6 lOgaRIThmIC aND EXpONENTIal FUNCTIONs

Graphs of logarithms
The graph of y = log a x has the same general shape for all values of the
base a where a > 1.
y

y = loga x

1 a x

The graph has the following properties:

» The curve only exists for positive values of x.
» The gradient of the graph is always positive. As the value of x
increases, the gradient of the curve decreases.
» It crosses the x-axis at (1, 0).
» The line x = 0 is an asymptote, i.e. the curve approaches it ever more
closely but never actually touches or crosses it.
» The graph passes through the point (a, 1).
» loga x is negative for 0 < x < 1.
Graphs of other logarithmic functions are obtained from this basic
graph by applying one or more transformations – translations, stretches
or reflections – as shown in the following examples.

Note
● A translation moves the graph – horizontally, vertically or in both
directions – to a different position. It does not change in shape.
When a > 0:
m replacing x by (x − a) moves the graph a units to the right (the
positive direction)
m replacing x by (x + a) moves the graph a units to the left
(the negative direction)
m replacing y by (y − a) moves the graph a units upwards
(the positive direction)
m replacing y by (y + a) moves the graph a units downwards (the
negative direction).
● A reflection gives a mirror image. In this book only reflections
in the coordinate axes are considered.
m Replacing x by (−x) reflects the graph in the y-axis.
m Replacing y by (−y) reflects the graph in the x-axis.

92
 Logarithms

Solution
a) y

log x
y = log 3 +
y = log x

1 x

b) The graph of y = log 3 + log x is a translation of the graph of y = log x

upwards by a distance of log 3.
c) y

y = log 3x
y = log x
You can use graphing
software to show
that the graph of 1 x
y = log 3x is the same
as the graph of
y = log 3 + log x.
This confirms
one of the ‘laws
of logarithms’
introduced below.
d) The graph of y = log 3x looks the same as the graph of y = log 3 + log x.

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6 lOgaRIThmIC aND EXpONENTIal FUNCTIONs

Remember Method 2: Solving as an inequality

Solving the inequality ( 0.85) n × 20 000 < 10 000
that lg 0.85 is
negative and ⇒ ( 0.85 ) n < 0.5
when you divide
⇒ lg 0.85 n < lg 0.5
an inequality by a
negative number, ⇒ n lg 0.85 < lg 0.5
you must change lg 0.5
the direction of ⇒ n>
lg 0.85
the inequality. ⇒ n > 4.265…
The car will be worth less than $10 000 after 5 years.

Exercise 6.1 In some of the following questions you are instructed not to use your
calculator for the working, but you may use it to check your answers.
1 By first writing each of the following equations using powers, find the
value of y without using a calculator:
1
a) y = log 2 8 b) y = log 3 1 c) y = log 5 25 d) y = log 2
4
2 32 = 9 can be written using logarithms as log3 9 = 2. Using your
knowledge of indices, find the value of each of the following without
using a calculator:
a) log 2 16 b) log 3 81 c) log 5 125 d) log 4 1
64
Remember that lg 3 Find the following without using a calculator:
means log10. a) lg100 b) lg(one million)
1
c) lg 1000 d) lg(0.000 001)
4 Using the rules for manipulating logarithms, rewrite each of the
following as a single logarithm. For example, log 6 + log 2 = log(6 × 2)
= log 12.
a) log 3 + log 5 b) 3log 4
c) log12 − log 3 d) 1 log 25
2
e) 2 log 3 + 3log 2 f) 4 log 3 − 3log 4
g) 1 log 4 + 4 log 1
2 2
5 Write each of the following as a single base 10 logarithm:
a) lg 3 + 2 lg 6 b) 2 lg 9 − 3 lg 3 c) 3 + 2lg6 − lg 8
6 Write each of the following as a logarithm to the given base:
a) log 4 25 to base 2 b) log 3 10 to base 9 c) ln 1000 to base 10
7 Write each of the following as a single natural logarithm:
a) 1 2 1 3
b) c) +
log 6 e log 7 e log 3 e log 4 e
8 Express each of the following in terms of log x:
a) log x 5 − log x 2 b) log x 3 + 3log x c) 5log x − 3log 3 x

102
 Logarithms

9 This cube has a volume of 800 cm 3.

a) Use logarithms to calculate the side length correct to the nearest

millimetre.
b) What is the surface area of the cube?
10 Starting with the graph of y = ln x, list the transformations required, in
order when more than one is needed, to sketch each of the graphs. Use
the transformations you have listed to sketch each graph.
a) y = 3ln x b) y = ln ( x + 3) c) y = 3ln 2 x
d) y = 3ln x + 2 (
e) y = −3ln x + 1 ) f) y = ln ( 2 x + 4 )
11 Match each equation from i to vi with the correct graph a to f.
i) y = log ( x + 1) ii) y = log ( x − 1) iii) y = − ln x
iv) y = 3ln x (
v) y = log 2 − x ) vi) y = ln ( x + 2 )

a) y b) y
6
2
5

1 4

x 2
−1 1 2 3 4
1
−1

−2 −1 1 2 e3 4 5 6 x
−1

−2

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6 lOgaRIThmIC aND EXpONENTIal FUNCTIONs

Exercise 6.1 (cont)

c) y d) y
3 3

2 2

1
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

−1
−1

e) y f) y
3

2
1

1
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

−1

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

−2

−1

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 Exponential functions

12 Solve the following equations for x, given that ln a = 3:

a) a 2 x = e 3
b) a 3 x = e 2
c) a 2 x − 3a x + 2 = 0
13 Before photocopiers were commonplace, school examination papers
were duplicated using a process where each copy produced was only
c% as clear as the previous copy. The copy was not acceptable if the
writing was less than 50% as clear as the original. What is the value
of c if the machine could produce only 100 acceptable copies from the
original?
14 Use logarithms to solve the equation 5 2 x − 1 = 4 x + 3 . Give the value of x
correct to 3 s.f.
15 a) $20 000 is invested in an account that pays interest at 2.4% per
annum. The interest is added at the end of each year. After how
many years will the value of the account first be greater than
$25 000?
b) What percentage interest should be added each month if interest is
to be accrued monthly?
c) How long would the account take to reach $25 000 if the interest
was added:
i) every month
ii) every day?
16 Where possible, solve each of the following equations:
a) 8 2 x + 8 x − 6 = 0 b) 10 2 x + 6 × 10 x + 9 = 0
c) (lg x) 2 − 7 lg x + 12 = 0 d) (lg x) 2 + 2 lg x − 8 = 0

Exponential functions
The expression y = loga x can be written as x = ay. Therefore, the graphs
of these two expressions are identical.
For any point, interchanging the x- and y-coordinates has the effect of
reflecting the original point in the line y = x, as shown below.
y
y=x
(3, 5)

(1, 2) (5, 3)

(2, 1)
x

Interchanging x and y for the graph y = log a x (shown in red) gives the
curve x = log a y (shown in blue).

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6 lOgaRIThmIC aND EXpONENTIal FUNCTIONs

y x = loga y

y=x

1 y = loga x

1 x

When rewritten with y as the subject of the equation, x = log a y

becomes y = a x.
The function y = a x is called an exponential function and is the inverse
of the logarithm function.
The most commonly used exponential function, known as the
exponential function, is ex, where e is the base of the logarithmic
function ln x and is approximately equal to 2.718. You can manipulate
exponential functions using the same rules as any other functions
involving powers.
» e a +b = e a × e b
» e a −b = e a ÷ e b

Graphs of e x and associated exponential

functions
The graph of y = ex has a similar shape to the graph of y = a x for
positive value of a. The difference lies in the steepness of the curve.
y = 4x
y = ex
y = 2x

106
 Exponential functions

As the base number increases (i.e. 2, e and 4 in the equations above),

the curve becomes steeper for positive values of x. All the y-values are
positive and all the curves pass through and ‘cross over’ at the point (0, 1).
For positive integer values of n, curves of the form y = enx are all related
as shown below. Notice again, that the graphs all pass through the point
(0, 1) and, as the value of n increases, the curves become steeper.
y

y = e3x

y = e2x

y = ex
1

The graph of y = e −x is a reflection in the y-axis of the graph of y = ex.

The graphs of y = enx and y = e −nx are related in a similar way for any
integer value of n.
y
y = e−2x y = e2x

The family of curves y = kex, where k is a positive integer, is a set of

different transformations of the curve y = ex. These represent stretches
of the curve y = ex in the y-direction.
y = 6 ex
y = 3 ex

y = ex

6
Notice that the
curve y = kex 3
crosses the y-axis
1
at (0, k).
x

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6 lOgaRIThmIC aND EXpONENTIal FUNCTIONs

Exercise 6.2 (cont) 4 Sketch each curve and give the coordinates of any points where it cuts
the y-axis.
a) y = 2 + e x b) y = 2 − e x
c) y = 2 + e − x d) y = 2 − e − x
5 Solve the following equations:
a) 5e 0.3t = 65 b) 13e 0.5t = 65
c) e t + 2 = 10 d) e t − 2 = 10
6 The value, $V, of an investment after t years is given by the formula
V = Ae 0.03t , where $A is the initial investment.
a) How much, to the nearest dollar, will an investment of $4000 be
worth after 3 years?
b) To the nearest year, how long will I need to keep an investment for
it to double in value?
7 The path of a projectile launched from an aircraft is given by the
equation h = 5000 − e 0.2 t , where h is the height in metres and t is the time
in seconds.
a) From what height was the projectile launched?
The projectile is aimed at a target at ground level.
b) How long does it take to reach the target?
8 Match each equation from i to vi to the correct graph a to f.
i) y = e 2 x ii) y = e x + 2 iii) y = 2 − e x
−x −x
iv) y = 2 − e v) y = 3e − 5 vi) y = e −2 x − 1

a) y b) y
6 5

4
5

3
4
2
3
1

2
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
1 −1

−2

−3 −2 −1 1 2 x

−1

112
 Exponential functions

c) y d) y
5 5

4
4

3
3
2
2
1
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−2
−2

e) y f)
3
y
5
2
4
1
3

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
2
−1
1
−2

−3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−4
−2
−5

−6

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6 lOgaRIThmIC aND EXpONENTIal FUNCTIONs

Exercise 6.2 (cont) 9 A radioactive substance of mass 100 g is decaying such that after t days
the amount remaining, M, is given by the equation M = 100e −0.002 t .
a) Sketch the graph of M against t.
b) What is the half-life of the substance (i.e. the time taken to decay to
half the initial mass)?
10 When David started his first job, he earned $15 per hour and was
promised an annual increment (compounded) of 3.5%.
a) What is his hourly rate in his 5th year?
After 5 years he was promoted. His hourly wage increased to $26 per
hour, with the same compounded annual increment.
b) For how many more years will he need to work before his hourly
rate reaches $30 per hour?
11 a) Solve the equation e 2 x + e x − 12 = 0.
b) Hence solve the equation e 4 x + e 2 x − 12 = 0.
2x x
12 a) Solve 2(3 ) − 5(3 ) + 2 = 0
x x +1
b) Solve e e = 10
2x x
c) Solve 2 − 5(2 ) + 4 = 0
d) Solve 2e − 13e x + 15 = 0.
2 x

e) Solve 3e x = 11 − 10e − x.
f) Solve 2(ln 3 x) 2 − 3(ln 3 x) − 14 = 0.

Past-paper questions
1 Given that loga pq = 9 and loga p2 q = 15, find the value of
(i) loga p and loga q, [4]
(ii) log p a + logq a. [2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 12 Q4, November 2012
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 12 Q4, November 2012

2 Solve the simultaneous equations

log3 a = 2 log3 b,
log3 (2a − b) = 1. [5]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 13 Q5, November 2010
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 13 Q5, November 2010

3 The number of bacteria B in a culture, t days after the first

observation, is given by
B = 500 + 400e0.2t
(i) Find the initial number present. [1]
(ii) Find the number present after 10 days. [1]
(iv) Find the value of t when B = 10 000. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 22 Q5 i, ii & iv, November 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 22 Q5 i, ii & iv, November 2014

114
 REVIEW EXERCISE 2

Review exercise 2
Ch 1, 4 1 a Solve the equation 5 − 2 x = 12 . [3]
b Solve the inequality x − 3 ≤ 2 x . [4]
Ch 1, 2, 4 2 a On a grid like the one below, sketch the graph of y = 2 x 2 + x − 10 , stating the
coordinates of any points where the curve meets the coordinate axes. [4]
y

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x

b How many values of x satisfy the equation 2 x 2 + x − 10 = 3 x ? [2]

Ch 2, 4 3 Solve the inequality 3 x 2 + x − 3 ≤ ( x − 2 ) 2 . [3]
Ch 2, 3, 4
4 It is given that the polynomial p ( x ) = x 3 − x 2 − 4 x + 4 has a factor of x − 2 .
a Write p ( x ) as a product of its linear factors. [3]
b i On axes like the ones below, sketch the graph of y = p( x ).
ii State the coordinates of any points where the curve meets the coordinate axes. [3]
c Solve the inequality x 3 + 4 ≥ x 2 + 4 x. [2]
y

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x

116
 Review exercise 2

Ch 2, 5 5 Solve the equations

y − x = 4,
x 2 + y 2 − 8 x − 4 y − 16 = 0. [5]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 11 Q1, May/June 2018
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 11 Q1, May/June 2018
Ch 2, 4, 5 6 Find the set of values of k for which the line y = 2 x + k intersects the curve
y = kx 2 − 2 x + 5 at two distinct points. [6]
Ch 2, 5, 6 7 Solve the simultaneous equations
log 6 x = 2 log 6 y
log 6 ( 5 y − x ) = 1 [5]
Ch 6 8 The value, V dollars, of a car aged t years is given by V = 12 000e −0.2 t .
i Write down the value of the car when it was new. [1]
ii Find the time it takes for the value to decrease to 2 of the value when it was new. [2]
3
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 22 Q2, February/March 2017
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 22 Q2, February/March 2017
Ch 1, 6 9 On separate grids, like the one below, sketch the graphs of the following.
State the equations of any asymptotes and the coordinates of any point where the curves
meet the coordinate axes.
a y = ln ( x − 1) [3]
b y = ln ( x − 1) [1]
y

0 x

Ch 6 10 Solve the equation 10 3 x − 2 = 8 , giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places. [3]
log 5 a + log 5 b
11 Write as a single logarithm to base 5. [2]
(log 5 c)(log c 5)
Total marks [52]

117