Contents.

Chapter.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Basic Radio Theory.

Communications.
Automatic Direction Finding ( ADF ).
VHF Omni-Directional Range ( VOR ).
Instrument Landing System ( ILS ).
Basic Radar.
Cathode Ray Tube ( CRT ).
Distance Measuring Equipment ( DME ).
Air Traffic Control Radio Beacon System ( ATCRBS ).
Radio Altimeter.
Airborne Search Radar ( ASR ).
Area Navigation ( RNAV ).
Global Positioning System ( GPS ).
Ground Proximity Warning ( GPWS ).

Automatic Direction Finding

( ADF ).

Summary For ADF.

Frequency

Transmission :

Range

Emission

Navigation

ICAO 190 to 1750 KHz. Usual frequencies are 200

to 500 KHz. These frequencies are in the LF to MF
band. The ADF is considered to be a MF radio.
Omni Directional Vertically Polarised signals.

10 Nm for Locator beacon to 1000 Nm over the

Sea. The typically range is 300 Nm over land.
A1A or A2A.

Secondary navigation.

Aircraft Equipment For ADF.

ADF Receiver.

Loop Antenna.

Sense Antenna.

Relative Bearing Indicator ( RBI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

ADF Receiver.

ADF Function Switches.

ADF Frequency Selectors.

Frequency Selectors :

Selectable frequency range from 190 KHz to

1750 KHZ. When the frequency is selected
the Phase Lock Loop will auto-tune the
receiver.

ADF Function Switch.

ANT/REC :

The Sense Antenna is in use for tuning and identifying

the NDB. The Loop Antenna is switched out of circuit. In this
position the ADF will not give any navigation information.

ADF

The Sense and Loop aerials are operational. In this

position the ADF will display bearing information. This is the
normal position of the switch.

BFO

In this position the Beat Frequency Oscillator ( BFO ) is used

to Identify and Tune A1A Non Directional Beacons ( NDB ).

ADF Function Switch.

HDG

This can set the Bearing display card to a particular number.

This card is normally left with the 360 set to the fore-aft
axis of the aircraft.

Test

: Used to test the system. No warning of ADF malfunction by means

VOL / OFF

of a red flag will be indicated. It will only test if the bearing pointer is
correctly fixed to the Goniometer shaft.
This is the power switch and the volume control for identifying
the NDB Station.

Aircraft Equipment For ADF.

ADF Receiver.

Loop Antenna.

Sense Antenna.

Relative Bearing Indicator ( RBI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

ADF Loop Antenna.

ADF Loop Antenna.

Minimum Reception.

Maximum Reception.

Loop Antenna.
Loop Antenna.
NDB.

NDB.

Loop Antenna Polar Diagram.

Directional Radiation Pattern.

Directional Radiation Pattern.

_
+

+
NDB.

Antenna.

The 180 degree ambiguity is caused by the Loop Antenna.

NDB.

Aircraft Equipment For ADF.

ADF Receiver.

Loop Antenna.

Sense Antenna.

Relative Bearing Indicator ( RBI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

ADF Sense Antenna.

Sense Antenna Polar Diagram.

Omni-Directional Radiation Pattern.

+
_
NDB.

Antenna.

NDB.

The 180 degree ambiguity is resolved by the Sense Antenna.

The Cardiod Polar Diagram.

Loop Antenna.
Cardiod Polar Diagram.

_
+

_
+
+

Sense Antenna.

The Cardiod Polar Diagram.

Loop Antenna.
Cardiod Polar Diagram.

_
+

_
NDB.

_
+

Sense Antenna.

Aircraft Equipment For ADF.

ADF Receiver.

Loop Antenna.

Sense Antenna.

Relative Bearing Indicator ( RBI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

Relative Bearing Indicator.

Aircraft Equipment For ADF.

ADF Receiver.

Loop Antenna.

Sense Antenna.

Relative Bearing Indicator ( RBI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator ( RMI ).

Radio Magnetic Indicator.

Direction.

True Heading

Working on a Map.

Magnetic Heading

Working with a Land Compass.

Use Variation to convert from one to another.

Variation W +
Variation E -

True Heading Variation = Magnetic Heading

TH VAR =

MH

Direction.

Compass Heading

Working with an Aircraft Compass.

Magnetic Heading

Working with a Land Compass.

Use Deviation to convert from one to another.

Deviation W Deviation E +

Compass Heading Deviation = Magnetic Heading

CH DEV =

MH

Direction.

Heading

Track

The direction True or Magnetic where the

nose of the aircraft is pointing.

The line the aircraft draws on the Ground.

Use Drift to convert from one to another.

Aircraft Drifting Left Turn Nose Right.

Aircraft Drifting Right Turn Nose Left.

Q Codes.

QDM

Magnetic from aircraft to station.

QDR

Magnetic from station to aircraft.

QUJ

True from aircraft to station.

QTE

True from station to aircraft.

RBI Operation.

Relative Bearing :

The angle measured from the Fore Aft Axis

of the aircraft in Clockwise direction.

Heading

The direction true or magnetic where the

Nose of the aircraft is pointing.

Relative Bearing can not be used by itself.

True Heading
+

Magnetic Heading
+

Relative Bearing
=

QUJ

Relative Bearing
=

QDM

RBI Operation.

The Bearing card is fixed to the Fore Aft axis of the aircraft or the lubber
line. This card must not be turned away from the zero position.

The Pointer or ADF needle shows the angle measured clockwise from the
nose of the aircraft to the station. This angle is known as the Relative
Bearing.

Using the Relative Bearing and the Magnetic heading a QDM can be
obtained.
Remember when using an ADF the variation at the aircraft must be used
and the deviation must be used, as the aircraft compass is used for the
calculation.

RBI Operation.
Nose Of Aircraft.
Re
lat
iv e

NDB
Station.

Be

ar
ing
.

RBI Calculations.
Aircraft track 090 to a station has 10 degrees of right drift . What is the aircraft
heading and relative bearing ?

HEADING 080.
Drift 10.
RB 10.

Track 090.

Station.

RBI Calculations.
Aircraft track 090 to a station has 10 degrees of left drift . What is the aircraft
heading and relative bearing ?

RB 350.
Track 090.
Drift 10.
HEADING 100.

Station.

RBI Calculations.
Aircraft track 090 from a station has 10 degrees of left drift . What is the
aircraft heading and relative bearing ?

Track 090.
Drift 10.
Station.
RB 170.

HEADING 100.

RBI Calculations.
Aircraft track 090 from a station has 10 degrees of right drift . What is the
aircraft heading and relative bearing ?

HEADING 080.

Drift 10.

Track 090.
Station.
RB 190.

RBI Calculations.
An aircraft is maintaining a track outbound from an NDB with a
constant relative bearing of 185. To return to the NDB the relative
bearing to maintain is ?

To solve the CAA questions use the following method.

Identify the question.

Write down the formula or draw the sketch.
Solve using the appropriate method.

RBI Calculations.
An aircraft is maintaining a track outbound from an NDB with a constant
relative bearing of 185. To return to the NDB the relative bearing to maintain
is ?
N

Wind direction.
W

Drift 5.

Station.
RB 185.

RBI Calculations.
An aircraft is maintaining a track outbound from an NDB with a constant
relative bearing of 185. To return to the NDB the relative bearing to maintain
is ?
Wind direction.

Answer : Relative Bearing = 355.

W

Drift 5.

Station.

RB 355.

RBI Calculations.
An aircraft heading 157 true, variation 15 west has a relative bearing
of 193 from NDB CD what is the QDM to NDB CD ?

To solve the CAA questions use the following method.

Identify the question.

Write down the formula or draw the sketch.
Solve using the appropriate method.

RBI Calculations.
An aircraft heading 157 true, variation 15 west has a relative bearing of 193
from NDB CD what is the QDM to NDB CD ?

1. True Heading
157

2.

Variation

15

Relative Bearing
+

Magnetic Heading
QDM

Magnetic Heading
172

193
+

172
365

Or

005

RMI Operation.

The compass card shows the aircraft Compass Heading

under the lubber line.
The ADF pointer shows the angle measured clockwise from
the nose of the aircraft to the station. This angle is known
as the Relative Bearing.
Remember when using an ADF the Variation at the aircraft
must be used and the Deviation must be used as the
aircraft compass as used for the calculation.

Radio Magnetic Indicator.

RMI Operation.
Compass Heading.
Re
la

tiv

eB

ea
rin
g.

NDB
Station.
The head of the pointer indicates
QDM. The Tail of the pointer indicates
the QDR.
Magnetic Heading
+

Relative Bearing
QDM

060
+

300
360

RMI Operation.
Compass Heading
Deviation is 5 east.
Re
la

tiv

eB

ea
rin
g.

NDB
Station.
The head of the pointer indicates
QDM. The Tail of the pointer indicates
the QDR. A correction for deviation
must be made.
Magnetic Heading
+

Relative Bearing
QDM

065
+

300
005

RMI Operation.
Compass Heading
Deviation is 5 east.
Re
la

tiv

eB

ea
rin
g.

NDB
Station.
The head of the pointer indicates
QDM. The Tail of the pointer indicates
the QDR. A correction for deviation
must be made.
Magnetic Heading
+

Relative Bearing
QDM

065
+

300
005

Factors Affecting NDB Accuracy.

Night Effect.

Thunderstorms.

Mountain Effect.

Coastal Refraction.

Quadrantal Error.

Station Interference.

Coastal Refraction.
Land.

NDB.

NDB.

NDB.

Plo
t

On
M

Sea.
Ac
tu
ap.

al
Ra
d

io

Fix.

Coast Line.

Be
ar
in

g.

Actual Position.

Coastal Refraction Calculation.

The coast line lies north south. An aircraft heading north south over the
sea receives an ADF Bearing of 225 Relative. The true bearing of the
aircraft from the NDB is ?

Greater Than.
Less Than.
Equal To.

The plotted line.

The coast line lies north south. An aircraft flying north south over the sea receives
an ADF Bearing Of 225 Relative. the true bearing of the aircraft from the ADF is
greater than, equal to or less than the plotted line.
Land.

Coast.

Sea.

o
Pl

Greater Than
45.
45

NDB.

On

.
ap

e
Tru

g.
n
i
ar
e
B

g
n
i
r g.
a
n
Be ari
ive Be
t
la d io
e
R Ra
F
l
AD tua
Ac

225
225
180
45

Factors Affecting NDB Range.

Surface Attenuation.

Transmitting Power.

NDB Frequency.

Receiver Quality.

Precipitation Static.

Type Of Emission A1A or A2A.

A1A And A2A.

A1A And A2A NDB
A1A is an older type of NDB than an A2A NDB.
A1A has a longer range than an A2A NDB.
The direction needle wanders during transmission of an A1A NDB.
No modulation is used to transmit the identification on an A1A NDB.
An A1A is underlined on a Jeppesen chart.

A1A And A2A NDB.

A1A Transmission.

A2A Transmission.

A1A NDB System.

Signal From A1A NDB.
As the two carrier frequencies mix
a tone is heard in the headset in the form
of Morse code, which identifies the NDB.
BFO Is Hard Wired To ADF Frequency.
382KHZ
Signal From BFO.

BFO
BFO ON For Identification.

BFO ON For Tuning.

A2A NDB System.

Signal From A2A NDB.

BFO Is Hard Wired To ADF Frequency.

382KHZ

BFO.
BFO OFF For Identification,

BFO ON For Tuning,

ADF Interception Calculations.

Method

Calculate and Plot the QDM.

Plot the track to be Intercepted note if Inbound or Outbound.

Plot the intercept Angle on the intercept track note if Inbound or

Outbound.

Close the Triangle. This is a check to see that the drawing is correct.

Calculate all the answers at the point of Intercept.

Calculate the following

A) Aircraft Intercept Heading.

B) Change in aircraft heading.
C) Relative Bearing of aircraft or NDB.

ADF Interception Calculations.

An aircraft is heading 290 magnetic, has an ADF reading of 305 relative

from an NDB station. ATC instructs the pilot to intercept the 020
020 QDR from
the station at an angle of 050. Calculate the Intercept Heading, the change in
aircraft heading and the Relative Bearing of the NDB station.

ADF Interception Calculations.

Method

Calculate and Plot the QDM.

Plot the track to be Intercepted note if Inbound or Outbound.

Plot the intercept Angle on the intercept track note if Inbound or

Outbound.

Close the Triangle. This is a check to see that the drawing is correct.

Calculate all the answers at the point of Intercept.

Calculate The Following

A) Aircraft Intercept Heading.

B) Change in aircraft heading.
C) Relative Bearing of the aircraft or NDB.

ADF Interception Calculations.

An aircraft heading 290 Magnetic has an ADF reading of 305 Relative from
an NDB station. ATC instructs the pilot to intercept the 020
020 QDR from the
station at an angle of [Link]
the Intercept Heading, the Change In
050
aircraft heading and the Relative Bearing of the NDB station.
Magnetic Heading
Relative Bearing
QDM

290
+

305
235

DM
Q
5
23

Station.

ADF Interception Calculations.

Method

Calculate and Plot the QDM.

Plot the track to be Intercepted note if Inbound or Outbound.

Plot the intercept Angle on the intercept track note if Inbound or

Outbound.

Close the Triangle. This is a check to see that the drawing is correct.

Calculate all the answers at the point of Intercept.

Calculate The Following

A) Aircraft Intercept Heading.

B) Change in aircraft heading.
C) Relative Bearing of the aircraft or NDB.

ADF Interception Calculations.

An aircraft heading 290 Magnetic has an ADF reading of 305 Relative from
an NDB station. ATC instructs the pilot to intercept the 020
020 QDR from the
station at an angle of [Link]
the Intercept Heading, the Change In
050
aircraft heading and the Relative Bearing of the NDB station.
Magnetic Heading

QDM

305
235

02
0
QD
R

Relative Bearing

290

DM
Q
5
23

Station.

ADF Interception Calculations.

Method

Calculate And Plot The QDM

Plot The Track To Be Intercepted Note If Inbound Or Outbound

Plot The Intercept Angle On The Intercept Track Note If Inbound Or

Outbound

Close The Triangle. This Is A Check That The Drawing Is Correct

Calculate All Answers At The Point Of Intercept

Calculate The Following

A) Aircraft Intercept Heading

B) Change In Aircraft Heading
C) Relative Bearing Of Aircraft Or NDB

ADF Interception Calculations.

An aircraft heading 290 Magnetic has an ADF reading of 305 Relative from
an NDB station. ATC instructs the pilot to intercept the 020
020 QDR from the
station at an angle of [Link]
the Intercept Heading, the Change In
050
aircraft heading and the Relative Bearing of the NDB station.
50
Magnetic Heading

QDM

305
235

02 0
Q
DR

Relative Bearing

290

DM
Q
5
23

Station.

ADF Interception Calculations.

Method

Calculate and Plot the QDM.

Plot the track to be Intercepted note if Inbound or Outbound.

Plot the intercept Angle on the Intercept Track note if Inbound or

Outbound.

Close the Triangle. This is a check to see that the drawing is correct.

Calculate all the answers at the point of Intercept.

Calculate The Following

A) Aircraft Intercept Heading.

B) Change in aircraft heading.
C) Relative Bearing of the aircraft or NDB.

ADF Interception Calculations.

An aircraft heading 290 Magnetic has an ADF reading of 305 Relative from
an NDB station. ATC instructs the pilot to intercept the 020
020 QDR from the
station at an angle of [Link]
the Intercept Heading, the Change In
050
aircraft heading and the Relative Bearing of the NDB station.
50
Magnetic Heading

QDM

305
235

02 0
Q
DR

Relative Bearing

290

DM
Q
5
23

Station.

ADF Interception Calculations.

Method

Calculate And Plot The QDM

Plot The Track To Be Intercepted Note If Inbound Or Outbound

Plot The Intercept Angle On The Intercept Track Note If Inbound Or

Outbound

Close The Triangle. This Is A Check That The Drawing Is Correct

Calculate All Answers At The Point Of Intercept

Calculate The Following

A) Aircraft Intercept Heading

B) Change In Aircraft Heading
C) Relative Bearing Of Aircraft Or NDB

ADF Interception Calculations.

An aircraft heading 290 Magnetic has an ADF reading of 305 Relative from
an NDB station. ATC instructs the pilot to intercept the 020
020 QDR from the
station at an angle of [Link]
the Intercept Heading, the Change In
050
aircraft heading and the Relative Bearing of the NDB station.
50
Magnetic Heading

QDM

305
235

02 0
Q
DR

Relative Bearing

290

DM
Q
5
23

Station.

ADF Interception Calculations.

Method

Calculate and Plot the QDM.

Plot the track to be Intercepted note if Inbound or Outbound.

Plot the intercept Angle on the Intercept Track note If Inbound or

Outbound.

Close the Triangle. This is a check to see that the drawing is correct.

Calculate all the answers at the point of Intercept.

Calculate The Following

A) Aircraft Intercept Heading.

B) Change in aircraft heading.
C) Relative Bearing of the aircraft or NDB.

ADF Interception Calculations.

An aircraft heading 290 Magnetic has an ADF reading of 305 Relative from
an NDB station. ATC instructs the pilot to intercept the 020
020 QDR from the
station at an angle of [Link]
the Intercept Heading, the Change In
050
aircraft heading and the Relative Bearing of the NDB station.
Magnetic Heading
Relative Bearing
QDM

330

290
+

Intercept 50

305
235

A ) Intercept Heading
020 QDR - 50 Angle = 330
DM
Q
5
23

B ) Change In Aircraft Heading

AC Heading 290 Went To 330 = 40 Right
C ) Relative Bearing Of NDB
180 + 50 = 230

Station.

ADF Interception Calculations.

An aircraft heading 040 M has an ADF reading of 060 Relative from an NDB.
ATC instructs the pilot to Intercept the NDB 120
120 QDM at an angle of 050.
Calculate the Intercept Heading, the change in aircraft heading and the
Relative Bearing of the NDB.

060
100

QDM

R
tT
ep
rc
te
In

Relative Bearing

040

0
12

Magnetic Heading

070

A ) Intercept Heading
120 Intercept QDM - 50 Angle = 070
B ) Change In Aircraft Heading

50
100
QD
M

AC Heading 040 Went To 070 = 30 Right

C ) Relative Bearing Of NDB
50

Station.

Time And Distance To An NDB.

At 09H00Z a Relative Bearing of 258 is obtained from an NDB. At 09H08Z a

Relative Bearing of 272 is obtained from the same NDB. The TAS is 140 Kts.
If the aircraft alters heading at 09H08Z to fly directly to the NDB, what is the
Time and Distance to the NDB.

Time And Distance To An NDB.

At 09H00Z a Relative Bearing of 258 is obtained from an NDB. At 09H08Z a
Relative Bearing of 272 is obtained from the same NDB. The TAS is 140 Kts.
If the aircraft alters heading at 09H08Z to fly directly to the NDB, what is the
Time and Distance to the NDB.

Time to the NDB

60 Minutes Flown Between Bearings

Degrees of Bearing Change

Dis tan ce to the NDB

TAS / GS Minutes Flown Between Bearings

Degrees of Bearing Change

Time And Distance To An NDB.

At 09H00Z a Relative Bearing of 258 is obtained from an NDB. At 09H08Z a
Relative Bearing of 272 is obtained from the same NDB. The TAS is 140 Kts.
If the aircraft alters heading at 09H08Z to fly directly to the NDB, what is the
Time and Distance to the NDB.

Time to the NDB

60 Minutes Flown Between Bearings

Degrees of Bearing Change

Time to the NDB

60 8 Minutes Flown Between Bearings

14 Degrees of Bearing Change

Time to the NDB 34 Minutes

Time And Distance To An NDB.

At 09H00Z a Relative Bearing of 258 is obtained from an NDB. At 09H08Z a
Relative Bearing of 272 is obtained from the same NDB. The TAS is 140 Kts.
If the aircraft alters heading at 09H08Z to fly directly to the NDB, what is the
Time and Distance to the NDB.

Dis tan ce to the NDB

TAS / GS Minutes Flown Between Bearings

Degrees of Bearing Change

Dis tan ce to the NDB

140 Kts 8 Minutes Flown Between Bearings

14 Degrees of Bearing Change

Dis tan ce to the NDB 80 Nautical Miles