ISWE103L– Database

Systems
Module 1: Introduction to Databases
Dr. [Link]
Associate Professor (SCOPE) & Deputy-Director (CCPS)
VIT Chennai
Module 1

Dr. [Link], VIT Chennai

Book(s)
▪ Text Book:
▪ Fundamentals of Database Systems by Ramez Elmasri and
Shamkant [Link] Pearson Education,2013.
▪ Reference Books:
▪ Database Management Systems by Raghu Rama Krishnan,
Tata Mcgraw Hill, 2010.
▪ Database System Concepts by Abraham Silberschatz, Henry
[Link] and [Link], Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2011
▪ Database System Design and Implementation by Rob
Cornell,cennage learning, 2011

Dr. [Link], VIT Chennai

 Acknowledgement

▪ Profound thanks to the authors of the book:

Fundamentals of Database Systems by Ramez
Elmasri and Shamkant [Link] Pearson
Education,2013. as the content of the book
were helpful in preparing this presentation.

Dr. [Link], VIT Chennai

 Basic Definitions

▪ Database
▪ Data
▪ Mini-world
▪ Database management System (DBMS)
▪ Database System
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reading-activities-matching-words-to-definitions
 Basic Definitions

▪ Database
A collection of related data.

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[Link]
 Basic Definitions

▪ Data
Known facts that can be recorded and
have an implicit meaning.
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 Basic Definitions

▪ Mini-World
Some part of the real world about which data
is stored in a database. For example, student
grades and transcripts at a university.
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 Basic Definitions

▪ Database Management System

A software package/ system to facilitate the
creation and maintenance of a computerized
database. Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
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 Basic Definitions

▪ Database System
The DBMS software together with the data
itself. Sometimes, the applications are also
included.
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 Types of Databases
and Database
Applications

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Types of Databases
and Database
Applications
▪ Traditional Applications:
▪ Numeric and Textual Databases
▪ More Recent Applications:
▪ Multimedia Databases
▪ Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
▪ Data Warehouses
▪ Real-time and Active Databases
▪ Many other applications
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Typical Database
Functionalities

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Example of a
Database
▪ Mini-world for the example:
▪ Part of a UNIVERSITY environment.
▪ Some mini-world entities:
▪ STUDENTs
▪ COURSEs
▪ SECTIONs (of COURSEs)
▪ (academic) DEPARTMENTs
▪ INSTRUCTORs

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Example of a
Database
▪ Some mini-world relationships:
▪ SECTIONs are of specific COURSEs
▪ STUDENTs take SECTIONs
▪ COURSEs have prerequisite COURSEs
▪ INSTRUCTORs teach SECTIONs
▪ COURSEs are offered by
DEPARTMENTs
▪ STUDENTs major in DEPARTMENTs

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 Example of a
Database

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Image Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Example of a
Database

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Image Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Characteristics of
Database Approach

▪ Self-describing nature of a database system:

▪ A DBMS catalog stores the description of a
particular database (e.g. data structures, types,
and constraints)
▪ The description is called meta-data.
▪ This allows the DBMS software to work with
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SSB-interviews
different database applications.
Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
 Characteristics of
Database Approach

▪ Insulation between programs and data:

▪ Called program-data independence.
▪ Allows changing data structures and
storage organization without having to
change the DBMS access programs.
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 Characteristics of
Database Approach

▪ Data Abstraction:
▪ A data model is used to hide storage details
and present the users with a conceptual view
of the database.
▪ Programs refer to the data model constructs
rather than data storage details.
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Characteristics of
Database Approach

▪ Support of multiple views of the data:

▪ Each user may see a different view of the
database, which describes only the data
of interest to that user.
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Characteristics of
Database Approach
▪ Sharing of data and multi-user
transaction processing:
▪ Allowing a set of concurrent users to
retrieve from and to update the database.
▪ Concurrency control within the DBMS
guarantees that each transaction is correctly
executed or aborted
▪ Recovery subsystem ensures each
completed transaction has its effect
permanently recorded in the database
▪ OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is a
major part of database applications. This
allows hundreds of concurrent transactions
to execute per second.
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 Database Users

▪ Users may be divided into

▪ Those who actually use and control the
database content, and those who design,
develop and maintain database applications
(called “Actors on the Scene”)
▪ Those who design and develop the DBMS
software and related tools, and the computer
systems operators (called “Workers Behind the
Scene”).
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 Actors on the Scene

▪ Database administrators:
▪ Responsible for authorizing access to the
database, for coordinating and monitoring its
use, acquiring software and hardware
resources, controlling its use and monitoring
efficiency of operations.
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 Actors on the Scene

▪ Database Designers:
▪ Responsible to define the content, the
structure, the constraints, and functions or
transactions against the database. They must
communicate with the end-users and
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design/postgresql-database-modeling/ Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
 Actors on the Scene

▪ End-users: They use the data for queries, reports

and some of them update the database content.
End-users can be categorized into:
▪ Casual: access database occasionally when
needed
▪ Naive or Parametric: they make up a large
section of the end-user population.
▪ Examples are bank-tellers or reservation
clerks who do this activity for an entire shift
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of operations.
 Actors on the Scene

▪ Sophisticated:
▪ These include business analysts, scientists,
engineers, others thoroughly familiar with
the system capabilities.
▪ Many use tools in the form of software
packages that work closely with the stored
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database.
 Actors on the Scene

▪ Stand-alone:
▪ Mostly maintain personal databases using
ready-to-use packaged applications.
▪ An example is a tax program user that creates its
own internal database.
▪ Another example is a user that maintains an
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 Workers behind the
Scene

▪ DBMS System Designers and Implementers

▪ Design and implement DBMS modules and interfaces as a
software package.
▪ Tool Developers
▪ They design and implement tools which include software
packages that facilitate database modelling and design,
database system design and improved performance.
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 Workers behind the
Scene

▪ Operators and Maintenance Personnel

▪ Responsible for actual running and maintenance of the
hardware and software environment for the database
system.
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 Advantages of
Database Approach

▪ Controlling redundancy in data storage and in

development and maintenance efforts.
▪ Sharing of data among multiple users.
▪ Restricting unauthorized access to data.
▪ Providing persistent storage for program Objects
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 Advantages of
Database Approach

▪ Providing Storage Structures (e.g. indexes) for

efficient Query Processing.
▪ Providing backup and recovery services.
▪ Providing multiple interfaces to different classes of
users.
▪ Representing complex relationships among data.
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 Advantages of
Database Approach

▪ Enforcing integrity constraints on the database.

▪ Drawing inferences and actions from the stored
data using deductive and active rules.
▪ Potential for enforcing standards.
▪ Reduced application development time.
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 Advantages of
Database Approach

▪ Flexibility to change data structures.

▪ Availability of current information.
▪ Economies of scale:
▪ Wasteful overlap of resources and personnel
can be avoided by consolidating data and
applications across departments
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 Data Models

▪ Data Model:
▪ A set of concepts to describe the
structure of a database, the operations
for manipulating these structures, and
certain constraints that the database
should obey. Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
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Data Model
Structure and
Constraints
▪ Constructs are used to define the database
structure
▪ Constructs typically include elements (and
their data types) as well as groups of
elements (e.g. entity, record, table), and
relationships among such groups
▪ Constraints specify some restrictions on
valid data; these constraints must be
enforced at all times

Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai

Data Model
Operations
▪ These operations are used for
specifying database retrievals and
updates by referring to the constructs
of the data model.
▪ Operations on the data model may
include basic model operations (e.g.
generic insert, delete, update) and
user-defined operations (e.g.
compute_student_gpa,
update_inventory).
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Data Model -
Categories
▪ Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data
models:
▪ Provide concepts that are close to the way
many users perceive data.
▪ (Also called entity-based or object-based
data models.)
▪ Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
▪ Provide concepts that describe details of
how data is stored in the computer.
▪ Implementation (representational) data
models:
▪ Provide concepts that fall between the
above two, used by many commercial DBMS
implementations.
Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
Schema vs Instances
▪ Database Schema:
▪ The description of a database.
▪ Includes descriptions of the database
structure, data types, and the
constraints on the database.
▪ Schema Diagram:
▪ An illustrative display of (most aspects
of) a database schema.
▪ Schema Construct:
▪ A component of the schema or an
object within the schema, e.g.,
STUDENT, COURSE.

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Schema vs Instances
▪ Database State:
▪ The actual data stored in a database at
a particular moment in time. This
includes the collection of all the data in
the database.
▪ Also called database instance (or
occurrence or snapshot).
▪ The term instance is also applied to
individual database components, e.g.
record instance, table instance, entity
instance.

Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai

Database Schema vs
State
▪ Database State:
▪ Refers to the content of a database at a
moment in time.
▪ Initial Database State:
▪ Refers to the database state when it is
initially loaded into the system.
▪ Valid State:
▪ A state that satisfies the structure and
constraints of the database.

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Database Schema vs
State
▪ Distinction
▪ The database schema changes very
infrequently.
▪ The database state changes every
time the database is updated.

▪ Schema is also called intension.

▪ State is also called extension.

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 Database Schema -
Example

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Image Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Database State -
Example

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Image Source: Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
DBMS Architecture

▪ DBMS design depends upon its architecture.

▪ Client/server architecture is used to deal with a
large number of PCs, web servers, database
servers and other components that are
connected with networks.
▪ Client/server architecture consists of many PCs
and a workstation which are connected via the
network. Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
 1- Tier Architecture

▪ In this architecture, the database is directly

accessed by the user.
▪ Any changes will be performed over the database
itself.
▪ Used for development of the local application,
where programmers can directly communicate
with the database for the quick response.
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 2 - Tier Architecture

▪ It is basic client-server. But Applications on the

client end can directly communicate with the
database at the server side.
▪ For this interaction, API’s like: ODBC, JDBC are used.
The user interfaces and application programs are run
on the client-side.
▪ The server side is responsible to provide the
functionalities like: query processing and transaction
management.
▪ To communicate with the DBMS, client-side
application establishes a connection with the server
side.
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 3 - Tier Architecture

▪ The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the

client and server.
▪ In this architecture, client can’t directly communicate with the
server.
▪ The application on the client-end interacts with an application
server which further communicates with the database system.
▪ End user has no idea about the existence of the database
beyond the application server and the database also has no idea
about any other user beyond the application.
▪ The 3-Tier architecture is used in case of large web application.
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Comparing 2 - Tier &
3 - Tier Architecture

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Three Schema
Architecture
▪ It is also called ANSI/SPARC architecture or 3-level
architecture.
▪ It is used to describe the structure of a specific database
system.
▪ It is also used to separate the user applications and physical
database.
▪ It contains 3-levels. It breaks the database down into three
different
▪ categories.
▪ Internal Level: Actual PHYSICAL storage structure and
access paths.
▪ Conceptual or Logical Level: Structure and constraints
for the entire database
▪ External or View level: Describes various user views
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Three Schema
Architecture

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Three Schema Architecture –
Internal Schema
▪ Internal level/Schema : It defines the physical storage structure
of the database. It is a very low-level representation of the
entire database.
▪ It contains multiple occurrences of multiple types of internal
records. In the ANSI term, it is also called "stored record".
▪ Facts about Internal schema:
▪ The internal schema is the lowest level of data abstraction.
▪ It helps you to keep information about the actual
representation of the entire database. It is similar to the actual
storage of the data on the disk in theform of records
▪ The internal view tells us what data is stored in the database
and how its stored.
▪ It never deals with the physical devices. Instead, internal
schema views a physical device as a collection of physical
pages.
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Three Schema Architecture –
Conceptual Schema
▪ Conceptual Schema/Level :
▪ It describes the Database structure of the whole database for
the community of users.
▪ It hides information about the physical storage structures and
focuses on describing data types, entities, relationships, etc.
▪ This logical level comes between the user level and physical
storage view.
▪ However, there is only single conceptual view of a single
database.
▪ Facts about Conceptual schema:
▪ Defines all database entities, their attributes, and their
relationships.
▪ Security and integrity information.
▪ In the conceptual level, the data available to a user must be
contained in or derivable from the physical level.
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Three Schema Architecture –
External Schema
▪ External Schema/Level :
▪ It describes the part of the database which specific user
is interested in & hides the unrelated details of the
database from the user.
▪ There may be "n" number of external views for each
database.
▪ Each external view is defined using an external schema,
which consists of definitions of various types of
external record of that specific view.
▪ An external view is just the content of the database as
it is seen by some specific particular user.
▪ For example, a user from the sales department will see
only sales related data.
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Objectives of Three Schema
Architecture
▪ An external level is only related to the data which is
viewed by specific end users.
▪ This level includes some external schemas.
▪ External schema level is nearest to the user.
▪ The external schema describes the segment of the
database which is needed for a certain user group and
hides the remaining details from the database from the
specific user group.

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Objectives of Three Schema
Architecture
▪ An external level is only related to the data which is
viewed by specific end users.
▪ This level includes some external schemas.
▪ External schema level is nearest to the user.
▪ The external schema describes the segment of the
database which is needed for a certain user group and
hides the remaining details from the database from the
specific user group.

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 Data Independence

▪ Data Independence is defined as a property of DBMS

that helps the user to change the Database schema at
one level of a database system without requiring to
change the schema at the next higher level.
▪ Data independence helps the user to keep data
separated from all programs that make use of it.
▪ Types of Data Independence
▪ Physical Data Independence
▪ Logical Data Independence

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Levels of Database

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Levels of Database

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Physical Data Independence
▪ Physical Data Independence : Change internal schema
without having to change conceptual schema. i.e can
easily change the physical storage structures or devices
with an effect on the conceptual schema.
▪ It helps user to separate conceptual levels from the
Internal/Physical levels.
▪ It allows user to provide a logical description of the
database without the need to specify physical
structures.
▪ It is achieved by the presence of the internal level of
the database and then the transformation from the
conceptual level of the database to the internal level.

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Benefits of Physical Data
Independence
▪ Due to Physical independence, any of the below
changes will not affect the conceptual layer:
▪ Using a new storage device like Hard Drive or Magnetic
Tapes
▪ Modifying the file organization technique in the
Database
▪ Switching to different data structures.
▪ Changing the access method. Modifying indexes.
▪ Changes to compression techniques or hashing
algorithms.
▪ Change of Location of Database from say C drive to D
Drive
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Logical Data Independence
▪ Logical Data Independence is the ability to change the
conceptual schema without changing :
▪ External views
▪ External API or programs
▪ Any change made will be absorbed by the mapping between
external and conceptual levels.
▪ When compared to Physical Data independence, it is
challenging to achieve logical data independence.
▪ Due to Logical independence, any of the below change will not
affect the external layer.
▪ Add/Modify/Delete a new attribute, entity or relationship is
possible without a rewrite of existing application programs.
▪ Merging two records into one.
▪ Breaking an existing record into two or more records.

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Benefits of Logical Data
Independence
▪ Helps user to improve the quality of the data.
▪ Database system maintenance becomes affordable.
▪ Enforcement of standards and improvement in
database security.
▪ User does not need to alter data structure in
application programs.
▪ Permits developer to focus on the general structure of
the Database rather than worrying about the internal
implementation.
▪ It allows user to improve state which is undamaged or
undivided.
▪ Database incongruity is vastly reduced.
▪ Easily make modifications in the physical level is needed
to improve the performance of the system.
Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
Benefits of Logical Data
Independence
▪ Helps user to improve the quality of the data.
▪ Database system maintenance becomes affordable.
▪ Enforcement of standards and improvement in
database security.
▪ User does not need to alter data structure in
application programs.
▪ Permits developer to focus on the general structure of
the Database rather than worrying about the internal
implementation.
▪ It allows user to improve state which is undamaged or
undivided.
▪ Database incongruity is vastly reduced.
▪ Easily make modifications in the physical level is needed
to improve the performance of the system.
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Physical vs. Logical Data
Independence

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Physical vs. Logical Data
Independence

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DBMS Components

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 DBMS Components
▪ DML : DML processor must interact with the query
processor to generate the appropriate code
▪ DDL interacts with Data Dictionary/ System Catalog
▪ System Catalog : It is a collection of tables and views
that contain important information about a database. It
is available for each database. It defines the structure
of the database.
▪ For example, the DDL (data dictionary language) for all
tables in the database is stored in the system catalog.
▪ Query processor : It transforms user queries into a
series of low level instructions. It is used to interpret
the online user’s query and convert it into an efficient
series of operations in a form capable of being sent to
the run time data manager for execution.
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 DBMS Components
▪ It uses the data dictionary to find the structure of the
relevant portion of the database and uses this
information in modifying the query and preparing and
optimal plan to access the database.
▪ Data Dictionary : It contains all the information about
the database. As the name suggests, it is the dictionary
of all the data items. It contains description of all the
tables, view, materialized views, constraints, indexes,
triggers etc.

Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai

DBMS Languages
▪ Data Definition Language (DDL) allows the DBA or user to
describe and name entities, attributes, and relationships
required for the application plus any associated integrity
and security constraints.
▪ Data Manipulation Language (DML) provides basic data
manipulation operations on data held in the database.
▪ Data Control Language (DCL) defines activities that are not
in the categories of those for the DDL and DML, such as
granting privileges to users, and defining when proposed
changes to a databases should be irrevocably made.
▪ Low Level or Procedural DML: allow user to tell system
exactly how to manipulate data (e.g., Network and
hierarchical DMLs).
▪ High Level or Non-procedural DML(declarative language):
allow user to state what data is needed rather than how it
is to be retrieved (e.g., SQL, QBE).
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History of Data
Models
▪ Relational Model: proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM),
first commercial system in 1981-82. Now in several
commercial products (DB2, ORACLE, SQL Server,
SYBASE, INFORMIX).
▪ Network Model: the first one to be implemented by
Honeywell in 1964-65 (IDS System). Adopted heavily
due to the support by CODASYL (CODASYL - DBTG
report of 1971). Later implemented in a large variety of
systems - IDMS (Cullinet - now CA), DMS 1100 (Unisys),
IMAGE (H.P.), VAX -DBMS (Digital Equipment Corp.).
▪ Hierarchical Data Model: implemented in a joint effort
by IBM and North American Rockwell around 1965.
Resulted in the IMS family of systems. The most
popular model. Other system based on this model:
System 2k (SAS inc.)
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History of Data
Models
▪ Object-oriented Data Model(s):
▪ Several models have been proposed for
implementing in a database system. One set
comprises models of persistent O-O Programming
Languages such as C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or
VERSANT), and Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE).
▪ Additionally, systems like O 2, ORION (at MCC - then
ITASCA), IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
▪ Object-Relational Models:
▪ Most Recent Trend. Started with Informix Universal
Server. Exemplified in the latest versions of Oracle-
10i, DB2, and SQL Server etc. systems.

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Hierarchical Data
Model

▪ In Hierarchical Model, a hierarchical relation is formed

by collection of relations and forms a tree-like
structure.
▪ The relationship can be defined in the form of parent
child type.
▪ One of the first and most popular Hierarchical Model is
Information Management System (IMS), developed by
IBM. Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
Hierarchical Data Model -
Merits and Demerits
▪ Merits
▪ The design of the hierarchical model is simple.
▪ Provides Data Integrity since it is based on parent/
child relationship
▪ Data sharing is feasible since the data is stored in a
single database.
▪ Even for large volumes of data, this model works
perfectly.
▪ De-Merits
▪ Implementation is complex.
▪ This model has to deal with anomalies like Insert,
Update and Delete.
▪ Maintenance is difficult since changes done in the
database may want you to do changes in the entire
database structure. Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
 Network Data Model

▪ The Hierarchical Model creates hierarchical tree with parent/ child

relationship, whereas the Network Model has graph and links.
▪ The relationship can be defined in the form of links and it handles
many-to-many relations. This itself states that a record can have
more than one parent.
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Network Data Model -
Merits and Demerits
▪ Merits
▪ Easy to design the Network Model
▪ The model can handle one-one, one-to-many, many-
to-many relationships.
▪ It isolates the program from other details.
▪ Based on standards and conventions.
▪ De-Merits
▪ Pointers bring complexity since the records are
based on pointers and graphs.
▪ Changes in the database isn’t easy that makes it
hard to achieve structural independence.

Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai

Relational Data Model

▪ A Relational model groups data into one or more tables. These

tables are related to each other using common records.
▪ The data is represented in the form of rows and columns i.e.
tables.

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Relational Data Model

▪ Example : Let us see an example of two relations <Employee> and

<Department> linked to each other, with DepartmentID, which is
Foreign Key of <Employee> table and Primary key of
<Department> table.
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Relational Data Model -
Merits and Demerits
▪ Merits
▪ It does not have any issues that we saw in the
previous two models i.e. update, insert and delete
anomalies have nothing to do in this model.
▪ Changes in the database do not require you to affect
the complete database.
▪ Implementation of a Relational Model is easy.
▪ To maintain a Relational Model is not a tiresome
task.
▪ De-Merits
▪ Database inefficiencies hide and arise when the
model has large volumes of data.
▪ The overheads of using relational data model come
with the cost of using powerful hardware and
devices. Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
Centralized Database
Management System

▪ A centralized database is stored at a single location such as a

mainframe computer.
▪ It is maintained and modified from that location only and
usually accessed using an internet connection such as a LAN or
WAN.
▪ The centralized database is used by organizations such as
colleges, companies, banks etc.
Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
Merits and De-merits of
Centralized
▪ Advantages :
DBMS
▪ The Data Integrity is maximized as the whole database is
stored at a single physical location. It is easier to coordinate
the data and it is as accurate and consistent as possible.
▪ The Data Redundancy is minimal in the centralized
database. All the data is stored together and not scattered
across different locations. So, there is no redundant data
available.
▪ Since all the data is in one place, there can be stronger
security measures around it. So, It is much more secure.
▪ Data is easily portable because it is stored at the same
place.
▪ It is cheaper than other types of databases as it requires
less power and maintenance.
▪ All the information can be easily accessed from the same
location and at the same time. Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
Merits and De-merits of
Centralized DBMS
▪ Disadvantages :
▪ Since all the data is at one location, it takes more time
to search and access it. If the network is slow, this
process takes even more time.
▪ There is a lot of data access traffic for the centralized
database. This may create a bottleneck situation.
▪ Since all the data is at the same location, if multiple
users try to access it simultaneously it creates a
problem. This may reduce the efficiency
▪ of the system.
▪ If there are no database recovery measures in place
and a system failure occurs, then all the data in the
database will be destroyed.
Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
 Client-Server Database
Management System

▪ A client does not share any of its resources, but requests a

server’s content or service function.
▪ Clients therefore initiate communication sessions with servers
which await incoming requests.
▪ Examples of computer applications that use the client–server
model are Email, network printing, and the World Wide Web.
Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai
Image Source: [Link]
Merits and De-merits of
Client-Server DDBMS
▪ Advantages :
▪ Centralization – Access, Resources, and Data Security
are controlled through server.
▪ Scalability – Any element can be upgraded when
needed.
▪ Flexibiltiy – New Technology can be easily integrated
into the system.
▪ Interoperabilty – All components work together.

Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai

Merits and De-merits of
Client-Server DDBMS
▪ Disadvantages :
▪ Dependability – When Servers goes down, operations
will cease.
▪ Lack of Mature Tools - To administrate.
▪ Lack of Scalability – Network OS are not vary scalable.
▪ Higher than anticipated Cost.
▪ Network Congestion.

Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai

Dr. A Balasundaram VIT Chennai