Course: Fluid Mechanics

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow

Teacher: Boussari
Mechanical Engineering Fall 2025
 The Acceleration Field of a Fluid
❑The Cartesian vector form of a velocity field that 𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = + 𝐕⋅𝛁 𝑢
varies with space and time: 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝐕 𝐫, 𝑡 = 𝐢𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐣𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐤𝑤 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
❑It is the most important variable in fluid mechanics: 𝑎𝑦 = = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = + 𝐕⋅𝛁 𝑣
knowing the velocity vector field is nearly equivalent 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
to solving the fluid flow problem.
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
❑The coordinates are fixed in space and we observe the 𝑎𝑧 = = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = + 𝐕⋅𝛁 𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
fluid as it passes by: Eulerian frame of reference
❑To obtain the Newton’s second law we need to obtain 𝑑𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕
the acceleration vector field 𝐚 of the flow. 𝐚 = = + 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 = + 𝐕⋅𝛁 𝐕
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝐕 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
𝐚= =𝐢 +𝐣 +𝐤
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ❑ 𝜕𝐕/𝜕t is the local acceleration which vanishes if the flow is
❑Since each scalar components 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 is a function steady
of(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡), we use the chain rule: ❑ The three terms in parentheses are called the convective
𝑑𝑢 𝑥,𝑦,𝑧,𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑧 acceleration, which arises when a particle moves through
= + + + regions of spatially varying velocity, as in the nozzle or diffuser.
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
❑ Flow that are nominally steady may have large acceleration
due to convective terms.
Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 2
 The Acceleration Field of a Fluid

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑢 +𝑢 +𝑤 +𝐕⋅𝛁 𝛁=𝐢 +𝐣 +𝐤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

❑The total time derivative is called the substantial derivative or material derivative
❑This concept may be applied to any scalar, such as pressure:

𝑑𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = + 𝐕⋅𝛁 𝑝
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Example 4.1
Given the eulerian velocity vector field
𝐕 = 3𝑟𝐢 + 𝑥𝑧𝐣 + 𝑡𝑦 2 𝐤
Find the total acceleration of a particle.

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 3

 Differential Equation of the Mass Conservation
❑Conservation of mass often called continuity
equation states that the fluid mass cannot change.
❑Applying this concept to a very small region we
chose an infinitesimal fixed control volume
𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦, 𝑑𝑧
❑The flow through each side of the element is
approximately one dimensional:
𝜕𝜌
න 𝑑𝒱 + ෍ 𝜌𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ෍ 𝜌𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑐𝑣 𝜕𝑡
❑The element is so small:
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
න 𝑑𝒱 ≈ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑐𝑣 𝜕𝑡 𝜕t

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
+ 𝜌𝑢 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑤 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 4

 Differential Equation of the Mass Conservation
Cylindrical Polar Coordinate
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
+ 𝜌𝑢 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑤 = 0 ❑ An alternative to the cartesian coordinate
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

❑This is the desired result of the conservation of

mass for an infinitesimal control volume.
❑Its often called the equation of continuity because
it requires no assumptions except that the density
and velocity are continuum functions
❑The flow is either steady or unsteady, viscous or
frictionless, compressible or incompressible.
❑Using the vector gradient operator we can write:

𝜕𝜌
+ 𝛁 ⋅ 𝜌𝐕 = 0
𝜕𝑡

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 5

 Differential Equation of the Mass Conservation
❑Let an arbitrary point 𝑃 defined by 𝑟, 𝜃 and 𝑧

𝑦
𝑟 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 1/2 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎n−1 𝑧=𝑧
𝑥

❑The general continuity in cylindrical polar coordinates is:

1𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
𝛁⋅𝐀= 𝑟𝐴𝑟 + 𝐴 + 𝐴
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝑧

❑There are other curvilinear coordinates systems such as

the spherical polar coordinate system

𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
+ 𝑟𝜌𝑣𝑟 + 𝜌𝑣𝜃 + 𝜌𝑣𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 6

 Differential Equation of the Mass Conservation
Steady Compressible Flow Incompressible Flow
❑It the flow is steady, d/dt=0 and all properties are ❑ The case where th4e density changes are negligible.
functions of positions only. The equation reduces ❑ 𝜕𝜌Τ𝜕t = 0 for steady or unsteady
to 𝛁⋅𝐕=0
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
Cartesian:
𝜕
𝜌𝑢 +
𝜕
𝜌𝑣 +
𝜕
𝜌𝑤 Cartesian + + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
Cylindrical 𝑟𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝜃 + 𝑣𝑧 = 0
1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
Cylindrical 𝑟𝜌𝑣𝑟 + 𝜌𝑣𝜃 + 𝜌𝑣𝑧
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
❑ These are linear differential equations.

❑Since the density and velocity are both variables, ❑ A flow is considered incompressible at Ma ≤ 0.3
these are still nonlinear and rather formidable, ❑ For standard conditions, a flow is considered incompressible if
but a number of special-case solutions have been the velocity is less than about 100 𝑚/𝑠 (330 𝑓𝑡/𝑠).
found. ❑ This encompasses a large variety of airflows: automobile and
train motions, light aircraft, landing and takeoff high speed
aircraft, most pipe flows, and the turbomachinery and moderate
rotational speeds.

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 7

 Differential Equation of the Mass Conservation
❑Example 4.2

❑Example 4.3

❑Example 4.4

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 8

 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
❑This section uses an elemental volume to derive
Newton’s 2nd Law for a moving fluid.
❑Using the force balance on an elemental moving
particle we obtain:

𝜕
෍𝐅 = න 𝐕 𝜌 𝑑𝒱 + ෍ 𝑚ሶ i 𝐕 𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ෍ 𝑚ሶ i 𝐕 in
𝜕𝑡 𝑐𝑣

The element is so small so the volume integral

reduces to the derivative term: 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
෍ 𝐅 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜌𝐕 + 𝜌𝑢𝐕 + 𝜌𝑣𝐕 + 𝜌𝑤𝐕
𝜕𝑡 𝜕x 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
𝐕𝜌𝑑𝒱 ≈ 𝜌𝐕 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜌𝐕 + 𝜌𝑢𝐕 + 𝜌𝑣𝐕 + 𝜌𝑤𝐕
❑The momentum fluxes occurs on all six faces and 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
is presented as shown in the following table 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕
=𝐕 + 𝛁 ⋅ 𝜌𝐕 + 𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 9

 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 ❑ The previously derived equation points out that the net
𝜌𝐕 + 𝜌𝑢𝐕 + 𝜌𝑣𝐕 + 𝜌𝑤𝐕 force on the control volume must be of differential size and
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 proportional to the element volume.
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕
=𝐕 + 𝛁 ⋅ 𝜌𝐕 + 𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ❑ The forces are of two type: body forces and surface forces.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 ❑ The gravity forces on the differential mass within the control
volume is:
𝑑𝐅𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 = 𝜌𝐠 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
❑The term in brackets is the equation of continuity
therefore vanishes.
❑ Where 𝐠 may have an arbitrary orientation.
❑The term in parentheses on the right-hand side is the ❑ The surface forces are due to the stresses on the side of the
total acceleration of a particle that instantaneously control surface.
occupy the control volume
❑ These stress are the sum of the hydrostatic pressure and
viscous stresses that arise from the motion with the velocity
𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 𝜕𝐕 gradient
+𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡
❑We have now −𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑥
𝑑𝐕 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 −𝑝 + 𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑧𝑦
෍𝐅 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜏 + 𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑦𝑧 −𝑝 + 𝜏𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑡

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 10

 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 11

 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
❑We have

❑ Each term in parentheses represents the

divergence of stress component vector acting on
the respective axes sometimes represented in in
divergence form:

❑ Where the viscous stress tensor is acting on the

element.

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 12

 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
❑The basic momentum equation for an
infinitesimal element:

❑Where:

❑We can also express the equation in word:

Gravity force per unit volume + pressure
force per unit volume + viscous force per
unit volume = density x acceleration
❑ This is the differential momentum equation in its full glory,
and is valid for any fluid in general motion, particular fluid
being characterized by particular viscous stress terms.
❑ Note that the convective terms on the right-hand side of
each component are nonlinear which complicate the
mathematical analysis.

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 13

 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
Inviscid Flow: Eulers equation
❑The differential equation isn’t ready to use until we write the viscous terms in terms velocity components
𝑑𝐕
❑For a frictionless flow 𝝉𝒊𝒋 = 0 then 𝜌𝐠 − 𝛁𝑝 = 𝜌
𝑑𝑡
❑This is Euler’s equation for inviscid flow and it an be integrated along the streamline to yield the frictionless
Bernoulli equation.
Newtonian Fluid: Navier-Stokes Equations
❑For a Newtonian fluid, the viscous stresses are proportional to the element strain rates and the coefficient of
viscosity.
❑For incompressible flow the three-dimensional viscous flow is:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜏𝑥𝑥 = 2𝜇 𝜏𝑦𝑦 = 2𝜇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑤
𝜏𝑧𝑧 = 2𝜇
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕v 𝜕w
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜇 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜇 + 𝜏y𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧y = 𝜇 +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕z 𝜕y

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 14

 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
Newtonian Fluid: Navier-Stokes Equations
❑𝝁 is the viscosity coefficient.
❑We obtain the momentum equation for a Newtonian fluid with
constant density and viscosity
❑These are the incompressible flow Navier-Stokes equations,
named after C. L. M. H Navier(1785-1835) and Sir George G.
Stokes (1819-1903).
❑They are a second-order nonlinear partial differential
equations.
❑The equations have four unknown rho, u, v, w. and they should
be combined with the incompressible continuity relations to
form the four equations in these four unknown
❑Navier-Stokes equations have only a limited number of known
analytical solutions.
❑They are the foundation of Computational Fluid Dynamics

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 15

 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
❑Example 4.5

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 16

 The Differential Equation of Energy
❑Recall the appropriate integral relation for the fixed control volume:
𝜕 𝑝
ሶ ሶ
𝑄 − 𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑣 = ሶ න 𝑒𝜌𝑑𝒱 + න 𝑒 + 𝜌 𝐕 ⋅ 𝐧 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 cv cs 𝜌

❑Where 𝑊ሶ 𝑠 = 0 because there is no infinitesimal shaft protruding into the control volume.

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
ሶ 𝑊𝑣ሶ =
𝑄– 𝜌𝑒 + 𝜌𝑢𝜁 + 𝜌𝑣𝜁 + 𝜌𝑤𝜁 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑z
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
❑Where ζ = 𝑒 + 𝑝/𝜌 .
❑When we use the continuity equation by analogy:
𝑑𝑒
ሶ ሶ
𝑄 − 𝑊𝑣 = 𝜌 + 𝐕. 𝛁𝑝 + 𝑝𝛁. 𝐕 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑡

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 17

 The Differential Equation of Energy
Thermal Conductivity Fourier's Law
❑To evaluate 𝑄,ሶ we neglect radiation and consider only heat
conduction through the sides of the elements.
❑The vector heat transfer per unit area 𝒒ሶ is proportional to
∇𝑇 in a proportionality called the Fourier law of
conduction.
𝐪 = −𝑘∇𝑇
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
Or 𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘 𝑞𝑦 = −𝑘 𝑞𝑧 = −𝑘 where 𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
is the thermal conductivity.
❑The thermal conductivity is a property that varies with
temperature and pressure.
❑the minus sign satisfies the convention that heat flux is
positive in the direction of decreasing temperature.

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 18

 The Differential Equation of Energy
❑By adding the in let and subtracting the outlet ❑ The rate of work done by the viscous stress equals the
terms, we obtain the net heat added to the product of the stress component, its corresponding velocity
element: component, and the area of the element face.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
ሶ
𝑄=− 𝑞 + 𝑞 + 𝑞 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑z 𝑊ሶ 𝑣,LF = 𝑤𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 where 𝑤𝑥 = − 𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
❑ The net viscous work rate becomes
= −𝛁 ⋅ 𝐪𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑊𝑣ሶ
❑Introducing Fourier law: 𝜕 𝜕
𝑄ሶ = 𝛁 ⋅ 𝑘𝛁𝑇 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 =ቈ 𝑢𝜏𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑤𝜏𝑥𝑧 + 𝑢𝜏𝑦𝑥 + 𝑣𝜏𝑦𝑦 + 𝑤𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕
+ 𝑢𝜏𝑧𝑥 + 𝑣𝜏𝑧𝑦 + 𝑤𝜏𝑧𝑧 ቉ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = −𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕 ⋅ 𝜏𝐢𝐣 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧
❑ Substituting into the energy equation we obtain:
𝑑𝑒
𝜌 + 𝐕 ⋅ 𝛁𝑝 + 𝑝𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕 = 𝛁 ⋅ 𝑘𝛁𝑇 + 𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕 ⋅ 𝜏𝐢𝐣
𝑑𝑡
1
Where 𝑒 = 𝑢ො + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧
2

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 19

 The Differential Equation of Energy
❑A more useful form is obtained if we split up the ❑ The equation is too difficult to analyze excepts on the
viscous work term: digital computer
𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕 ⋅ 𝜏𝐢𝐣 ≡ 𝐕 ⋅ 𝛁 ⋅ 𝜏𝐢𝐣 + Φ ❑ Common approximations are:
Where Φ is short for the viscous-dissipation 𝑑 𝑢ො ≈ 𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇 𝑐𝑣 , 𝜇, 𝑘, 𝜌 ≈ const
function. (See expression in book for Newtonian ❑ The equation becomes
incompressible viscous fluid)
𝑑𝑇
❑Finally, we obtain the following equation with 𝜌𝑐𝑣 = 𝑘∇2 𝑇 + Φ
kinetic and potential energies cancelled out: 𝑑𝑡
❑ When the fluid is at rest of has a negligible velocity, the
dissipation Φ and the convective terms become negligible
𝑑 𝑢ො 𝜕𝑇
𝜌 + 𝑝 𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕 = 𝛁 ⋅ 𝑘𝛁𝑇 + Φ 𝜌𝑐𝑝 = 𝑘∇2 𝑇
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
❑ The change from 𝑐𝑣 to 𝑐𝑝 is correct and justified by the fact
❑This equation is valid for a Newtonian fluid that, when pressure terms are neglected from gas flow
under very general conditions of unsteady, energy equation, what remain is approximately an
compressible, viscous, heat-conducting flow, enthalpy change, not an internal energy change.
except that it neglects radiation heat transfer ❑ This is called the heat conduction equation in applied
and internal sources of heat that might occur mathematics and is valid for solids and fluid at rest
during a chemical or nuclear reaction.

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 20

 Boundary Conditions for the Basic Equations
❑We just derived the three basic differential equations ❑ Now the equation can be solved, either analytically or
of fluid motion. numerically given proper boundary conditions.
❑Continuity :
𝜕𝜌
+ 𝛁 ⋅ 𝜌𝐕 ❑ There must be an initial condition or initial spatial
𝜕𝑡 distribution known for each variable:
𝑑𝐕
❑Momentum: 𝜌 = 𝜌𝐠 − 𝛁𝑝 + 𝛁 ⋅ 𝜏𝐢𝐣 At 𝑡 = 0: 𝜌, 𝑉, 𝑝, 𝑢,
ො 𝑇 = known 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢ෝ
❑ Thereafter, for all times 𝑡 to be analyzed, we must know
❑Energy: 𝜌 + 𝑝 𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕 = 𝛁 ⋅ 𝑘𝛁𝑇 + Φ something about the variables at each boundary
𝑑𝑡
enclosing the flow
❑These three equations contain five unknowns.
𝜌, 𝑉, 𝑝, 𝑢,
ො and 𝑇. Therefore, we need two additional
relations to complete the system of equations.
𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑝, 𝑇 𝑢ො = 𝑢ො 𝑝, 𝑇
❑For a perfect gas with constant specific heats, we
complete the system:
𝑝
𝜌= 𝑢ො = න𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇 ≈ 𝑐𝑣 𝑇 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑅𝑇

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 21

 Boundary Conditions for the Basic Equations
❑Fror a solid, impermeable wall, there is no slip and no
temperature jump in the viscous heat conducting fluid.
Solid wall: 𝐕𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐕𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
❑At inlet and outlet sections of the flow, the complete
distribution of velocity, pressure, and temperature must be
known.
Inlet or outlet: 𝐾𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝐕, 𝑝, 𝑇 usually ±∞
❑The most complex boundary condition occurs at the liquid-gas
interface.
❑Let’s denote the interface by 𝑧 = 𝜂 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡
❑There must be equality of vertical velocity across the interface,
so that no holes appear between liquid and gas.
𝑑𝜂 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜂 𝜕𝜂
𝑤𝑙𝑖𝑞 = 𝑤𝑔𝑎𝑠 = = +𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
❑This is the kinematic boundary condition.

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 22

 Boundary Conditions for the Basic Equations
❑There must be a mechanical equilibrium across the interface:
the viscous shear must balance.
𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑞 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝑔𝑎𝑠
❑We neglect the viscous normal stresses, the pressures must
balance at the interface except for surface tension effects:
𝑝liq = 𝑝gas − Υ 𝑅𝑥 −1 + 𝑅𝑦 −1

𝑅𝑥 −1 + 𝑅𝑦 −1
𝜕 𝜕𝜂/𝜕𝑥
=
𝜕𝑥 1 + 𝜕𝜂/𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝜂/𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕 𝜕𝜂/𝜕𝑦
+
𝜕𝑦 1 + 𝜕𝜂/𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝜂/𝜕𝑦 2
❑Finally heat transfer must be the same on both sides:
𝑞𝑧 𝑙𝑖𝑞 = 𝑞𝑧 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
❑Neglecting the radiation: 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝜕𝑧 𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝜕𝑧 𝑔𝑎𝑠

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 23

 Boundary Conditions for the Basic Equations
Simplified Free Surface Conditions Incompressible flow with Constant Properties
❑Assuming open-channel flow where the upper ❑ Flow with constant ρ, μ and 𝑘 is a basic simplification that
fluid is an “atmosphere” that merely exerts reduce the equations of motion to:
pressure on the lower fluid, with shear and Continuity: 𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕 = 0
heat conduction negligible. 𝑑𝐕
Momentum: 𝜌 = 𝜌𝐠 − 𝛁𝑝 + 𝜇𝛁𝟐 𝐕
𝑑𝑡
❑We also neglect the nonlinear terms involving 𝑑𝑇
Energy: 𝜌𝑐𝑝 = 𝑘𝛁𝟐 𝑇 + Φ
the slopes on the free surface: 𝑑𝑡
𝜕2 𝜂 𝜕2 𝜂 𝜕𝜂
❑ Since 𝜌 is constant, there are only three unknowns, 𝑝, 𝐕, and
𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑞 ≈ 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑠 − Υ + 𝑤𝑙𝑖𝑞 ≈ 𝑇.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑇 ❑ We have a closed system.
≈0 ≈0 ❑ Continuity and momentum are independent of 𝑇. Therefore,
𝜕𝑧 𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝜕𝑧 𝑙𝑖𝑞
we can use the continuity and momentum equations to solve
❑In such flow 𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑞 ≈ 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
for pressure and velocity using the following BC:
❑ Solid surface 𝐕 = 𝐕𝐰𝐚𝐥𝐥
❑ Inlet and outlet: Known 𝐕, 𝑝
𝜕𝜂
❑ Free surface: 𝑝 ≈ 𝑝𝑎 𝑤≈ 𝜕𝑡

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 24

 Boundary Conditions for the Basic Equations
Inviscid Flow Approximations ❑ Example 4.6
❑For inviscid flow the viscosity μ = 0. For a steady incompressible laminar flow through a long tube, the
velocity distribution is given by
❑The equation reduces to: 𝑟2
𝑑𝐕 𝑣𝑧 = 𝑈 1 − 𝑅2
𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 = 0
𝜌 = 𝜌𝐠 − 𝛁𝑝
𝑑𝑡 Where 𝑈 is the maximum, or centerline, velocity and 𝑅 is the tube
❑This is Euler’s equation: it can be integrated along a radius. If the wall temperature is constant at 𝑇𝑤 and temperature
streamline to obtain Bernoulli’s equation. 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑟 only, find 𝑇 𝑟 for this flow.
❑By neglecting the viscosity, we have lost the second
order derivative term 𝜇𝛁𝟐 𝐕
❑The no-slip condition at the wall must then be
dropped.
❑Inviscid Flow: 𝑉𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
❑In most cases the wall is fixed ⇒ 𝑉𝑛 = 0
❑There is no condition whatever on the tangential
velocity component at the wall in the inviscid flow.
❑The tangential velocity will be part of the solution to
an inviscid flow analysis.

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 25

 The Stream Function
❑For incompressible flow in the 𝑥𝑦 plane: ❑ Taking the curl of the momentum equation:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 2 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 2
+ =0 ∇ 𝜓 − ∇ 𝜓 = 𝑣∇2 ∇2 𝜓
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
❑The equation is satisfied identically if a function Where 𝑣 = 𝜇/𝜌 is the kinematic viscosity.
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 is defined such that: ❑ The equation contains fourth-order derivatives and will
𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 probably require computer analysis.
+ − ≡0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 ❑ Four boundary conditions will be required.
❑ For the flow at uniform stream in the x direction:
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 At infinity: = 𝑈∞ =0
𝑢= 𝑣=− 𝜕𝑦 𝜕x
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
At the body: = =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕x
❑ For inviscid, incompressible, irrotational flow in the 𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝐕=𝐢 −𝐣 plane where 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐕 ≡ 0 :
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
2
∇ 𝜓= + 2 =0
❑Is it legitimate? Let’s take the vorticity or curl 𝐕 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 ❑ at infinity: 𝜓 = 𝑈∞ 𝑦 + const
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝐕 = −𝐤∇2 𝜓 where ∇2 𝜓 = + ❑ At the body: 𝜓 = const
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 26

 The Stream Function
Geometric Interpretation of 𝝍
❑ Lines of constant 𝜓 are streamline of the flow
❑ Recall the streamline in two-dimensional flow
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=
𝑢 𝑣
𝑢 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0 = 𝑑𝜓
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
❑ Thus 𝜓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
❑ Having found the given solution 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 we can plot the line of constant
𝜓 to give the streamline of the flow.
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐕 ⋅ 𝐧 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐢 −𝐢 ⋅ 𝐢 −𝐣 𝑑𝑠 1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
= 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝜓
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
The change in 𝜓 across the streamline:
2 2
𝑄1→2 = න 𝐕 ⋅ 𝐧 𝑑𝐴 = න 𝑑𝜓 = 𝜓2 − 𝜓1
1 1

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 27

 The Stream Function
❑Example 4.7 ❑ Lines of constant 𝜓 are streamline of the flow but
If a stream function exist for the velocity field of Example the change in 𝜓 is now the mass flow, not eh volume
4.5 flow:
𝑢 = 𝑎 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑣 = −2𝑎𝑥𝑦 𝑑 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌 𝐕 ⋅ 𝐧 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝜓
2
𝑤=0 𝑚ሶ 1→2 = න 𝜌 𝐕 ⋅ 𝐧 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜓2 − 𝜓1
Find it, plot it and interpret it. 1
Incompressible Plane Flow in polar coordinates:
1𝜕 1 𝜕
𝑟𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣 =0
Steady plane Compressible flow 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜃
❑For a variable density but at 𝑤 = 0 on the 𝑥𝑦 plane
the continuity equation becomes: 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
+ − =0
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
𝜌𝑢 + 𝜌𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
❑The compressible flow stream function is defined as: 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 = −
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
𝜌𝑢 =
𝜕𝜓
𝜌𝑣 = −
𝜕𝜓 ❑ The lines of constant 𝜓 are streamlines and the
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 changes in 𝜓 is the volume flow:
𝑄1→2 = 𝜓2 − 𝜓1

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 28

 The Stream Function
❑Incompressible Axisymmetric Flow ❑ Example 4.8
❑As a final example. We consider a three-dimensional Investigate the stream function in polar coordinates
flow (𝑣𝑟 , 𝑣𝑧 ) but 𝑣𝜃 = 𝜕/𝜕𝜃 = 0. such a flow is 𝑅2
axisymmetric. 𝜓 = 𝑈 sin𝜃 𝑟 −
𝑟
❑For incompressible flow: Where 𝑈 and 𝑅 are constants, a velocity and a length
1 𝜕 𝜕 respectively. Plot the streamlines. What does it represent?
𝑟𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣 =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 Is it a realistic solution to the basic equations?
❑Let’s multiply by 𝑟:
𝜕 𝜕
𝑟𝑣𝑟 + 𝑟𝑣𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑧

1 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓
𝑣𝑟 = − 𝑣𝑧 =
𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟

𝑄1→2 = 2𝜋 𝜓2 − 𝜓1

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 29

 Vorticity and Irrotationality
❑Let’s show that angular velocity is associated with the curl of
local velocity vector
❑We define the angular velocity

1 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛽
𝜔𝑧 = −
2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝛼 = lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛− 1 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢/𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝛽 = lim tan1 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡→0 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜕𝑣/𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦

1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔𝑧 = −
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜔𝑥 = 2 − 𝜕𝑧 𝜔𝑦 = 2 −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 30

 Vorticity and Irrotationality
❑The vector 𝜔 = 𝐢𝝎𝑥 + 𝐣𝝎𝑦 + 𝐤𝝎𝑧
❑Or
𝐢 𝐢 𝐤
1 1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜔 = ∇×𝐕 =
2 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
❑From here we express the vorticity term 𝜁 = 2𝜔 = ∇ × 𝐕
❑Many flows have negligible of zero vorticity and are called irrotational:
∇×𝐕≡0
❑the shear strain rate
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛽 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜀𝑥𝑦
ሶ = + = +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 31

 Frictionless Irrotational Flows
❑Irrotationality gives rise to a scalar function 𝜙 similar to ❑ Homework:
the stream function 𝜓. 4.72-73-76
❑From a theorem of vector analysis: 𝛁 × 𝛁𝜙 ≡ 0
❑Hence for irrotational flow 𝛁 × 𝐕 ≡ 0; 𝐕 = 𝛁𝜙
❑Where 𝜙 = 𝜙 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 is called velocity potential
function

𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑢= 𝑣= 𝑤=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 32

 THANKS

Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow

 The Stream Function
❑For a two-dimensional steady flow, the equation of the streamline is given by the
equation below:
𝑑𝑦 𝑣
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑢
❑The equation can be integrated to form a function called the stream function
𝜓ത 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑐
ഥ
Δ𝜓
❑Δ𝜓ത = 𝑐2 − 𝑐1 ⇒ Δ𝜓ത ≡ 𝜌𝑉Δ𝑛 or = 𝜌𝑉
Δ𝑛
❑Consider the limit as Δ𝑛 → 0:
Δ𝜓ത 𝜕 𝜓ത
𝜌𝑉 = lim ≡
Δ𝑛→0 Δ𝑛 𝜕𝑛
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 = Δ𝜓ത = 𝜌𝑉Δ𝑛 = 𝜌𝑢Δ𝑦 + 𝜌𝑣 −Δ𝑥
𝑑𝜓ത = 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑥
❑However, using the chain rule:
𝜕𝜓 ഥ 𝜕𝜓 ഥ
❑𝑑 𝜓ത = 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜕 𝜓ത
𝜌𝑢 =
𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜓ത
𝜌v = −
𝜕x
Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 34
 The Stream Function
❑The expression in polar coordinates:
1 𝜕𝜓ത
𝜌𝑉𝑟 =
𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜓ത
𝜌𝑉𝜃 = −
𝜕𝑟
❑Steam function for incompressible flow
ത hence:
❑We define the function 𝜓 = 𝜓/𝜌

𝜕𝜓
𝑢=
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜓
𝑣=−
𝜕𝑥
And
1 𝜕𝜓
𝑉𝑟 =
𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜓
𝑉𝜃 = −
𝜕𝑟
Lecture 4: Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 35