Dictionaries store connections between pieces of

List comprehensions information. Each item in a dictionary is a key-value pair.

squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 11)] A simple dictionary
Slicing a list alien = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5}
finishers = ['sam', 'bob', 'ada', 'bea']
Accessing a value
first_two = finishers[:2]
print("The alien's color is " + alien['color'])
Variables are used to store values. A string is a series of Copying a list
characters, surrounded by single or double quotes. Adding a new key-value pair
copy_of_bikes = bikes[:]
Hello world alien['x_position'] = 0
print("Hello world!") Looping through all key-value pairs
Hello world with a variable Tuples are similar to lists, but the items in a tuple can't be fav_numbers = {'eric': 17, 'ever': 4}
modified. for name, number in fav_numbers.items():
msg = "Hello world!"
print(name + ' loves ' + str(number))
print(msg) Making a tuple
Concatenation (combining strings) dimensions = (1920, 1080)
Looping through all keys
fav_numbers = {'eric': 17, 'ever': 4}
first_name = 'albert'
for name in fav_numbers.keys():
last_name = 'einstein'
print(name + ' loves a number')
full_name = first_name + ' ' + last_name If statements are used to test for particular conditions and
print(full_name) respond appropriately. Looping through all the values
Conditional tests fav_numbers = {'eric': 17, 'ever': 4}
for number in fav_numbers.values():
equals x == 42 print(str(number) + ' is a favorite')
A list stores a series of items in a particular order. You
not equal x != 42
access items using an index, or within a loop.
greater than x > 42
Make a list or equal to x >= 42
less than x < 42 Your programs can prompt the user for input. All input is
bikes = ['trek', 'redline', 'giant'] or equal to x <= 42 stored as a string.
Get the first item in a list Conditional test with lists Prompting for a value
first_bike = bikes[0] 'trek' in bikes name = input("What's your name? ")
Get the last item in a list 'surly' not in bikes print("Hello, " + name + "!")
last_bike = bikes[-1] Assigning boolean values Prompting for numerical input
Looping through a list game_active = True age = input("How old are you? ")
can_edit = False age = int(age)
for bike in bikes:
print(bike) A simple if test
pi = input("What's the value of pi? ")
Adding items to a list if age >= 18: pi = float(pi)
print("You can vote!")
bikes = []
[Link]('trek') If-elif-else statements
[Link]('redline') if age < 4:
[Link]('giant') ticket_price = 0
Making numerical lists elif age < 18: Covers Python 3 and Python 2
ticket_price = 10
squares = [] else:
for x in range(1, 11): ticket_price = 15
[Link](x**2)
A while loop repeats a block of code as long as a certain A class defines the behavior of an object and the kind of Your programs can read from files and write to files. Files
condition is true. information an object can store. The information in a class are opened in read mode ('r') by default, but can also be
is stored in attributes, and functions that belong to a class opened in write mode ('w') and append mode ('a').
A simple while loop are called methods. A child class inherits the attributes and
methods from its parent class. Reading a file and storing its lines
current_value = 1
while current_value <= 5: filename = '[Link]'
Creating a dog class
print(current_value) with open(filename) as file_object:
current_value += 1 class Dog(): lines = file_object.readlines()
"""Represent a dog."""
Letting the user choose when to quit for line in lines:
msg = '' def __init__(self, name): print(line)
while msg != 'quit': """Initialize dog object."""
[Link] = name Writing to a file
msg = input("What's your message? ")
print(msg) filename = '[Link]'
def sit(self): with open(filename, 'w') as file_object:
"""Simulate sitting.""" file_object.write("I love programming.")
print([Link] + " is sitting.")
Functions are named blocks of code, designed to do one Appending to a file
specific job. Information passed to a function is called an my_dog = Dog('Peso')
argument, and information received by a function is called a filename = '[Link]'
parameter. with open(filename, 'a') as file_object:
print(my_dog.name + " is a great dog!") file_object.write("\nI love making games.")
A simple function my_dog.sit()

def greet_user(): Inheritance

"""Display a simple greeting.""" class SARDog(Dog): Exceptions help you respond appropriately to errors that
print("Hello!") """Represent a search dog.""" are likely to occur. You place code that might cause an
error in the try block. Code that should run in response to
greet_user() def __init__(self, name): an error goes in the except block. Code that should run only
Passing an argument """Initialize the sardog.""" if the try block was successful goes in the else block.
super().__init__(name)
def greet_user(username): Catching an exception
"""Display a personalized greeting.""" def search(self): prompt = "How many tickets do you need? "
print("Hello, " + username + "!") """Simulate searching.""" num_tickets = input(prompt)
print([Link] + " is searching.")
greet_user('jesse') try:
my_dog = SARDog('Willie') num_tickets = int(num_tickets)
Default values for parameters
except ValueError:
def make_pizza(topping='bacon'): print(my_dog.name + " is a search dog.") print("Please try again.")
"""Make a single-topping pizza.""" my_dog.sit() else:
print("Have a " + topping + " pizza!") my_dog.search() print("Your tickets are printing.")

make_pizza()
make_pizza('pepperoni')
If you had infinite programming skills, what would you Simple is better than complex
Returning a value build?
If you have a choice between a simple and a complex
def add_numbers(x, y): As you're learning to program, it's helpful to think solution, and both work, use the simple solution. Your
"""Add two numbers and return the sum.""" about the real-world projects you'd like to create. It's
return x + y code will be easier to maintain, and it will be easier
a good habit to keep an "ideas" notebook that you for you and others to build on that code later on.
can refer to whenever you want to start a new project.
sum = add_numbers(3, 5)
print(sum)
If you haven't done so already, take a few minutes
and describe three projects you'd like to create. More cheat sheets available at
 You can add elements to the end of a list, or you can insert The sort() method changes the order of a list permanently.
them wherever you like in a list. The sorted() function returns a copy of the list, leaving the
original list unchanged. You can sort the items in a list in
Adding an element to the end of the list alphabetical order, or reverse alphabetical order. You can
[Link]('amy') also reverse the original order of the list. Keep in mind that
lowercase and uppercase letters may affect the sort order.
Starting with an empty list
Sorting a list permanently
users = []
A list stores a series of items in a particular order. [Link]('val') [Link]()
Lists allow you to store sets of information in one [Link]('bob') Sorting a list permanently in reverse alphabetical
place, whether you have just a few items or millions [Link]('mia')
order
of items. Lists are one of Python's most powerful Inserting elements at a particular position
features readily accessible to new programmers, and [Link](reverse=True)
they tie together many important concepts in [Link](0, 'joe')
Sorting a list temporarily
programming. [Link](3, 'bea')
print(sorted(users))
print(sorted(users, reverse=True))

You can remove elements by their position in a list, or by Reversing the order of a list
Use square brackets to define a list, and use commas to
separate individual items in the list. Use plural names for the value of the item. If you remove an item by its value, [Link]()
lists, to make your code easier to read. Python removes only the first item that has that value.

Making a list Deleting an element by its position

users = ['val', 'bob', 'mia', 'ron', 'ned'] del users[-1] Lists can contain millions of items, so Python provides an
efficient way to loop through all the items in a list. When
Removing an item by its value you set up a loop, Python pulls each item from the list one
[Link]('mia') at a time and stores it in a temporary variable, which you
Individual elements in a list are accessed according to their provide a name for. This name should be the singular
position, called the index. The index of the first element is version of the list name.
0, the index of the second element is 1, and so forth. The indented block of code makes up the body of the
Negative indices refer to items at the end of the list. To get If you want to work with an element that you're removing loop, where you can work with each individual item. Any
a particular element, write the name of the list and then the from the list, you can "pop" the element. If you think of the lines that are not indented run after the loop is completed.
index of the element in square brackets. list as a stack of items, pop() takes an item off the top of the
stack. By default pop() returns the last element in the list,
Printing all items in a list
Getting the first element but you can also pop elements from any position in the list. for user in users:
first_user = users[0] print(user)
Pop the last item from a list
Getting the second element most_recent_user = [Link]() Printing a message for each item, and a separate
print(most_recent_user) message afterwards
second_user = users[1]
for user in users:
Getting the last element Pop the first item in a list
print("Welcome, " + user + "!")
newest_user = users[-1] first_user = [Link](0)
print(first_user) print("Welcome, we're glad to see you all!")

Once you've defined a list, you can change individual

elements in the list. You do this by referring to the index of The len() function returns the number of items in a list.
the item you want to modify.
Find the length of a list
Covers Python 3 and Python 2
Changing an element num_users = len(users)
users[0] = 'valerie' print("We have " + str(num_users) + " users.")
users[-2] = 'ronald'
You can use the range() function to work with a set of To copy a list make a slice that starts at the first item and A tuple is like a list, except you can't change the values in a
numbers efficiently. The range() function starts at 0 by ends at the last item. If you try to copy a list without using tuple once it's defined. Tuples are good for storing
default, and stops one number below the number passed to this approach, whatever you do to the copied list will affect information that shouldn't be changed throughout the life of
it. You can use the list() function to efficiently generate a the original list as well. a program. Tuples are designated by parentheses instead
large list of numbers. of square brackets. (You can overwrite an entire tuple, but
Making a copy of a list you can't change the individual elements in a tuple.)
Printing the numbers 0 to 1000
finishers = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe'] Defining a tuple
for number in range(1001): copy_of_finishers = finishers[:]
print(number) dimensions = (800, 600)

Printing the numbers 1 to 1000 Looping through a tuple

for number in range(1, 1001): You can use a loop to generate a list based on a range of for dimension in dimensions:
print(number) numbers or on another list. This is a common operation, so print(dimension)
Python offers a more efficient way to do it. List
Making a list of numbers from 1 to a million comprehensions may look complicated at first; if so, use the Overwriting a tuple
for loop approach until you're ready to start using dimensions = (800, 600)
numbers = list(range(1, 1000001)) comprehensions. print(dimensions)
To write a comprehension, define an expression for the
values you want to store in the list. Then write a for loop to
dimensions = (1200, 900)
generate input values needed to make the list.
There are a number of simple statistics you can run on a list
containing numerical data. Using a loop to generate a list of square numbers
Finding the minimum value in a list squares = [] When you're first learning about data structures such as
ages = [93, 99, 66, 17, 85, 1, 35, 82, 2, 77] for x in range(1, 11): lists, it helps to visualize how Python is working with the
youngest = min(ages) square = x**2 information in your program. [Link] is a great tool
[Link](square) for seeing how Python keeps track of the information in a
Finding the maximum value list. Try running the following code on [Link], and
Using a comprehension to generate a list of square
then run your own code.
ages = [93, 99, 66, 17, 85, 1, 35, 82, 2, 77] numbers
oldest = max(ages) Build a list and print the items in the list
squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 11)]
Finding the sum of all values dogs = []
Using a loop to convert a list of names to upper case [Link]('willie')
ages = [93, 99, 66, 17, 85, 1, 35, 82, 2, 77]
names = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe'] [Link]('hootz')
total_years = sum(ages)
[Link]('peso')
upper_names = [] [Link]('goblin')
for name in names:
You can work with any set of elements from a list. A portion upper_names.append([Link]()) for dog in dogs:
of a list is called a slice. To slice a list start with the index of print("Hello " + dog + "!")
Using a comprehension to convert a list of names to print("I love these dogs!")
the first item you want, then add a colon and the index after
the last item you want. Leave off the first index to start at upper case
the beginning of the list, and leave off the last index to slice print("\nThese were my first two dogs:")
names = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe']
through the end of the list. old_dogs = dogs[:2]
for old_dog in old_dogs:
Getting the first three items upper_names = [[Link]() for name in names]
print(old_dog)
finishers = ['kai', 'abe', 'ada', 'gus', 'zoe']
first_three = finishers[:3] del dogs[0]
Readability counts [Link]('peso')
Getting the middle three items print(dogs)
 Use four spaces per indentation level.
middle_three = finishers[1:4]
 Keep your lines to 79 characters or fewer.
Getting the last three items  Use single blank lines to group parts of your More cheat sheets available at
last_three = finishers[-3:] program visually.
 You can store as many key-value pairs as you want in a You can loop through a dictionary in three ways: you can
dictionary, until your computer runs out of memory. To add loop through all the key-value pairs, all the keys, or all the
a new key-value pair to an existing dictionary give the name values.
of the dictionary and the new key in square brackets, and A dictionary only tracks the connections between keys
set it equal to the new value. and values; it doesn't track the order of items in the
This also allows you to start with an empty dictionary and dictionary. If you want to process the information in order,
add key-value pairs as they become relevant. you can sort the keys in your loop.

Adding a key-value pair Looping through all key-value pairs

alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} # Store people's favorite languages.
fav_languages = {
alien_0['x'] = 0 'jen': 'python',
Python's dictionaries allow you to connect pieces of
alien_0['y'] = 25 'sarah': 'c',
related information. Each piece of information in a 'edward': 'ruby',
alien_0['speed'] = 1.5
dictionary is stored as a key-value pair. When you 'phil': 'python',
provide a key, Python returns the value associated Adding to an empty dictionary }
with that key. You can loop through all the key-value alien_0 = {}
pairs, all the keys, or all the values. alien_0['color'] = 'green' # Show each person's favorite language.
alien_0['points'] = 5 for name, language in fav_languages.items():
print(name + ": " + language)

Use curly braces to define a dictionary. Use colons to Looping through all the keys
connect keys and values, and use commas to separate You can modify the value associated with any key in a # Show everyone who's taken the survey.
individual key-value pairs. dictionary. To do so give the name of the dictionary and for name in fav_languages.keys():
enclose the key in square brackets, then provide the new print(name)
Making a dictionary
value for that key.
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} Looping through all the values
Modifying values in a dictionary
# Show all the languages that have been chosen.
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} for language in fav_languages.values():
print(alien_0) print(language)
To access the value associated with an individual key give
the name of the dictionary and then place the key in a set of # Change the alien's color and point value. Looping through all the keys in order
square brackets. If the key you're asking for is not in the alien_0['color'] = 'yellow'
dictionary, an error will occur. # Show each person's favorite language,
alien_0['points'] = 10 # in order by the person's name.
You can also use the get() method, which returns None print(alien_0)
instead of an error if the key doesn't exist. You can also for name in sorted(fav_languages.keys()):
specify a default value to use if the key is not in the print(name + ": " + language)
dictionary.
Getting the value associated with a key You can remove any key-value pair you want from a
dictionary. To do so use the del keyword and the dictionary
You can find the number of key-value pairs in a dictionary.
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5} name, followed by the key in square brackets. This will
delete the key and its associated value. Finding a dictionary's length
print(alien_0['color'])
print(alien_0['points']) Deleting a key-value pair num_responses = len(fav_languages)
alien_0 = {'color': 'green', 'points': 5}
Getting the value with get()
print(alien_0)
alien_0 = {'color': 'green'}
del alien_0['points']
alien_color = alien_0.get('color') print(alien_0)
alien_points = alien_0.get('points', 0) Covers Python 3 and Python 2

print(alien_color)
print(alien_points) Try running some of these examples on [Link].