Canning

Canning, the process of placing foods in jars or cans and heating properly to a specified
temperature, is a way to preserve many different foods. The high heat destroys microorganisms
and inactivates enzymes to preserve the safety and quality of the food.

Acid foods such as fruits can be processed or canned in boiling water, but low-acid vegetables
and meats must be canned in a pressure canner at 240° F (10 pounds pressure at sea level).
Tomatoes are on the borderline between low and high acid. They can be canned in boiling
water, but acid must be added to them to increase the acidity. In pickling, low-acids foods such
as vegetables are acidified by adding vinegar. Whatever method you use, the following
guidelines will help you get started.

Canning is the process of applying heat to food that’s sealed hermetically in a jar to destroy
any microorganism that can cause food spoilage.

The food preservation process of canning originated in 1809 when French confectioner Nicolas
Appert succeeded in preserving meats in glass bottles that had been kept in boiling water for
varying periods of time. In the honour of inventor, canning is also known as “appertization”.
Canning demonstrates that food can be preserved for quite a longer duration of time when
heated and stored in anaerobic condition. Today, the method of canning is one of the most
widely used methods for food preservation.

In canning the food is placed in containers, heated, and then sealed, usually under vacuum. It
is used for products such as fruit juices, syrups, and sauces. Canning process is advantageous
in retaining the stable vitamins and colour and flavour of food items.

Unlike pasteurization, canning of foods normally involves exposure for longer periods of time
to higher temperatures created by steam under pressure in order to kill endospore-forming
microorganisms. Steam under pressure (e.g. a pressure cooker) is the most effective method
since it kills all vegetative cells and spores. The heat treatment generally exceeds 100°C
temperature and the food is heated long enough to inactivate the most heat-resistant pathogens
(disease-causing organisms) and spoilage organisms. Heating to such high temperatures is
achieved by steam injection, which is followed by rapid cooling. Factors affecting the length
of time the food must be heated include the kind and number of microorganisms present, acidity
of foods, presence of preservatives (salt, sugar). The only dangerous spore forming bacterium
which survives the treatment is Clostridium botulinum

The whole process of canning includes preparation of food, filling, exhausting, sealing, thermal
processing i.e. autoclaving and cooling .

First step: Prepare equipment, Preheat the canner

Assemble and wash equipment and containers before gathering fruit or vegetables.

Fill the boiling water bath or pressure canner with the appropriate amount of hot water and
begin heating it on the range.

• Boiling water bath – 1 to 2 inches of water above the tops of the jars

• Pressure canner – 2 to 3 inches of water in the bottom of the canner

This can be difficult to determine before jars are placed in the canner. Have an extra pan of
water heating in case you have too little water in the canner. If you heat too much, be prepared
to remove some.

Examine jars and discard any that have nicks, cracks, or rough edges. These defects will prevent
an airtight seal, allowing food to spoil.

Wash canning jars in soapy water, rinse well, and keep hot. This can be done by using a
dishwasher or by placing the jars in the water that is heating in the canner. The jars need to be
kept hot to prevent breakage when they are filled with a hot product and placed in the canner
for processing.

Prepare the jars and lids so they are safe

You must sterilize jars that will be filled with food and processed for less than 10 minutes in a
boiling water bath canner. This can be done by boiling them for 10 minutes (for 1,000 feet
altitude). Add one additional minute for each additional 1,000 feet of altitude. Jars that will be
processed in a boiling water bath for 10 minutes or more or in a pressure canner will be
sterilized during processing. Always use new two-piece lids. Follow the manufacturer’s
instructions for treating them.

Prepare the food to be preserved

Wash the product carefully, a little at a time. Lift food out of the water, drain the water, and
continue rinsing until the water is clear and free of dirt. Dirt contains some of the hardest-to-
kill bacteria. Don’t let the food soak; it will lose flavor and nutrients. The raw food should be
as clean as possible to make the canning process as effective as possible.

Pack the food according to directions

Fruits and vegetables may be packed raw or preheated and then packed. Some foods can be
packed by either method, but always follow the directions given in the recipe. Hot pack often
gives better color and flavor, particularly when foods are processed in a boiling water bath.

A jar funnel is helpful when you fill jars with small foods. There should always be enough
liquid to fill in around the solid food in the jar and to cover the food – usually ½ to 1½ cups
liquid for a quart jar.

Leave the specified amount of headspace in the jar. The amount depends on the type of food,
so follow the directions in the recipe.

Close the jars correctly

To release any air bubbles that may be trapped in the jar, run a bubble-freer or any plastic knife-
like utensil around the edges of the jar, gently pushing the food from side to side so that any
trapped air is released. Add more liquid, if needed, to ensure proper headspace.

Wipe off the rims of the jars with a clean, damp cloth. Place the treated lid on the jar, center it,
and hold it in place with your fingers while you tighten the screw band to fingertip tight.
Tightening the screw band too tight will prevent air from escaping as necessary during
processing.

Use correct canning method

Choose the correct canning method. Use boiling water bath for fruits or high-acid foods. Use
pressure canners for all other foods.

• Boiling water bath procedure

• Pressure canner procedure

Boiling water bath procedure

1. Canner should be about half full of clean, hot water.

2. Load filled jars, one at a time, into the canner using a jar-lifter. Place them on a rack.
Make sure the jar-lifter is securely positioned below the neck of the jar. Keep the jar
upright at all times.

3. Add more boiling water, if needed, so that water level is 1 to 2 inches above the tops of
the jars. Pour water around the jars, not on them to prevent breakage.

4. Turn the heat setting to the highest position, cover the canner with its lid, and heat until
the water boils vigorously.

5. Set a timer after the water is boiling for the total minutes required to process the food.

6. Keep canner covered during the processing. The heat setting may be lowered as long
as the water boils steadily for the entire time.

7. Add boiling water, if needed, to keep water above the jar tops.

8. If water stops boiling at any time during the process, turn the heat to its highest setting,
bring the water back to a vigorous boil, and begin timing the process again, from the
beginning (using original total processing time).

9. When the jars have been processed, turn off the heat and remove the canner lid. Wait 5
minutes before removing jars.

10. Using a jar-lifter, remove the jars one at a time. Do not tilt jars Carefully place hot jars
right-side up directly onto dry towels or a cake cooling rack to prevent jars from
breaking on contact with a cold surface. Leave at least 1 inch between the jars during
cooling. Avoid placing the jars in a cold draft. Do not cover with towels.
 11. Let the jars sit undisturbed while they cool for 12 to 24 hours. Do not tighten ring bands
on the lids or push down on the center of the flat metal lid until jar has completely
cooled.

Pressure canner procedure

Read the canner manufacturer’s instructions and follow them carefully. Be sure to vent or
exhaust all pressure canners for 10 minutes before closing them up to pressurize.

1. Center canner over the burner. When the jars of food are ready for canning, put the rack
and 2 to 3 inches of hot water into the canner. Begin heating the water, but not enough
for the depth to decrease.

2. Use a jar-lifter to place filled jars, fitted with lids, on the jar rack in the canner. Leave
space between the jars for steam to flow around each one during processing. Keep the
jar upright at all times.

3. Fasten the canner lid securely. Leave the weight off the vent port or open the petcock.

4. Turn the heat setting to its highest position. Heat until the water boils and steam flows
freely in a funnel shape from the open vent port or petcock. Let the steam flow
continuously for 10 minutes (to vent the canner).

5. After venting the canner, place the counterweight or weighted gauge on the vent port
or close the petcock, depending on the type of canner. If you have a weighted gauge,
be sure to use the correct setting. The canner will begin to pressurize.

6. For a dial gauge canner, let the pressure rise quickly to 8 pounds of pressure. Lower the
burner temperature slightly and let the pressure continue to rise to the correct setting.

7. For weighted gauge canners, let the canner heat quickly until steam begins to escape
from the gauge or the gauge moves and makes noise. Adjust the heat down slightly until
the weighted gauge begins to jiggle or rock as the manufacturer describes.

8. Start timing the process when the pressure reading on the dial gauge indicates that the
recommended pressure has been reached or when the weighted gauge begins to jiggle
or rock as described.
 9. Adjust the heat under the canner to maintain a steady pressure at, or slightly above, the
correct gauge pressure. If the pressure goes too high, do not lower it by opening the
vent or lifting the weight. Instead, turn down the heat under the canner.

10. If at any time the pressure goes below the recommended amount, bring the canner back
to pressure and begin timing the process again, from the beginning (using the total
original process time).

11. When the time process is complete, turn off the heat, remove the canner from an electric
burner if possible, and let the canner cool down naturally. If the canner is too heavy,
simply turn off the heat.

12. Do not force-cool the canner or depressurize it. It will depressurize while it is cooling.

13. After the canner is depressurized, remove the weight from the vent port or open the
petcock. After 10 minutes, unfasten the lid and remove it carefully. Lift the lid with the
underside away from you so that the steam does not burn your face.

14. Do not leave the canner unopened to cool completely.

15. Using a jar-lifter, remove the jars, being careful not to tilt them. Carefully place the hot
jars directly onto dry towels or a cooling rack. Leave at least 1 inch of space between
jars.

16. Let the jars sit undisturbed while they cool for 12 to 24 hours. Do not tighten ring bands
on the lids or push down on the center of the flat metal lid until the jar is completely
cool.

Important: Test for sealed jars

After 12 to 24 hours, make sure the jars are sealed. Most lids will seal with a pop sound while
they are cooling. When it is completely cool, test the lid. It should be curved downward and
should not move when pressed with a finger. If a jar is not sealed, refrigerate the food and use
it within two or three days. You may also reprocess the food within 24 hours or freeze it.
 Pasteurization

Pasteurization is a mild heat treatment for relatively brief duration to kill part of the
microorganisms and to eliminate human pathogens present in food. It is used specially when
the aim is to kill pathogenic microorganisms and where the spoilage organisms are not very
heat-resistant and the product cannot stand high-temperatures or frozen.

The main purpose of pasteurization in low acid foods is destruction of pathogenic

microorganisms whereas in acid foods it aims at killing spoilage microorganisms along with
enzyme inactivation. For example pasteurization is used to kill pathogenic microorganisms
Brucella abortis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetti in case of milk (63°C for
30 minutes; 71.5°C for 15 seconds) and spoilage microorganisms in beers (lactic acid bacteria
and yeasts at 65°C–68°C for 20 minutes in bottle), fruit juices (yeast and fungi along with
pectinesterase and polygalacturonase inactivation at 65°C for 30 minutes; 77°C for 1 minute;
88°C for 15 seconds) etc. In addition to destroying some microorganisms, pasteurization also
inactivates some enzymes. Pasteurization does not change the colour and flavour to any
significant level.

Since pasteurization does not kill all the microorganisms, this process is usually combined with
another preservation method like refrigeration, freezing etc. Typical other preservation
methods used in combination with pasteurization include refrigeration as in the case of milk;
chemical additives- pickles, fruit juices; fermentation (additives)- sauerkraut, cheeses; and
packaging (anaerobic conditions)- beers, fruit juices.

The index microorganism for pasteurization is Mycobacterium tuberculosis. If this

microorganism is killed by pasteurization it is assumed that all other pathogens are also
destroyed.

Methods of pasteurization

Three methods of pasteurization are used viz. low temperature long time (LTLT), high
temperature short time (HTST) and ultra high temperature (UHT) method.
Low temperature long time (LTLT) method:

In LTLT pasteurization, the pasteurization time is in the order of minutes and related to the
temperature used; two typical temperature/time combinations are used: 63 to 65 °C over 30
minutes or 75 °C over 8 to 10 minutes. The minimal heat treatment for market milk is 62.8°C
for 30 minutes in (LTLT) holding method and for grape juice is 76.7°C for 30 minutes.

High temperature short time (HTST) method:

Rapid pasteurization involves temperatures of about 85° to 90°C or more and time in the order
of seconds. HTST method involves temperature of 71.7°C for about 15 seconds in case of milk
pasteurization and grape wines are generally pasteurized for one minute at 81 to 85°C.

Ultra-high temperature (UHT) method:

Rapid, high or flash pasteurization involves temperatures of 85-90°C or more and time in order
of seconds. These are also known as ultra high temperature (UHT) treatments. Typical
temperature/time combinations may be: 88°C for 1 minute; 100°C for 12 seconds; 121°C for 2
seconds. This treatment will destroy all but the most heat resistant spores resulting in
commercially sterile product.

Bacterial destruction is very nearly equivalent in all temperature-time combinations; however,

the 121°C for 2 seconds treatment gives the best quality products in respect of flavour and
vitamin retention. Very short holding times to the tune of seconds, however, require special
equipment which is more difficult to design and generally is more expensive than the LTLT/
HTST type of processing equipment.
 Blanching

Blanching is used for variety of purposes. It is defined as a mild heat treatment applied to tissue
(usually plant) primarily to inactivate enzymes prior to freezing, drying or canning. It is also
known as scalding.

Functions of blanching

• Inactivate most enzymes

• Some cleaning action
• Removes substances in some products
• Activates some enzymes (if controlled)
• Removes undesirable odours/ flavours
• Softens fibrous material and decreases volume
• Expels air and respiratory gasses
• Preheating of product prior to canning
• Reduces number of microorganisms

Major function of blanching is inactivation of enzymes for frozen or dehydrated foods as

enzymes can cause rapid changes in colour, flavour and nutritive value of such food products.
Moreover freezing and dehydration processes involve temperatures which are insufficient to
inactivate enzymes. Blanching as a pretreatment before drying has many advantages like it
helps in cleaning the material and reducing the amount of microorganisms present on the
surface; it preserves the natural colour in the dried products; for example, the carotenoid
(orange and yellow) pigments dissolve in small intracellular oil drops during blanching and in
this way they are protected from oxidative breakdown during drying; and it shortens the
soaking and/ or cooking time during reconstitution. Blanching does not allow effective
autoclaving, and stops the activity of autolytic enzymes.

For canned products, blanching removes gases, shrinks the food to correct fill weight in can
and offers preheating, which are very important to provide vacuum in can and proper
sterilization. Sometimes canning process may allow sufficient time for enzymatic activity and
under blanching may increase the enzymatic activity.
Fruits are not blanched. As a thumb rule, all those vegetables which cannot be eaten raw are
blanched. E.g. potatoes, greens green beans, carrots, okra, turnip and cabbage should always
be blanched. On the other hand, blanching is not needed for onions, leeks, tomatoes and sweet
peppers.

Using sodium bicarbonate with blanching water preserves the green colour of vegetables by
preventing the conversion of chlorophyll into pheophytin, unattractive brownish-green colour
compound.

Methods of blanching:

Blanching is a delicate processing step. It requires careful monitoring of time, temperature and
the other conditions. Effective blanching time necessary to inactivate enzymes is dependent on
various factors viz. type of food, method or type of heating, product size and temperature of
heating medium etc. There are mainly two typical methods of blanching based on type of
heating medium viz. hot water blanching and steam blanching use hot water and steam as
heating medium, respectively. The former process involves temperatures below 100 °C
whereas the latter is carried out at temperatures above 100 °C. A third type of blanching system
exists which is a combination of hot water and steam blanching.

Blanching of green leafy vegetables especially spinach at boiling point causes loss of green
colour but at lower temperature (77°C), it retains the natural green colour, even when heated
at higher temperature (121°C) later during sterilization. At lower temperature, the enzyme
chlorophyllase remains active for little time and converts chlorophyll to a phyllin, which retains
green colour.

Hot water blanching:

In this method, the cleaned food is subjected to hot water (85 to 100°C) until the enzymes are
inactivated. Pot blanchers are used at home scale. Generally hot water blanching is done
because of low capital costs and better energy efficiency. Disadvantages associated with hot
water blanching include loss of water-soluble constituents, risk of contamination and higher
cost of water and disposal of effluent.
Steam blanching:

In case of steam blanching, the food product is directly exposed to steam, which avoids the loss
of food soluble solids (flavours, vitamins, acids, sugars etc.) to blanching medium as well as
solves the problem of disposing blanching medium after processing. Steam blanching is
advantageous as it results in less loss of water-soluble constituents, less volume of waste, easy
to clean and sterilize. But it has some disadvantages such as higher capital costs, uneven
blanching, and low efficiency.

Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE), Bhopal has developed the batch type
steam blancher, with 100 kg/ h capacity. It has been evaluated for blanching of cabbage,
cauliflower, pea and okra. Results revealed satisfactory performance on account of colour
retention in the dried product.

On commercial level, tunnel steam blanchers with product conveyers are used.

Blanchers with hot water and steam system:

This type involves three step process viz. product on conveyer belts is exposed to steam
consecutively followed by contact between food and hot water and finally immersion in hot
water.

Efficacy of blanching:

There are various types of enzymes such as lipoxygenase, polyphenolase, polygalacturonase

and chlorophyllase, which cause loss of quality and therefore, must be inactivated. Normally,
two heat resistant plant enzymes such as catalase and peroxidase, are used to evaluate blanching
efficacy, as appropriate time and temperature is required to inactivate them.
 Dehydration

The preservation of foods by drying is the time honored and most common method used by
humankind and the food processing industry. The dehydration of food is one of the most
important achievements in human history making our species less dependent upon a daily food
supply, even under adverse environmental conditions. Drying in earlier times was done in the
sun, but today many types of sophisticated equipment and methods are being used to dehydrate
foods. In recent decades, considerable efforts have been made to understand some of the
chemical and biochemical changes that occur during dehydration and to develop methods for
preventing undesirable quality losses.

Foods can be divided into three broad groups based on the value added through processing by
drying. In the case of cereals, legumes and root crops, very little value is added per kilogram
processed. More value per unit mass is added to foods such as vegetables, fruits and fish; and
considerably more to high value crops such as spices, herbs, medicinal plants, nuts, bio-active
materials, and enzymes.

1.2. Mode of preservation

Drying reduces the water activity, thus preserving foods by avoiding microbial growth and
deteriorative chemical reactions. The effects of heating on the activity of microorganisms and
enzymes are also important in the drying of foods. With foods to be preserved by drying, it is
important to maximize microorganism and/or enzyme inactivation for preventing spoilage and
enhanced safety, and to reduce the components causing the deterioration of dried foods. On the
other hand, in the case of drying bacterial cultures, enzymes, or vitamins, minimum inactivation
is required. Thus detrimental effects of drying may be desirable or undesirable depending on
the purpose of the drying process.

1.3. State of water in foods

The terms dried and dehydrated are not synonymous. The US Department of Agriculture lists
dehydrated foods as those with no more than 2.5% water (dry basis). The concept of bound and
free water has been developed from drying principles, and it is important for dried products for
its stability during processing and storage. A product containing no water is termed as bone-
dry. Water in foods exists in different forms or states. Water in foods having properties different
from those of pure water can be defined as bound water. In the literature different forms of
bound water are defined, e.g. unfreezeable, immobile, monolayer, and non-solvent water.
However the fraction of bound water depends on the definition and measurement techniques.
The binding energy of different states of bound water affects the drying process, since it
requires more energy to remove bound water than free water.

1.4. Endpoint of drying

Equilibrium in the drying system is the ultimate endpoint for the process. Water activity is
commonly used to estimate the equilibrium point in thermal and osmotic drying processes. In
mechanical dewatering, the magnitude of the applied force and rheological properties of the
foods affect the equilibrium point. Generally, meat, fish, and dairy products are dehydrated to
a moisture content of 3% or less; vegetable products usually to 5%; and cereal products
frequently to as much as 12%. A maximum moisture level is usually established for each dried
product separately, based on desired acceptable quality after drying and during storage.
Different attributes of quality can be targeted, thus the end point should be determined from all
aspects, such as safety first and then consumer acceptance.

1.5. Heating methods in drying

Heating of air by electric heater or flue gas is the conventional heating method used for the
drying process. In this case, heat transfer from the gas to the product occurs mainly through
convection. The heating method is another important aspect of drying in terms of quality, as
well as energy cost. Microwave, infrared, radio frequency, refractance window, and dielectric
heating use the electromagnetic wavelength spectrum as a form of energy, which interacts with
the materials, thus generating heat and increasing the drying rate. Dielectric drying uses
frequencies in the range of 1-100 MHz, whereas microwave drying uses frequencies in the
range of 300-300 000 MHz. Microwave heating is rapid, more uniform in the case of liquids,
and more energy efficient than the hot air method. Applying microwave energy under vacuum
affords the advantages of vacuum-drying and microwave drying, providing improved energy
efficiency and product quality. The energy can be applied in a pulsed or continuous mode.
Pulsed microwave drying is more efficient than continuous drying. The development of
electrotechnology in drying is becoming a priority in the food industry, to improve drying
efficiency as well as food quality.
2. Drying methods

Drying processes can be broadly classified, based on the water-removing method applied, as
(i) thermal drying, (ii) osmotic dehydration, and (iii) mechanical dewatering.

In thermal drying a gaseous or void medium is used to remove water from the material. Thermal
drying can be divided into three types: (a) air drying, (b) low air environment drying, and (c)
modified atmosphere drying. In osmotic dehydration, a solvent or solution is applied to remove
water, whereas in mechanical dewatering physical force is used to remove water. Consideration
should be given to many factors before selecting a drying process. These factors include (a) the
type of product to be dried, (b) desired properties of the finished product, (c) allowable
temperature tolerance, (d) the product's susceptibility to heat, (e) pretreatments required, (f)
capital and processing cost, and (g) environmental factors. There is no single best technique
for drying of all products

3. Thermal drying

3.1. Air drying

3.1.1 Sun drying

Formerly, sun drying was the only method used for drying food. The main disadvantage is the
contamination and product loss by insects and birds. Where the climate is not particularly
suitable for air drying or better quality is desired, mechanical air-drying is mainly used. Today,
solar and mechanical air-drying is widely used commercially.

3.1.2 Solar drying

In solar drying, radiation energy from the sun is used. Solar drying is a non-polluting process
and uses renewable energy. Moreover, it is an abundant energy source that cannot be
monopolized. Solar drying has several drawbacks, however, and these limit its use in large-
scale production. These are the need for large areas of space and for high labor inputs, the
difficulty in controlling the rate of drying, and insect infestation and microbial contamination.
More options in designing are now available in the literature.
3.1.3 In-store drying

In-store drying can also be called low-temperature in-bin drying. It may be used where grain
remains in store until milled or sold. Weather conditions in tropical climates are less favorable
for in-store drying due to high ambient relative humidity values. Twostage drying can produce
good quality by preventing discoloration of high moisture grain and reduced cracking of skin-
dry kernels.

3.1.4 Convection air-drying

Cabinet and bed type dryers (i.e. kiln, tray, truck tray, rotary flow conveyor, and tunnel) fall
into the first generation. This is the simplest drying technique, taking place in an enclosed and
heated chamber. The drying medium, hot air, is allowed to pass over the product, which has
been placed in open trays. Convection drying is often a continuous process and is most often
used for products that are relatively low in value. Air-drying is usually accomplished by passing
air at regulated temperature and humidity over or through the food in a dryer. Factors affect
the rates of drying are temperature, humidity, air velocity and distribution pattern, air exchange,
product geometry and characteristics, and thickness. The sample is usually placed on mesh
trays in one layer or in a bulk bed or hangs from a string for better air circulation. The air
circulation can be horizontal or vertical to the layer or bed. The structure and composition, such
as fat content, of a product affects the drying rate. In general the hotter the air temperature, the
faster is the drying rate; and similarly the higher the velocity the higher the drying rate. Lower
air humidity causes a higher drying rate. The relative humidity (a measure of dryness) falls
when air temperature is raised. The drier must expel air to get rid of moisture, thereby allowing
new, lower humidity air to enter the system. However, this process causes heat loss from the
drier. In many cases, two or multistage dryers are used, with different conditions, e.g. initial
drying at 90 oC and then the second or final stage at 60oC. Recirculating exhaust air in dryers
is popular because of energy conservation and its effect on grain quality.

Drying is one of the most energy-intensive processes in the food industry. Apart from the rise
of energy cost, legislation on pollution and sustainable and environmentally friendly
technologies have created greater demand for energy-efficient drying processes in the food
industry. Thus, novel thinking could save much money by avoiding costly energy waste. Heat
losses during drying can be grouped as: heat loss with the exhaust air, heat loss with the
product, radiation heat loss from the dryer, heat loss due to leakage of air from the dryer, and
heat loss due to over drying of products. Changing the dryer design can reduce energy losses
while achieving higher product quality, such as by reducing drying time or increasing
throughput (better control), avoiding heat losses, and heat recovery from exhaust gas and dried
product.

3.1.5 Explosive puff-drying

Explosive puff-drying uses a combination of high temperature and high pressure and a sudden
release of the pressure (explosion) to flush superheated water out of a product. This method
gives the product good rehydrability. However, the high heat can degrade the food quality, and
explosion puffing may compromise the product integrity.

3.1.6 Spray-drying

Spray-drying is used to remove water from a free-flowing liquid mixture, thus transforming it
into a powder product. The fluid to be dried is first atomized by pumping it through either a
nozzle or a rotary atomizer, thus forming small droplets with large surface areas. The droplets
immediately come into contact with a hot drying gas, usually air. The liquid is very rapidly
evaporated, thus minimizing contact time and heat damage. Disadvantages include, the size of
the equipment required to achieve drying is very large, and very oily materials might require
special preparation to remove excessive levels of fat before atomization. Ultra-sonication in
the chamber can be used instead of complex atomization to produce small-diameter droplets in
spray-drying.

3.1.7 Fluidized bed drying

This technique involves movement of particulate matter in an upward-flowing gas stream,

usually hot air. Fluidization mobilizes the solid particulates, thus creating turbulences on the
solid surfaces, which increases drying rate. The hot gas is introduced into the bottom of a
preloaded cylindrical bed and exits at the top. In some cases, a vibratory mechanism is used to
increase the contact of the product with the hot gas.

Fluidized bed drying is usually carried out as a batch process and requires relatively small,
uniform, and discrete particles that can be readily fluidized. The main advantages of fluidized
bed drying are uniform temperature and high drying rates, thus less thermal damage. A rotating
chamber is also used with a fluidized bed, thus increasing centrifugal force to further increase
the drying rate and mixing. The use of a solid carrier, such as sea sand, and wheat bran could
be used to prevent the biomaterial from deterioration due to thermal shock.

3.1.8 Spouted bed drying

In a spouted bed dryer, the heated gas enters the chamber at the center of a conical base as a
jet. The particles are rapidly dispersed in the gas, and the drying occurs in an operation similar
to flash-drying. This works very well with larger pieces that cannot be dried in a fluidized bed
dryer.

3.1.9 Ball drying

In this method the material to be dried is added to the top of the drying chamber through a
screw conveyor. The material within the drying chamber comes into direct contact with heated
balls made from ceramic or other heat-conductive material. Drying occurs primarily by
conduction. Hot drying air is passed through the bottom side of the chamber. When the product
arrives at the bottom of the chamber, it is separated from the balls and collected.

3.1.10 Rotary drum drying

Rotary drum dryers are cylindrical shells 1 to 5 m in diameter, 10 to 40 m in length, and rotating
at 1 to 8 rpm with a circumferential speed of approximately 0.2 to 0.4 m/s. These conditions
depend on the product types used for drying. They are designed to operate at a nearly horizontal
position, inclined at only 2 to 6o to maintain the axial advance of solids, which are fed from
the upper end of the dryer body.

3.1.11 Drum drying

This technique removes water from a slurry, paste or fluid that has been placed on the surface
of a heated drum. The dryer may comprise either a single or a double drum. Drum drying is
typically a continuous operation, and care must be taken to ensure that the product that is to be
dried adheres well to the drying surface; in some cases, it may be necessary to modify the liquid
product by additives to change its surface tension or viscosity.

3.2. Low air environment drying

3.2.1 Vacuum-drying
Vacuum-drying of food involves subjecting it to a low pressure and a heating source. The
vacuum allows the water to vaporize at a lower temperature than at atmospheric conditions,
thus foods can be dried without exposure to high temperature. In addition, the absence of air
during drying diminishes oxidation reactions. In general color, texture and flavor of vacuum-
dried products are improved compared to air-dried. In some cases the product is comparable to
the quality of freeze-dried.

3.2.2 Freeze-drying

In freeze-drying the material that has been frozen is subject to a pressure below the triple point
(at 0 oC, a pressure of 610 Pa) and heated to cause ice sublimation to vapor. This method is
usually used for high-quality dried products, which contain heatsensitive components such as
vitamins, antibiotics, and microbial culture. Virtual absence of air and low temperature prevent
deterioration due to oxidation or chemical modification of the product. It also gives very porous
products which results in a high rehydration rate. However, freeze-drying is a slow and
expensive process. The long processing time requires additional energy to run the compressor
and refrigeration units, which makes the process very expensive for commercial use.

3.2.3 Heat pump drying

The heat pump dryer is a further extension of a conventional convection air-dryer with an in-
built refrigeration system. The dry heated air is supplied continuously to the product to pick up
moisture. The humid air passes through the evaporator of the heat pump where it condenses,
thus giving up its latent heat of vaporization to the refrigerant in the evaporator. This heat is
used to reheat the cool dry air passing over the hot condenser of the heat pump, thus the latent
heat recovered in the process is released at the condenser of the refrigeration circuit and used
to reheat the air within the dryer. The use of the heat pump dryer offers several advantages over
conventional hot air dryers for the drying of food products, including higher energy efficiency,
better product quality, the ability to operate independently of outside ambient weather
conditions, and zero environmental impact. In addition, the condensate can be recovered and
disposed of in an appropriate manner, and there is also the potential to recover valuable volatile
components from the condensate. One of the main reasons for quality improvements in heat
pump dried products is due to its ability to operate at low temperatures. If a heat pump dryer is
used at low temperatures (10 to 60 oC) for highly perishable food products, adequate
precautions need to be taken. There is also potential to use heat pump modified atmosphere
drying for better quality products.

3.2.4 Superheated steam drying

Superheated steam is used as a drying medium. The main advantages of this type of drying are
that it can provide an oxygen-free medium for drying and process steam available in the
industry can be used without any capital cost. An oxygen-free medium has the potential to give
high-quality food products, but it is important to generate more information regarding quality
improvement and processing efficiency.

3.2.5 Impingement drying

Impingement drying is an old technology that has only recently been applied to food products.
An impingement dryer consists of a single gas jet (air or superheated steam) or an array of such
jets, impinging normally on a surface. There is a great variety of nozzles that can be used and
selection of the nozzle geometry and multi-nozzle configuration have important relevance on
the initial and operating costs and product quality. Some characteristics of impingement drying
include: rapid drying, popular for convection drying, and the large variety of nozzles available
(multizones). Typically, the temperature and jet velocity in impingement drying ranges from
100 to 350 oC and 10 to 100 m/s, respectively.

Ultrafiltration

The term ultrafiltration was initially coined by Bechhold. It is widely a membrane process in
dairy and food industries. Pore size of UF membranes (0.001-0.01 micro m) is lesser than MF
while greater than NF and RO. The applied pressure during ultrafiltration is between 1-10 bar.
The UF process membranes are characterized on the basis of molecular weight cut off
(MWCO) rather than pore size. Several membrane manufactures uses MWCO as a criteria, to
access the membrane separation efficiency. For ultrafiltration, MWCO ranges from 1200 kDa.
Generally for a given molecular weight cut-off, 80% of the molecules of that molecular weight
will be rejected, i.e. retained (Smith, 2013).The UF is well known as protein concentration and
fractionation process. During ultrafiltration, only water, lactose/sugars, minerals and vitamins
moves in permeate, but fat, bacteria and proteins are retained as well as concentrated in
retentate. Gel formation over the membrane surface, concentration polarization and membrane
fouling are the main limiting factors during ultrafiltration. Ultrafiltration can be performed in
all membrane modules or configurations.

Ultrafiltration in Food Processing

Availability of few food materials in naturally pure form underlines the importance of different
separation and purification processes in transforming food or food substances into safe and
direct consumable form. For selected applications, membrane processing is superior to other
conventional methods owing to its inherent advances such as low energy consumption, fewer
and mild processing steps, greater separation efficiency, improved final product quality, eco-
friendly and cleaner process i.e better product quality at lower cost with highest environment
protection through minimum/low waste generation. Now a days, these processes have become
an integral part of industries like functional food and nutraceuticals industry, agricultural, dairy
and food and bio-product industries (Strathmann, 1990).Application of these membrane are
increasing in different industries, with rapid a pace. Recently, Akin et al., (2012), summarized
commercial applications in their review. In dairy industry, ultrafiltration is used for protein
content standardization in cheese milk, high protein milk and fermented products like
curd/dahi, yoghurt, chakka and shrikhand, koumiss. During cheese making, UF is used in
protein content adjustment, production of soft varieties of cheeses like Cream, Quark and
Ricotta. Ultrafiltration has enabled the dairy industry to convert its whey, which is produced in
huge quantities, into a series of value added products.

Application in dairy Industry

In whey processing, UF is being employed for concentration, fractionation, defatting and

demineralization to produce whey protein concentrate (WPC), whey protein Isolate (WPI),
different whey protein fractions individually, in particularimmunoglobulins and growth
factors.

UF is the only process used for the concentration of total milk proteins in skim milk for the
production of milk protein concentrate (MPC) and milk protein isolates (MPI). It is also used
to adjust the protein content of milk that acts as a raw material for the manufacture of different
Cheeses and high protein milk.
Membrane application in Beer, wine and vinegar production

Reverse osmosis is used for the must correction, rejuvenation and dealcoholization of
wine, while MF/UF is used for the wine clarification during wine manufacture (for details see
Lipinzki, 2010). During wine clarification, MF and UF provides an alternative to the classical
fining substances, filters and also reduces the number of processing steps. Lipinzki, (2010),
reported that 0.20- 0.5 micro meter and 0.45 -0.65 micro meter pose size MF membrane are
usually used during the filtration of white and red wines, respectively. Clarification of vinegar
employing UF not only provides wider vinegar range with same sensorial attributes without
turbidity, but also reduces number of operations and reduces storage time.

Membrane Application in Fruit Juice and Beverages Production

MF and UF are the economic and efficient alternatives to the classical filtration methods
available for clarification of different fruit juices. The use of membrane processing in beverage
industry have several inherent advantages like improved product quality, reduced cost of
production, better working environment, cleaner production with less waste generation and
improved product safety (Koseoglu et al., 1990; Hagg, 1998). Cassano, (2010) reported several
merits of membrane processes over classical beverages or fruit juice fining agents such as
reduced energy consumption and cost, eradication of different filtration aids, mild thermal
treatments that safeguard the product against thermal degradation, easier process and compact
equipment design, fewer wastes, reduced chemicals requirement and enhanced productivity
(96-8%, juice recovery). Moreover, fruit juice clarification with MF and UF have substantial
potential of cost saving. Annual production costs of a UF plant (capacity- 250 m3 of juice/day)
was estimated 79% lesser than a conventional plant (Mondor and Brodeur, 2002). UF process
is the alternate of the fining step used in classical method. A detailed review on membrane
processing of fruit juices and beverages has been published by Girard and Fukumoto,
(2000).MF, also known as cold-sterilization process, can also be employed to extend the shelf
life of heat sensitive fruit preparations and beverages.

Membrane Applications in Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals

Global market of functional foods and nutraceuticals is rising rapidly. The future of
recently evolved bio-active molecules and nutraceutical ingredients is usually decided by the
separation ability and efficiency with the retention of the desired characteristics/biological
activity of these ingredients by the employed separation process with minimum inputs (i.e.
energy + capital + labor cost). Separation as well as purification of such ingredients is highly
expensive. Although, a number of challenges have to be overcome in order to concentrate a
target substance in the end product from its raw material, yet several methods are
accomplishing such tasks successfully. On commercial scale, membrane processing is now
considered as low cost and effective tool to concentrate and purify several bioactive substances
from different feed streams (Akin et al., 2012). Various membrane processes alone or in
combination are used to produce numerous nutraceuticals and bioactive substances from lipids,
carbohydrates and proteins protein based sources. Moreover, this technology offers many key
advantages during processing of such ingredients which includes elimination of classical
evaporation (that reduces their activity and highly energy consuming); reduces overall water
needs by re-utilizing waste water; enhances profit by formation of new products and needs
lesser floor space and investments