Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C.
Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
Boolean Algebra
• Boolean algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with operations on logical values
with binary variables. The Boolean variables are represented as binary numbers to represent
truth table: 1 = true and 0 = false.
Basic definitions: Boolean algebra
• It is a set of elements, a set of operators, and a number of unproved axioms or postulates.
• Set of elements is any collection of objects, usually having a common property.
• Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4} indicates that set A has the elements of 1, 2, 3, and 4.
• A binary operator defined on a set S of elements is a rule that assigns, to each pair of
elements from S, a unique element from S.
The most common postulates used to formulate various algebraic structures are:
1. Closure: A set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every pair of
elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S.
2. Associative law: A binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative whenever
(x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, z € S.
3. Commutative law: A binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative
whenever x * y = y * x for all x, y € S
4. Identity element: A set S is said to have an identity element with respect to a binary
operation * / + on S if there exists an element e € S with the property that
e * x = x * e = x for every x € S
Example:
The element 0 is an identity element with respect to the binary operator + on the set of
integers I = {......, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .....}, since x + 0 = 0+ x = x for any x € I
[Link]: A set S having the identity element e with respect to a binary operator * is said
to have an inverse whenever, for every x € S, there exists an element y € S such that
x * y = e.
6. Distributive law: If * and • are two binary operators on a set S, * is said to be
distributive over • whenever x * (y • z) = (x * y) • (x * z).
Example: x(y+z)=(x⋅y)+(x⋅z)
For, x=2,y=3,z=4
2⋅(3+4)=2⋅7=14
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
(2⋅3)+(2⋅4)=6+8=14
Thus, the distributive law holds.
Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra:
• 1854: George Boole developed an algebraic system called Boolean algebra.
• 1904: E. V. Huntington formulated a set of postulates that formally define the Boolean
algebra.
• 1938: C. E. Shannon introduced a two-valued Boolean algebra called switching algebra that
represented the properties of bistable electrical switching circuits.
Duality property
All binary operations remain valid when following two steps are performed:
1) Interchange OR and AND operators.
2) Replace all 1s by 0s and 0s by 1s.
Huntington postulates:
1. (a) The structure is closed with respect to the operator +.
(b) The structure is closed with respect to the operator •.
2. (a) The element 0 is an identity element with respect to +;
that is, x + 0 = 0 + x = x.
(b) The element 1 is an identity element with respect to •;
that is, x • 1 = 1 • x = x.
3. (a) The structure is commutative with respect to +; that is, x + y = y + x.
(b) The structure is commutative with respect to • ; that is, x • y = y • x.
4. (a) The operator • is distributive over +; that is,
x • (y + z) = (x • y) + (x • z).
(b) The operator + is distributive over •; that is,
x + (y • z) = (x + y) • (x + z).
5. For every element x € B, there exists an element x’ € B (called the complement of x) such that
(a) x + x’= 1 and (b) x • x’ = 0.
6. There exist at least two elements x, y € B such that x ≠ y.
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
Comparison between Boolean algebra with arithmetic and ordinary algebra.
1. Huntington postulates do not include the associative law. However, this law holds for
Boolean algebra and can be derived (for both operators) from the other postulates.
2. The distributive law of + over • (i.e., x + (y • z) = (x + y) • (x + z) ) is valid for Boolean
algebra, but not for ordinary algebra.
3. Boolean algebra does not have additive or multiplicative inverses; therefore, there are no
subtraction or division operations.
4. Operator called complement is not available in ordinary algebra.
5. Ordinary algebra deals with the real numbers, which constitute an infinite set of elements.
Boolean algebra is defined as a set with only two elements 0 and 1.
Two-valued Boolean Algebra
• Two valued Boolean algebra is a set of two elements with operations:
• + : OR operation; ‧ : AND operation, complement operator: NOT operation
• Example: Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra also called “switching algebra” by
engineers
• Operations:
• Distributive laws:
x‧(y + z) = (x‧y) + (x‧z)
x+ (y‧z) = (x+y)‧(x+z)
• Complement
x+x'=1: 0+0'=0+1=1; 1+1'=1+0=1
x‧x'=0: 0‧0'=0‧1=0; 1‧1'=1‧0=0
Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
Demorgan’s Theorem: De Morgan’s theorems are used to solve the expressions of Boolean
Algebra. It is a very powerful tool used in digital design. This theorem explains that the
complements of the products of all the terms are equal to the sums of the complements of each and
every term. Likewise, the complements of the sums of all the terms are equal to the products of the
complements of each and every term.
Note: Operator precedence:
Operator precedence for evaluating Boolean expressions is
a) Parenthesis b) not c) and d) or.
Numerical
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
Boolean Functions
• Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables, the two binary operators
OR , AND, unary operator NOT, parentheses and equal sign.
Example:
1.F1 = xyz’
It means F1 is 1 when x= 1, y=1 and z = 0
To represent this function in truth table we need 2! 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 of 1’s and 0’s. where n is
binary variables in the function.
2) F2 = x +y’ z
It means F2 = 1 if (x = 1, y = 0, z = 1) or (x = 0, y = 0, z = 1) or …(See the below truth table for
other conditions)……….otherwise F2 = 0.
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
Truth Table:
Boolean function can be represented in a truth table.
• A truth table is a table that displays the logical operations on input signals in a table format.
It identifies all possible input combinations and the output for each.
• Truth table has 2n rows where n is the number of variables in the function.
• The binary combinations for the truth table are obtained from the binary numbers by
counting from 0 through 2n- 1.
Literal: a complemented or un-complemented variable (an input to a gate).
Minimization of the number of literals results in a simple circuit with less number of gates.
F2 = x'y'z + x'yz + xy' has 3 terms with 8 literals.
It can be simplified as:
F2 = x'z (y' + y) + xy'
= x'z + xy' .
Now the simplified function has 2 terms and 4 literals only.
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
Other Logic Operations
For n binary variables, there can be 2n functions.
Example for four variables, 16 functions are possible.
16 functions can be subdivided into various categories:
a) Two functions that produce a constant 0 or 1.
b) Four functions with unary operations: complement and transfer
c) Ten functions with binary operators that define eight different operations: AND, OR,
NAND, NOR, XNOR, equivalence, inhibition and implication.
• Complement function produces the complement of each binary variable.
• Function that is equal to input variable has been given the name transfer.
• Equivalence is a function that is 1 when both binary variables are equal (XNOR).
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
DIGITAL LOGIC GATES: The basic digital electronic circuit that has one or more inputs and
single output is known as Logic gate. Hence, the Logic gates are the building blocks of any digital
system. Logic gates are classified into three categories: Basic Gates (AND, OR, INVERTER),
Universal Gates (NAND, NOR) and Special Gates (Ex-OR, Rx-NOR).
Three inputs NOR and NAND gates:
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
Three input Exclusive-OR gate:
Combinational circuit:
A combinational circuit consists of input variables, logic gates and output variables. Logic gates
accept signals from inputs and generate output signals.
Both input and output data are represented by binary signals. For n input variables, there are 2n
possible combinations of binary input values. For each possible input combination, there is only
one possible output combination. Each output function is expressed in terms of n input variables.
Each input variable to a combinational circuit may have one or two wires. Variable is represented
either in normal form (unprimed) or in complemented form (primed). To implement primed
variables, an inverter is required.
Design procedure of combinational circuits
• Design procedure involves the following steps:
1) The problem is stated.
2) The number of available input variables and required output variables is determined.
3) The input and output variables are assigned letter symbols.
4) Truth table that defines the relationship between input and output variables is
determined.
5) Simplified Boolean function for each output is obtained.
6) Logic diagram is drawn.
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
• Truth table for a combinational circuit consists of input and output columns. 1s and 0s in
input columns are obtained from 2n binary combinations available for input variables.
Output may be either 0 or 1 for every valid input combination.
• Output Boolean functions from truth table are simplified using laws of Boolean Algebra, K-
map method or tabular method.
Adders
• Adders are digital circuits that carry out addition of numbers. Adders are a key component
of arithmetic logic unit. Adders can be constructed for most of the numerical
representations like Binary Coded Decimal (BCD), Excess – 3, Gray code, Binary etc. out
of these, binary addition is the most frequently performed task by most common adders.
• Two Types of adders are:
Half Adder , Full adder
HALF ADDER:
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Introduction to Electronics & Communication BESCK104C. Module3, Common to AIML, DS, CSE Branch
FULL Adder
From the truth Table:
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