf unfolded
 Larger root system establishment, etc
 Tillering stage
 Develop crown and branch out into tillers from their base at soil surface
 Crown formation is soon followed by the appearance of tillers and development of
secondary or crown root system
Crown root initiation (CRI) starts at 21-25 days after sowing (DAS) Tillering takes about 40-45
DAS
Shoots are arising from crown
 First the main arises and then after 2-5 tillers would be appears
 First tiller is not produced until the third leaf has fully emerged
Increases in
 Leaf no., leaf area, tiller no., ground coverage, radiation interception, photosynthesis, etc
3. Elongation and jointing stage
Plant starts elongate and nodes can be detectable
 First the pseudostem (leaf sheath) erection
 Then the first node detectable and upto 6 nodes can be detected at the end of the
phase
Flag leaf and flag leaf ligule/collar just visible Increase in
 Plant ht, leaf area, leaf no. radiation interception, photosynthesis, etc
4. booting/late jointing stage Takes about 70-75 DAS Flag leaf sheath extending
Head is prominent inside the upper leaf sheath
Upper leaf starts swelling i.e. boot just visibly swollen Boot swollen and flag leaf sheath opening
The flag leaf consists the spike inside it and first awn appears
5. Heading stage
Spikes start emerging out from leaf sheath
 First spikelet of head just visible
 ¼ of head emerge
 ½ of head emerge
 ¾ of head emerge
 Emergence of head complete
Pollination/anthesis does not occurs
 Determines potential no. of spikelets, spike no., etc
Fig: Anthesis stage
 6. Anthesis and flowering
Beginning of anthesis i.e. opening of floret and pollen shedding starts and complete in 5-7 days
Takes in about 90-95 DAS
Pollination and fertilization takes place
Embryo and endosperm formation begin immediately after fertilization Takes spike growth,
determine potential grain number, spike no., etc
7. Post flowering stage
Consists of kernel formation, milky, dough, physiological maturity Fertilized ovary enlarged and
kernel assume full size
Developing endosperm start as a milky fluid that increase in solids as the mild stage progresses
Kernel sizes increases rapidly
Kernel formation is completed during dough development stage Accumulate most of its dry wt
during dough stage
Transport of nutrients from leaf, stem and spike to developing seed completes by the end of hard
dough
Physiologically matured at the hard dough stage even it contains 30% moisture
Peduncle changed its colour to yellow
8. Ripening stage
Seed loses moisture, and any dormancy it may have had, during the ripening stage
Field preparation
Requires a well pulverized but compact seed bed for good and uniform germination
First cultivated with a MB plough or disc plough, to a depth of 10-30 cm (the exact depth depends
on the location and cropping history of each field)
It is desirable to change the ploughing depth periodically to prevent the development of compact
ploughsole or hard pan immediately below the ploughing depth
Ploughing operation must provide for the incorporation of crop residue and conservation of soil and
moisture
Ploughing is following by harrowing immediately before planting
Where tractor is available on deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing with disc or tines and 2-3
planking should be given to prepare a well pulverized seed
Where bullocks are source of power, deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing or 4-5 inter cross
ploughing with local plough should be done. Planking should be done after each ploughing but
avoid powdery seed bed.
In irrigated area, one pre-sowing irrigation 7-10 days before seedling is necessary to ensure good
germination. One light cultivation and levelling is required before sowing.
In rainfed area, field preparation should be done with great care as conservation of moisture is
dependent on it.
  Field are usually prepared by giving one deep ploughing with iron plough followed by 2-3
times with local plough and planking.
 Ploughing should be done in evening time and furrows should be kept open whole night to
absorb some moisture from dew
 Planking should be done after each ploughing early in the morning
Field preparation should ensure adequately moist soil within 5 cm of soil surface
 Should be fine enough to minimize the loss of water from the soil and to allow seed soil
contact so that seed can absorb water for germination
 Should not be overcultivated
 Should not be pulverised so that crusting occurs and limits emergence
 A moderately cloddy seedbed helps to prevent crusting of the surface soil caused by rain
after planting, which may restrict seedling emergence
Soil treatment
Soil with problem of white ants and Gujhia weevil, that attacked the young seedling, needs to treat
with pesticides
Mix Aldrin 5% dust in soil at the rate of 25kg per ha at the time of last ploughing
Quality seed selection and treatment
Use always the quality seeds, which posses the following attributes
 Genetic purity
 Physical purity
 Germination
 Moisture
 Health
 Vigour
Select only healthy seeds of right variety suitable for particular locality Seeds should be
 Bold
 Free from diseases and pests
 Devoid of any mixture of seeds of other variety or weeds
 Free from inert materials, etc
Should purchase from authorized source with germination capacity of at least 85% and always use
certified seed
Seed treatment
If seed is not certified, seed treatment should be done
Treat the seeds with Captan @ 2 g/kg seed or Thiram @ 2.5 g/kg seed
In areas where the incidence of loose smut is high, seed treatment should be done with
Carbendazim @2.5 g/kg seed, Carboxin or Tebuconazole (Raxil 2 DS) @ 1.5 g/kg seed
Seed rate and spacing
Seed rate principally depends on
 Predicted available moisture in soil at the time of sowing
 Seed size
 Germination percentage
 Moisture content
 Time of sowing
 Method of sowing
Conditions Seed rate (kg/ha)
Irrigated normal sowing & 100
medium sized seed (38g/1000
seed)
Bold var (45g/1000 seed) (eg. RR21) 125 (25% more than normal sowing)
Late sown wheat 125-150
Rainfed condition 75-80
For sowing with dibbler 25-30

Spacing
Conditions Spacing (cm)
row to row plant to plant
Irrigated Timely sown 20-22 5-7
Late sown 15-18 5-7
Rainfed 25-30

Spacing can be adjusted as narrow as 10 cm for higher seed rate and 30-45 cm apart for lower
planting rate
Wheat has a remarkable capacity to adjust or respond to planting rates
 If planting rate is light, each seedling produces an abundant of tillers so that the no. of stems
in a given area is comparable to the no. of produced by a crop seeded under heaver planting
rate.
  With lower planting rate, more tillers develop because more light reaches critical sites of
auxin accumulation, which reduces apical dominance of existing stems and allows auxiliary
bud to develop and grow.
 One problem with late tillering is that the late maturity of tillers interrupt harvesting and
grain from later tillers may be small and excessively damp.
 Cultivars differ in the maximum no. of tillers produced per plant and in the extent to which
they adjust their tillering in response to variations in planting rates.
Excessively high planting rates can cause a no. of problems
 Essential materials such as water and minerals may be adequate for seedling
growth, but, as plants grow and compete more for light, moisture, nutrients, they may deplete the
supply of one or more of these essential factors. If adequate supply are not available throughout the
entire life of plants, the yield of plants are reduced. The specific cause of the yield reduction
depends on when a factor is depleted.
 Plants that suffers from moisture stress early in their life cycle produce fewer tillers, if
moisture stress occurs later, the no. of florets per spikelets or spikelets per spike is reduced
moisture stress after flowering results in smaller or lighter kernels reduced test wt
 Excessively high planting rates cause plants to grow tall, with weak stems.
 Because of shading between plants, auxin-regulated stem elongation is abnormal
and stems become etiolated, much as they would be if plants were grown in dark.
 Tall, weak stemmed plants tend to lodge which causes problem in harvesting and
results in reduced yield.
 Tall plants also shatter more, reducing yields even further.
Proper plant rate is one that
 allows optimum and balanced use of environmental resources, mainly available moisture
and essential nutrients
 minimize competition between wheat plants
Depth of sowing
Very important aspect in successful cultivation of high yielding dwarf varieties of wheat
Depth varies from 2.5-7.5 cm depending on
 the type of soil (planted deeper in lighter, sandy soil than heavier clay soil)
 the seed size (larger the seed, greater the allowable seeding depth)
 level at which adequate moisture is available for germination
The coleoptile length is shorter in case of Mexican wheat as compared to tall variety.
 The coleoptile length of high yielding Mexican dwarf variety is about 5 cm. Therefore,
seeds of these varieties should be covered not by more than 5 cm soil to ensure uniform and
good germination.
Seeds of semidwarf (1 gene dwarf) varieties could be sown at the depth of 5-6 cm but of 3 dwarf
gene variety should not be sown deeper that 4 cm.
Similarly in late sown crop seed should be sown shallow (about 4 cm deep) as deep sowing delays
the emergence of seedling by 2-3 days and heading by 5-6 days.
It is desirable to plant into moist soil, but not if planting depth exceed about
7.5 cm
Time of sowing
Has a mark influence on the yield of wheat
Optimum time of sowing varies over the wheat growing areas which depends upon
 Type of varieties (duration)
 Weather condition
 Soil temp
 Irrigation facility
 Land preparation
 Availability of inputs
Should be done timely and in the soil having proper moisture and temperature Delay sowing lead to
 Poor stand
 Inadequate vegetative growth of crop
 Poor reproductive development on account of the quick rise of ambient temp toward the
maturity stage
 Damage due to rust attack
 Premature drying of crops
 Reduction of yield
Late maturing varieties must be sown timely to avoid yield reduction
Where sowing of wheat is delayed beyond November the reduction in yield is observed @ 47 and
57 Kg/ha/day in December and January sown, respectively.
Under irrigated condition, maximum productivity potential of promising wheat varieties attain by
sowing them between 10th to 25th November
However, the seeding rate should be adjusted in such a manner that the mean daily temperature
drops down to 20-220C.
Sowing wheat while the temp are high (around 250C) results
 Poor germination
 Reduced tillering
 Early onset of flowering, thereby exposing the floral parts to cold damage
Rainfed wheat: sowing done relatively early before the moisture built up from the monsoon rains
recedes deeper
 second fortnight of October to early November
Optimum time of sowing in Nepal: 15 October to 15 November
In late sown wheat, only short duration varieties should be sown because there is comparatively
less reduction in their yield compared to long duration varieties.
Methods of sowing
1. Broadcasting
A primitive but widely prevailing method of wheat sowing
Seeds are broadcast on soil surface, then worked in by harrowing and covered by planking
Results in poor and uneven germination………….because……..
 all the seeds broadcast do not proper contact with moist soil
 some seeds are left uncovered and are eaten by birds
To overcome these impediments, 25% higher seed rate is recommended for broadcasting.
Insufficient sowing method so should not be encouraged
However, in the rice-wheat cropping system this method is gaining popularity
 due to a short-turn-around period rice harvest and wheat sowing
 furthermore, broadcast wheat immediately after rice harvest gets the benefit of stored soil
moisture and generally there is a good germination
2. Behind local plough
Consist of dropping the seeds by hand into furrows that have been opened with a country plough.
When seed is dropped into furrows by hand, it is called ‘kera method’ and when seeds are dropped
through a ‘pora/nai/hazara’ a special attachment with a local plough, it is called ‘pora method’.
In this method seeds are dropped at a desired depth and germination is satisfactory.
3. Drilling
Seed is sown by seed drill or ferti-seed drill
Seeds drop at uniform depth and results in uniform germination and regular stand Seed bed should
be fine and well levelled, free from clods and weeds for the use of seed drill or ferti-seed drill
Seed drill may be either bullock driven or tractor driven
Ferti-seed drill should be used wherever possible to ensure uniform depth of sowing, proper
placement of fertilizer and good germination
4. Dibbling
Used in case where supply of seed is limited
Sowing is done with the help of a small implement known as dibbler (a wooden or iron frame with
pegs)
Frames is pressed in the field and lifted and then one or two seeds are dropped by hand in each of
the hole
Not a common method because it is a very time consuming process
 5. Zero tillage technique
In rice-wheat system
 Incur high cost for land preparation
 Delay in sowing of wheat (beyond 25 November)………..multiple reasons…..
 Preparation of field
 Uncertain rainfall
 Rice harvesting with traditional method
Puddling in rice field creates a hard pan in the field. After harvesting of rice crop, field require at
least 6-8 tillage operation in ploughing and harrowing for sowing of wheat, in which, generally 10-
15 days are required for proper field preparation. Yield of wheat decrease 30 kg/ha/day after 25
November sowing. To overcome the shortcomes, zero tillage techniques is developed.
Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage, which, as a category of tillage systems, not
only includes methods resulting in reduced tillage intensity but also the combined use of several
implements in one operation, such as the plough-plant method.
In zero tillage, primary tillage is completely avoided and secondary tillage is restricted to traffic
and seed bed preparation in row zone only.
Zero-till-ferti-seed-drill machine is used by which direct sowing of wheat is done in rice field
without ploughing. This helps advancing the sowing of wheat as the time required for field
preparation is saved.
Important points for ensuring high yields
At the time of sowing, there should be proper moisture in the field and plain areas.
Rice should be harvested near the ground and leftover stubble should not be more than 15 cm in
height and field should be free from weeds.
At the time of sowing, the seed drill should be lifted up or lower down very slowly to avoid
chocking of furrow opener by soil. Otherwise, seed and fertilizer will not drill in the furrow.
Always use dry seed treated with Captan @ 2 g/kg seed or Thiram @ 2.5 g/kg seed or
Carbendazim @2.5 g/kg seed of wheat (seed rate @125 kg/ha or 20- 25% higher).
Sowing depth should be maintained about 5-6 cm.
Use DAP only in the fertilizer box at the time of sowing. Apply of Urea and MOP after 10-20 days
sowing (150 Kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2 O).
Light planker may be used behind the zero tillage machine. Timely irrigation
If zinc sulphate has not been used in previous crop then zinc should be applied at the time of
sowing.
Apply sulfosulfuron @ 25 g ai/ha (Leader 33.3 gm/ha) at 30-35 DAS in wheat
Advantages
Timely sown
Low cost for land preparation
Low amount of water requirement (30% less)
Higher seeding establishment during warm and dry period Less infestation by Phalaris minor and
other weeds Maximization of fertilizer use efficiency
Changes and improvement of physical property of soil Easy to plant wheat with low cost in clay
soil
6. FIRB system
The furrow irrigated raised bed (FIRB) planting system has been developed and is being promoted
by the Rice- Wheat Consortium of CGIAR Institutes.
In this method wheat is sown on raised beds (65-70 cm wide) accommodating 2-3 rows of wheat
Between the beds are furrows (30 cm) that are used for irrigation.
The yields obtained are similar to or more than conventional seeding; help in saving water (25-
40%), seed (25%), fertilizer (25%).
Use special raised bed making and plating machines for this purpose.
Manures and Fertilizers
Yield = F(nutrient availability and application)
Need adequate supply of external plant nutrients for getting good yield of wheat, particularly true
for high yielding varieties
Nitrogen
Critical concentration in leaves: 2.5-2.9% on dry wt basis, below which deficiency symptoms
appear
Integral part of chlorophyll and enzyme essential for plant growth processes Essential constitute of
amino acid, proteins
Promote higher photosynthetic activity by adequate N and vigorous vegetative growth as a result
turn into dark green colour
N application attributes to
 enhanced plant height
 better tillering
 higher no. of panicles/m2
 more grains per panicle
If deficit, chlorosis or yellowing of leaves, stunted growth, reduced no. of tillers, etc
Phosphorus
P concentration below 0.1% in dry leaf tissue is considered deficit
Stimulate root development and growth in seedling stage thus helping to establish seedling quickly
Constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospholipids
High energy phosphate bond for energy transfer (ADP---ATP) Promotes earlier flowering and
maturity
Adequate P2O5 increases N extraction from soil
Potash
Important role in osmotic regulation and helps in maintaining plant turgor Increases the size and
weight of the grains
Increases phosphorus response
Plays an important role in physiological processes in the plant including opening and closing of
stomata, and tolerance to unfavorable climatic conditions
Renders resistance to diseases
Zinc
Deficiency leads to retardation of stem elongation, necrosis and chlorosis of leaves
Normal concentration in healthy plants: 4.2-28 ppm
Manganese
Deficiency symptoms seen as necrotic streaks on the leaf lamina (highly visible on the flag leaf)
Iron
Deficiency symptom is chlorosis of wheat leaf, that appear within 2 weeks after sowing
Boron
Deficiency results in
 improper development of inflorescence
 very short awn
 reduction in yield and yield quality
Copper
Deficiency symptoms are
 limpness or wilting with resultant loss in turgor
 pale yellow leaf tip
 reduced stem elongation
 improper heading
 spikelets devoid of grains
Application of manure and fertilizers
Both organic matter and chemical fertilizers are important for wheat cultivation Removes large
quantities of plant nutrients from the soil along with harvest of grain and straw
Nutrient removal by wheat for each tonne of grain harvest along with 2 tonne of straw
Need to replenish the amount of nutrients remove by plant through organic or inorganic sources
Use of organic manures is
 highly effective to achieve and sustain reasonable yield
  helpful to improves the general physical condition and structure of soil and its capacity to
hold water
 essential to maintain biological processes
A liberal quantity of bulky manure should be applied in field if available
 Dose: @5-10t/ha for cultivation of wheat both under rainfed and irrigated conditions
Sources: well decomposed FYM, compost, poultry manure, enriched compost, etc.
Need to apply these manures 4-6 weeks before sowing and worked well into the soil
However, manures by themselves can not meet the high nutrient requirement of plants, which are
also in short supply, therefore, it becomes necessary to supplement manure with chemical
fertilizers to get high yield.
HYV of wheat fully exhibit their yield potential only when applied with adequate quantity of
nutrients at proper time.
Response of given variety to apply of fertilizers , however, varies from field to field; from locality
to locality
Soils usually deficits in N but the status of P 2O5 and K2O differs from place to place depending on
native nutrient store and previous fertilization history of field. Fertilizer dose of wheat, therefore,
be related to the fertility status of the soil.
But, in case where soil test recommendation are not available, the general guidelines for
fertilization of HYV are given below (from literature):
N amount vary depending upon soil fertility and good response of applied P and K obtain when use
based on soil test results
Method and time of application
Three main factors have to be taken into account when applying fertilizers to wheat to get best
response and profit:
 Application of correct doses of fertilizers/nutrients after taking into account the
requirements of the crop and soil’s reserve supply
 Application of nutrient at the right time
 Application of nutrient in correct way
Nitrogen
Split application is an established practice of applied N may be lost through ammonia
volatilization, if urea or ammonical fertilizers are used for top dressing. In such cases calcium
ammonium nitrate (CAN) should be preferred over urea.

Condition Doses as a basal Doses as a top dressed

Irrigated medium & ½ or at time of sowing about or ½ at the time of first irrigation
heavy soil 5 cm below the seed (CRI stage -35 DAS)
Irrigated sandy soil or ½ at the time of sowing or ¼ at CRI stage (at first irrigation)
and remaining or ¼ applied after
 second irrigation
Rainfed condition Full dose of N applied 8-10 cm
deep in soil at or before
sowing

Phosphorus and Potash

Placement below the seed is best method in most soils
Apply full dose of P2O5 and K2O at the time of sowing, if possible, place 3-5 cm to the side and 3-5
cm below the seed with the help of ferti-seed drill or pora method
In case of fertilizers, in general, one should not be concerned with total phosphorus but also with
water soluble phosphorus.
 For wheat, phosphatic fertilizers must content 50% of total phosphorus in water soluble
form and remaining portion in citrate soluble form.
 This is specially important for neutral and alkaline soil. Rock phosphate has exceedingly
low solubility, if applied into a neutral or alkaline soil, will be of little use for the crop.
In acid soils (pH< 6), use of basic slag or rock phosphate may be profitable than superphosphate or
DAP because cost per unit P2O5 is much less in former than later.
Water soluble phosphatic fertilizers, such as DAP and superphosphate are most effective when
applied in granular form whereas citrate soluble fertilizers such as rock phosphate and basic slag
are most effective in finely powdered form.
MoP and potassium sulphate are equally good for wheat cultivation
Micronutrients
Apply 25-30 kg/ha ZnSO4 at the time of last ploughing Acute deficiency can be taken care of by
soil application
If deficiency developed in the early crop growth stage, spray a solution of 5 kg ZnSO 4 and 2.5 kg
lime in 1000 L of water per ha
Spray 0.5% solution of MnSO4 against Mn deficiency
Removed S deficiency by the use of fertilizers containing sulfur such as ammonium sulphate,
single superphosphate, etc.
Water management
A post rainy season crop in most regions of Nepal
Utilizes the receding soil moisture during early growth phase, therefore, requires soil profiles to be
charged either by irrigating or natural precipitation
Successful wheat cultivation depends on adequately supply of water during different phenophases
of the plant
However, in certain physiological stages if moisture stress occurs, results in reduction of
development and production. These are:
 Crown root initiation stage
 Flowering stage
 Milking or grain filling stage
CRI is most critical
 Since crown roots are formed at around 2 cm of soil depth, irrespective of depth of seed
placement and this is the level which subject of fastest drying.
 Under dry soil conditions, root fail to grow and subsequently result in yield loss.
Delay in giving first irrigation at CRI results
 upsetting the synchronous tillering in varieties
 subnormal heading
 poor root system
 poor grain yield (reduced yield by 27%)
Inadequate moisture during grain filling leads to grain shrivelling.
For HYV, one pre-sowing irrigation should be there and crop sown when the field become fit for
operation
Total no. of irrigation required will vary depending upon
 soil type
 winter rainfall
 amount of water applied per irrigation
 weather conditions
Heavy deep soil with good water holding capacity: require only 3-4 heavy (7-9 cm) irrigations
Sandy soil: requires 6-8 lighter (5-6 cm) irrigations
Higher temperature during any of the crop growth phases may necessitate additional irrigation.
Adjustment need to be made for rainfall during crop season.
For determining when to apply irrigation, there are several methods.
 Soil moisture level determination
 Consumptive water use
 Physiological crop stage
Irrigation water requirement: 180-420 mm
Schedule of irrigation
1. First irrigation
Given at CRI stage i.e. 20-25 DAS to the standing crop
In cooler regions like hilly tracts and in late shown wheat, it is desirable to apply first irrigation
approximately 25-30 DAS
2. Second irrigation
At tillering stage i.e. 40-45 days after the sowing.
3. Third Irrigation
At node formation stage i.e. 60-65 days after sowing.
4. Fourth Irrigation
At flowering stage i.e. 80-85 days after sowing. Plant suffers most from soil moisture deficiency
and results in reduced grain no. and size if drought persist.
5. Fifth Irrigation
At milk formation stage i.e. 100-105 days after sowing.
6. Sixth Irrigation
At grain filling stage i.e. 115-120 days after sowing.
In case of loam and heavy loam soils, the following 4 irrigation can give good yield:
 1st Irrigation : 20-25 days after the sowing.
 2nd Irrigation : 30 days after the 1st irrigation.
 3rd Irrigation : 30 days after the 2nd irrigation.
 4th Irrigation : 20-25 days after the 3rd irrigation.
 Depending upon availability of water, the following schedule of irrigation can be
adopted for best utilization of available quantity of water

No. of Important stages of wheat for water application

irrigatio
n Pre- CRI Tillering Jointing Flowering Milking Grain
sowing (20- (40- (60- (80-85 (100- filling or
45 DAS) 65 DAS) DAS) 105 dough
25
DAS) (115-
DAS)
120 DAS)
7 Ö Ö Ö Ö Ö Ö Ö
6 Ö Ö Ö Ö Ö Ö -
5 Ö Ö - Ö Ö Ö -
4 Ö Ö - Ö - Ö -
3 - Ö - Ö - Ö -
2 - Ö - - Ö - -
 1 - Ö - - - - -

Give adequate emphasis on the following three points while irrigating the wheat crop:
 For proper distribution irrigation water field should be made plain and slight slope should
be given in one direction.
 After sowing field should be distributed in equal size of beds. This also ensures proper
distribution of irrigation water.
 In case of light and heavy soils irrigation depth should be 6 cm and 8 cm, respectively.
Based on pan evaporation
 Give irrigation at IW/CPE ratio = 0.75-0.9
To overcome constraints of water availability to wheat crop, Rawson (1988) suggests use of
 large seeded genotype, planted at available moisture of 10%
 genotypes with large first leaf to maximize on photosynthesis, which results in rapid deeper
roots for greater water exploration
 fertilizer at planting because late fertilizing stimulates late tillering , which wastes water
resources
 genotypes with heavy glaucousness which increases water use efficiency
 slightly taller genotypes, which may produce deeper roots for greater deep water extraction
 Weed management
 As a winter seasonal and narrow spaced crop, the infestation in wheat is less as compared to
broad spacing crop.
 However, several weeds emerge with emerging crop seedling and interfere with wheat
growth by competing for light, water, nutrients and space
 If not controlled in early stages of crop growth, these may cause reduction in yield.
 Yield reduction generally varies from 10-40% depending on
 types of weed infestation
 time of infestation
 period on weed infestation
 initial weed seed bank in soil
 Weed reduces
 no. of tillers
 plant ht
 no. of leaves
  ear length
 no. of spikelets per ear
 test wt
 ultimately, grain yield

Weeds affect the wheat crop in following ways;

 Extract nutrients from the soil meant for the plants, faster than the crop
 Compete with the crop for soil moisture, sunshine and space
 Serve as collateral hosts for many of the pathogens causing serious diseases of wheat
(Phalaris minor and Rumex acetosella serve as collateral host of B. sorokiniana and A.
triticina causing foliar blight and many of the weeds for E. graminis tritici responsible for
powdery mildew)
 Also serve as a source of primary inoculum of the pathogen for the next season
 Make harvesting and threshing of the crop difficult
 Presence of weed seeds reduces the quality of the produce and therefore, the market value
Weed type Weed species

Narrow leaf/monocot Phalaris minor, Avena fatua, Poa annua, Cynodon dactylon,
weeds Cyperus rotundus

Broad leaf/dicot weeds Chenopodium album, Fumaria parviflora, Anagalis arvensis,

Vicia hirsuta, Vicia sativa, Lathyrus aphaca, Xanthium
strumerium, Canabis sativa, Argemone mexicana, Capsella
bursapastoris, Melilotus alba, Melilotus indica

Critical period of competition

The period of the crop life cycle during which weed competition has the most negative impact on
crop yield
 Critical period: 30-45 DAS depending upon soil, weedflora and climate
Methods of weed control
1. Physical method: Manual weeding, mechanical weeding, burning
Hand weeding is most widely used manual method for controlling weeds One-two manual weeding
effective for controlling all type of weeds
 First weeding: 3 weeks after sowing
  Second weeding: 6 weeks after sowing
 Hoeing keeps weeds under control and provides aeration to the developing roots
Mechanical weeding: use mechanical weeder either operated manually or power driven
Collect all the weeds in a place and then dry and burn
2. Good crop husbandry
Good variety selection: quality seed, free from weed seed
Optimum land preparation: top upper layer dry and lower must be moist Optimum time of sowing:
Oct 15- Nov 15
Optimum seed rate and spacing: 100-125 kg/ha; Closer planting and cross sowing also found
effective to reduce weeds
Water and fertilizer management: apply water at critical stages and properly utilize fertilizers
3. Herbicidal control
Widely used and most acceptable means in controlling weed due to availability of different
herbicides in market
A number of herbicides have been found effective in controlling annual weeds of grassy and
broadleaf nature Spray with the help of flat fane nozzle and making a solution in 800-1000, water
for one hectare

Type of weed Herbicides Quantity (a.i./ha) Time of application

Broad leaves 2,4-D 500 g 35-40 DAS (November
sown) 40-45 DAS (late
sown)
Metasulfuron methyl 4g 30-35 DAS
Narrow leaves Isoproturon 1.00 kg 30-35 DAS
Sulfosulfuron 25 g 30-35 DAS
Clodinafop 60 g 30-35 DAS
Metribuzin 175 g 30-35 DAS
Pendimethalin 1.0 kg Within 3 days of sowing
(pre- emergence)

When 2,4-D is sprayed between 25 and 30 DAS, the ears of wheat have been found to suffer from
malformation. Malformation adversely affects the uniformity of seed size and thereby reduces their
value as grain and seed.
Gappy spikelets results in reduction in total number of grains per head and finally lead to reduced
grain yield.
Drift of 2,4-D may spoil the pulse crops like pea, gram, lentil and mustard so that spray 2,4-D
where there is minimum wind velocity.
For Phalaris minor and Avena fatua controlling, use
 Isoproturon @1.0 kg a.i. per ha 32-35 DAS (600- 800 L water)
 Pendimethalin @1.0 kg a.i. per ha 2-3 DAS
 Sulfosulfuron @ 45 g a.i. per ha
Harvesting and Threshing
Should done at proper maturity stage
To avoid loss in yield crop should be harvested before it is dead ripe
Yellow and fairly dry leaves and stems are an important visual indicator for readiness to harvest
Right stage of harvesting is when there is about 25-30% moisture in seed
Harvesting of crop when plant turn yellow/white before complete drying is recommended to reduce
losses due to shattering. At this stage grains have already become hard and break rather than crush
when pressed under teeth.
Harvesting should done as soon as it matures, if delay, grain lost due to
 Damage by rats, insects, pest and birds
 Losses due to bad weather condition
 Shredding, broken spikes and shattering grains
 lodging effect
Timely harvesting ensures optimum grain quality and consumer preferences Rainfed crop sown
early reaches the harvest stage much earlier than the irrigated crop
Harvesting can be done with manual operation i.e. hand cutting and animal or tractor driven reapers
Cutting operation
 Slicing action with a sharp smooth edge
 Tearing action with a rough serrated edge
In developed countries: combined harvester
 Can do harvesting, threshing and winnowing wheat crop in one operation at a faster rate
 For combining, grain should be from about 12-14% moisture
 Need to remove irrigation channels and any other impedance to the movement of combine
harvester ahead to reduce breakdowns and to enhance energy efficiency
Dry the hand cutting or reaper harvested crop for 3-4 days on the threshing floor and then threshing
is done either by trampling bullocks or tractor tyre or bitting by hand on wood log or stones or
toughland
Cut the crop fairly near to ground or leave 5-15 cm stubble from ground level depending upon crop
varieties, threshing operation and field condition
Nowadays, power driven stationary threshers are becoming popular because these are easy in
operation and hasten the process
Cleaning and Drying
Grain should be cleaned and dried well in sun for a few days so that moisture content of the grain
comes down to 10-12%
Cleaning involves the separation of bulky straw, chaff, empty kernels and very light and fine
impurities from the grain
Straw and chaff are manually separated and grain is dropped through a cross wind to remove the
lighter impurities
Winnowing machine can be used for cleaning threshed wheat
Drying can be done either in intense sunlight condition or in artificial hot air drier
Storage
Wheat grain harvested at the end of dry winter season, needs storage during hot and humid
monsoon season until the next winter planting
Storage facility depend on economic factors
Easy and cost effective storage methods used by less prosperous farmers are metallic drums,
polyethene bags and earthen pots
Care should be taken to store different varieties of wheat separately to avoid their mixing up
Should clean and dry wheat grains before storage
If impurities in grain then causes rapid deterioration in quality and quantity
At a temp of 250C & 75% humidity, wheat seed reach 15% moisture
The critical moisture content of wheat seeds at which the rate of respiration increase is 14.6%
Grains with less than 10% moisture store well and this level of moisture can be easily achieved by
sun drying during May-June in most part of the country
Unprotected seed respire faster, depleting seeds’ food reserve
The monsoon climate which occurs soon after harvest is ideally suited for insect proliferation,
therefore, damaged to stored wheat grains could be greater (eg. Rice weevil, lesser grain moth,
khapra beetle, etc)
Aspergillus and Penicillium can damage wheat grains stored in moist condition
If unprotected, losses due to rat can be severe
Storage container may be made of steel or concrete but should be air tight
Stack (12-16 bag high) the bagged wheat on wooden dunnage to prevent moisture absorption and
to permit good sanitation practices
Dunnage materials should be clean and disinfected before use
Yield
Yield depends on seeding rates, soil fertility, moisture availability & distribution and the effect of
various pests
With improved scientific methods, HYV yields
 4.5-6.5 t/ha under irrigated condition
2-2.5 t/ha under unirrigated conditionYield constraints
1. Climatic constraints
 Severity of winter
 Short growing period
 Low or erratic rainfall
 Environmental limitations or natural hazards (hail, frost, wind, post- anthesis heat
stress,etc)
2. Agronomical constraints
 Less and unbalance use of plant nutrients
 Untimely planting of wheat
 Broadcasting of seed
 Use of uncertified seed
 Less irrigation facility
 Poor management of post harvest losses
3. Seed and varietal constraints
 Low number of released varieties
 Lack of niche based varieties
 Untimely available of seed
Genetic erodibility of the varieties/strains
4. Soil and fertility constraints
 Addition of more rainfed marginal lands
 Poor soil fertility management practices
 Heavy soil erosion
5. Technological constraints
 Lack of appropriate technologies or package of practices
 Poor mechanization in agriculture
 Ownership right and land fragmentation problem
6. Disease and pest problems
 Problem of rust (Puccinia spp.), loose smut (Ustilago nuda tritici)
 Problem of gujhia weevil, army worms, rodents
 Lack of suitable disease resistant varieties
 Inadequate of pests and diseases management
7. Agriculture extension and marketing
 Lack of institutional services to the farmers
 Poor marketing facility
8. Credit supply and subsidy
 Inadequate credit facility
 Negative effect of subsidy on agricultural production
9. Lack of research and development planning