What is a Definite Integral?

A definite integral is written as

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Here:
• a = lower limit
• b = upper limit
• f(x) = given function
• dx = variable of integration

Meaning:
It gives the exact area under the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)from 𝑥 = 𝑎to 𝑥 = 𝑏.
7.7.1 Definite integral as the limit of a sum
equation:
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim⁡ [ℎ{𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ)}]
𝑎 𝑛→∞

Where:
𝑏−𝑎
ℎ=
𝑛

Find
2
∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
0

as the limit of a sum.

Solution
By definition,
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim⁡ [ℎ{𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ)}]
𝑎 𝑛→∞

where,
 𝑏−𝑎
ℎ=
𝑛
In this example,
𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1
2−0 2
ℎ= =
𝑛 𝑛

Therefore,
2
2 2 4 2(𝑛 − 1)
∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = lim⁡ [𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ( ) + 𝑓 ( ) + ⋯ + 𝑓 ( )]
0 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

2 4 16 4(𝑛 − 1)2
= lim⁡ [1 + ( 2 +1) + ( 2 +1) + ⋯ + ( +1)]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2

2 4
= lim⁡ [𝑛 + 2 (12 + 22 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1)2 )]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛

Using the formula,

(𝑛 − 1)𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)
12 + 22 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1)2 =
6
2 4 (𝑛 − 1)𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)
= lim⁡ [𝑛 + 2 ⋅ ]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛 6

2
Multiply 𝑛inside:

2 2 4 (𝑛 − 1)𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)
= lim⁡ [ ⋅ 𝑛 + ⋅ 2 ⋅ ]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 6
So:

4 (𝑛 − 1)𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)
= lim⁡ [2 + ⋅ ]
𝑛→∞ 3 𝑛3
(𝑛−1)𝑛(2𝑛−1) 𝑛−1 𝑛 2𝑛−1 1 1
=( ) (𝑛) ( ) = (1− 𝑛) (1) (2− 𝑛)
𝑛3 𝑛 𝑛

4 1 1
= lim⁡ [2+ 3 (1− 𝑛) (2− 𝑛)]
𝑛→∞
 1
As⁡𝑛 → ∞:⁡𝑛 → 0
4⁡ 14
=2+ 2 = (6 + 8)/3 =
3 3

✅ Final Answer
2
14
∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 =
0 3
Example 26: Evaluate
2
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

as the limit of a sum.

Solution (Step by Step):

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim⁡ [ℎ{𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ)}]
𝑎 𝑛→∞

𝑏−𝑎
where ℎ = .
𝑛

Here, 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 2, and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 .

𝑏−𝑎 2−0 2
ℎ= = =
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑓(0) = 𝑒 0 = 1, 𝑓(0 + ℎ) = 𝑒 2/𝑛 , 𝑓(0 + 2ℎ) = 𝑒 4/𝑛 , … , 𝑓(0 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ) = 𝑒 2(𝑛−1)/𝑛

Therefore, the sum inside the limit is:

1 + 𝑒 2/𝑛 + 𝑒 4/𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑒 2(𝑛−1)/𝑛

Express the integral as the limit of the sum

2
2
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim⁡ [ (1 + 𝑒 2/𝑛 + 𝑒 4/𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑒 2(𝑛−1)/𝑛 )]
0 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

Recognize the sum as a geometric progression (G.P.)

The terms 1, 𝑒 2/𝑛 , 𝑒 4/𝑛 , … , 𝑒 2(𝑛−1)/𝑛 form a G.P. with:
• First term 𝑎 = 1
 • Common ratio 𝑟 = 𝑒 2/𝑛
• Number of terms 𝑛
The sum of n terms of a G.P. is:
𝑟𝑛 − 1
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎
𝑟−1

Substitute a = 1 and r = e^{2/n}:

(𝑒 2/𝑛 )𝑛 −1 𝑒2 − 1
𝑆𝑛 = =
𝑒 2/𝑛 − 1 𝑒 2/𝑛 − 1
Substitute the sum back into the integral expression
2
2 𝑒2 − 1
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim⁡ [𝑛 ⋅ 2/𝑛 ]
0 𝑛→∞ 𝑒 −1
Take the limit using the standard exponential limit
Recall:
𝑒ℎ − 1
lim⁡ =1
ℎ→0 ℎ

Here, ℎ = 2/𝑛, so as 𝑛 → ∞, ℎ → 0.
Then:
2/𝑛
lim⁡ =1
𝑛→∞ 𝑒 2/𝑛 − 1

Also, lim⁡𝑛→∞ 𝑒 2/𝑛 = 1.

Step 8: Final evaluation
2
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 2 − 1
0

We evaluate
5
∫ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
0

using exactly the given formula:

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim⁡ [ℎ{𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) + 𝑓(𝑎 + 2ℎ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)ℎ)}]
𝑎 𝑛→∞
Step 1: Identify values
𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
𝑏−𝑎 5
ℎ= =
𝑛 𝑛
Step 2: Write the sum using the formula
5
5 5 10 5(𝑛 − 1)
∫ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = lim⁡ [𝑓(0) + 𝑓( ) + 𝑓( ) + ⋯ + 𝑓( )]
0 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
Step 3: Substitute 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 + 𝟏
5 5 10 5(𝑛 − 1)
= lim⁡ [(0 + 1) + ( + 1) + ( + 1) + ⋯ + ( + 1)]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
Step 4: Separate terms
5 5
= lim⁡ [(1 + 1 + ⋯ + 1) + (0 + 1 + 2 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1))]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛

There are 𝑛ones.

𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
∑ 1 = 𝑛 and ∑ 𝑖 =
2
𝑖=0 𝑖=0

Step 5: Substitute summation values

5 5 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
= lim⁡ [𝑛 + ⋅ ]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛 2
25 1
= lim⁡ [5+ 2 (1− 𝑛)]
𝑛→∞

Step 6: Take the limit

25 35
= 5+ =
2 2

✅ Final Answer
5
35
∫ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 =
0 2

1️⃣ What is a Definite Integral?

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
This means area between:
• the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
• the x-axis
• the vertical lines 𝑥 = 𝑎and 𝑥 = 𝑏

👉 Definite integral = area

2️⃣ What is Area Function?

Now, instead of fixing the upper limit as 𝑏, we take it as a variable 𝑥.
𝑥
𝐴(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

Meaning:
• Area from 𝑎to 𝑥
• As 𝑥changes, area changes
• So area becomes a function of 𝑥
That is why it is called Area Function

Example:
If
𝑥
𝐴(𝑥) = ∫ (𝑡 + 1) 𝑑𝑡
0

Then:
• for 𝑥 = 1→ small area
• for 𝑥 = 3→ bigger area
Area depends on 𝑥.
3️⃣ First Fundamental Theorem (MOST IMPORTANT)
Statement:
If
𝑥
𝐴(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

then

𝑨′ (𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙)

Meaning (very simple):

• Derivative of area = original function
Why?
Because:
• integration adds area
• differentiation removes it

👉 Differentiation and integration cancel each other

Example:
𝑥
𝐴(𝑥) = ∫ (𝑡 + 1) 𝑑𝑡
0

Differentiate:
𝐴′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1

Which is exactly 𝑓(𝑥).

4️⃣ Second Fundamental Theorem (FOR CALCULATION)

This theorem tells us how to calculate definite integrals easily.
Statement:
If 𝐹(𝑥)is an antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥), then
𝒃
∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒃) − 𝑭(𝒂)
𝒂
Meaning (very easy):
1. Integrate normally
2. Put upper limit
3. Put lower limit
4. Subtract

Example:
5
∫ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
0

Step 1: Integrate
𝑥2
∫ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑥
2

Step 2: Apply limits

25
= ( 2 +5) − (0 + 0)
35
=
2

5️⃣ Why Constant 𝑪is Not Needed?

Because:
(𝐹(𝑏) + 𝐶) − (𝐹(𝑎) + 𝐶) = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)

👉 𝐶cancels.

6️⃣ When Definite Integral is NOT Allowed?

If function is not defined in the interval.
Example:
3
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
−2 𝑥2 −1
Problem:
• denominator becomes zero at 𝑥 = ±1
• function breaks inside interval

❌ So integral is not valid

Evaluation of Definite Integrals
(Using Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)

(i) Evaluate
3
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2

Step 1: Find the antiderivative

2
𝑥3
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
3

Let
𝑥3
𝐹(𝑥) =
3

Step 2: Apply limits

𝐹(3) − 𝐹(2)
33 23
= −
3 3
27 − 8
=
3
19
=
3

Answer

19
3
(ii) Evaluate
9
30 − 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 𝑥 2/3

Step 1: Rewrite
30 − 𝑥
= 30𝑥 −2/3 − 𝑥1/3
𝑥 2/3

Step 2: Integrate

∫ 30𝑥 −2/3 𝑑𝑥 = 90𝑥1/3

3
∫ 𝑥1/3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 4/3
4

So,
3
𝐹(𝑥) = 90𝑥1/3 − 𝑥 4/3
4

Step 3: Apply limits

𝐹(9) − 𝐹(4)
3 3
= (90 ⋅ 3 − ⋅ 27) − (90 ⋅ 2 − ⋅ 8)
4 4
81
= (270 − ) − (180 − 6)
4
999
= − 174
4
99
=
2

Answer

99
2

(iii) Evaluate
𝜋/4
∫ sin⁡ 2𝑡 cos⁡2 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
Step 1: Substitution
Let
𝑢 = sin⁡ 2𝑡 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 2cos⁡ 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
cos⁡ 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢
2

Step 2: Rewrite integral

1
∫ sin⁡ 2𝑡cos⁡2 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑢(1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢
2
1 𝑢2 𝑢4
= (2 − 4)
2
1 1
= 𝑢2 − 𝑢4
4 8

Substitute back:
1 1
𝐹(𝑡) = sin⁡2 2𝑡 − sin⁡4 2𝑡
4 8

Step 3: Apply limits

𝜋
𝐹 ( ) − 𝐹(0)
4
1 1
= (4 − 8) − 0
1
=
8

Answer

1
8

Substitution
Evaluate
1
∫ 5 𝑥 4 (𝑥 5 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥
−1

Solution
Step 1: Substitution
Let
 𝑡 = 𝑥5 + 1

Then,
𝑑𝑡 = 5𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥

Step 2: Change the integral

∫ 5𝑥 4 (𝑥 5 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Step 3: Integrate

2
𝑡3
∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
3

Substitute back:
(𝑥 5 +1)3
𝐹(𝑥) =
3
Step 4: Apply limits
1 1
4 5
(𝑥 5 +1)3
2
∫ 5 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = [ ]
−1 3 −1

Step 5: Substitute upper and lower limits

At 𝑥 = 1:
(15 + 1)3 = (2)3 = 8

At 𝑥 = −1:
((−1)5 + 1)3 = (0)3 = 0
Step 6: Subtract
1
= (8 − 0)
3
8
=
3
✅ Final Answer

8
3
Evaluate
1
tan⁡−1 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
0

Step 1: Substitution
Let
𝑡 = tan⁡−1 𝑥

Then,
1
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
Step 2: Change the limits
When 𝑥 = 0:
𝑡 = tan⁡−1 (0) = 0

When 𝑥 = 1:
𝜋
𝑡 = tan⁡−1 (1) =
4
Step 3: Change the integral
1
𝜋/4
tan⁡−1 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑥2 0
0

Step 4: Integrate
𝑡2
∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
2
Step 5: Apply limits
𝜋/4
𝑡2
=[ ]
2 0
1 𝜋 2
= [( 4) −0]
2
1 𝜋2
= ⋅
2 16
𝜋2
=
32
Some Properties of Definite Integrals
Definite integrals satisfy certain properties which help us simplify calculations and evaluate
integrals easily.

P0: Change of Variable Name

𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑎

Explanation:
• The variable of integration is a dummy variable
• Changing 𝑥to 𝑡does not change the value

P1: Change of Limits

𝑏 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

Special case:
𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎

Explanation:
• Reversing limits changes the sign
• Same upper and lower limit gives zero

P2: Splitting the Interval

𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐

Explanation:
• Total area = sum of parts
• Useful when interval is broken at a point
P3: Property involving 𝒇(𝒂 + 𝒃 − 𝒙)
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

Explanation:
• Helps in solving integrals with symmetry

P4: Special Case of P3

𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 0

Note:
• This is a particular case of P3

P5: Sum of Two Integrals

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0

Explanation:
• Used when integrand appears as a pair

P6: Special Symmetry Property

(i) If
𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

Then:
𝑎
1 2𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 2 0

(ii) If
𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

Then:
 2𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
0

P7: Even and Odd Functions

(i) Even Function
If
𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

Then:
𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−𝑎 0

(ii) Odd Function

If
𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

Then:
𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
−𝑎
Evaluate
2
∫ ( 𝑥 3 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−1

Solution
First, study the sign of the function 𝑥 3 − 𝑥.
• On [−1,0], 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 ≥ 0
• On [0, 1], 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 ≤ 0
• On [1, 2], 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 ≥ 0
Using Property P2 (splitting the interval):
2 0 1 2
∫ ( 𝑥 3 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( 𝑥 3 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑥 3 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( 𝑥 3 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−1 −1 0 1

Integrate each part

3
𝑥4 𝑥2
∫ (𝑥 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −
4 2
Apply limits
0 2 1
𝑥4 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥4
[4 − 2] +[4 − 2] −[2 − 4]
−1 1 0

After simplification,
3 11 2
= + −
4 4 4
12
=
4
=3

Evaluate
𝜋/4
∫ sin⁡2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−𝜋/4

Solution
sin⁡2 𝑥is an even function.
By Property P7(i):
𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−𝑎 0
𝜋/4
= 2∫ sin⁡2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

Use identity:
1 − cos⁡ 2𝑥
sin⁡2 𝑥 =
2
𝜋/4
=∫ (1 − cos⁡ 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
sin⁡ 2𝑥 𝜋/4
= [𝑥− 2 ]0
𝜋 1
= −
4 2

Evaluate
1
∫ sin⁡5 𝑥cos⁡4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−1

Solution
Let
𝑓(𝑥) = sin⁡5 𝑥cos⁡4 𝑥
𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

So 𝑓(𝑥)is an odd function.

By Property P7(ii):
𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
−𝑎