Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

ETM 7012
Transmission & Switching: Switching
Chapter 1b:
Circuit Switching
By
Bryan Ng
bryan@[Link]

Slide 1
 Outline
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

History and Evolution of circuit switching - PSTN

– Manual, Strowger, register, cross bar system, trunking, electronic
and digital switching systems
Intro to Telecommunication Traffic Engineering
Trunking concept
Congestion
Traffic Model
Loss Call System
Traffic Performance
Loss System in Tandem

Slide 2
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching
•Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN) consists of
switching nodes (called
exhanges) in hierarchical
structure:
(a) Local network – connect
customers’ stations to LEs
(b) Junction network –
interconnect group of LEs
(c) Trunk / toll network –
provides long distance circuits
within country
(d) International network –
provide circuits between
countries

Slide 3
 PSTN- history
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

Before automatic switching exchange was invented,

manual crossbar switchboard was used

Manual crossbar switchboard

Automatic switching exchange

Guess what was Mr. Strowger’s job when he invented

the automatic switch?
Slide 5
 Strowger step-by-step system
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

Strowger invented two-motion selector.

E.g. Dialling no. 4388 Slide 6

 What is a Register?
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

Receives number dialled by customer and store it for

routing decision.
If necessary, part of the number is translated into a
different number.
Registers that are added to step-by-step exchanges are
called director.
It also functions as a lookup table for routing purpose.

Slide 7
 Crossbar Switch
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

G. A. Betulander invented an economic solution in 1917.

Slide 8
2-stage link network using 10x10 switches
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

• Can make more than one connection

at a time
• Link 23 connects outlet 3 of primary
switch 2 to inlet 2 of secondary
switch 3

Slide 9
 Electronic Switching
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

Electromechanical switches wear out earlier

Electronic device is much more lasting disregard of the
frequency of use
Advances in computer technology led to the development
of store-program-control (SPC) that offer a wider range of
facilities:
– Ease customization and modification (electronically)
– User control functions such as call barring, repeat last call,
reminder call, call diversion, three-way call, charge advise, etc.

Slide 10
 Digital Switching Systems
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•Time-division multiplexing (TDM) transmission was initially

introduced for trunk and junction circuits in the form of
pulse-code modulation (PCM).
•If TDM transmission is used with space-division tandem
switching, it is necessary to provide demultiplexing of
PCM channels to audio signals before switching and
multiplexing of audio signals into PCM channels after
switching for retransmission.

Slide 11
 PSTN- a potted history
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

 Digitisation
– 1937: Alex Reeves invents PCM
– leads to all digital networks (PDH, ISDN)
Sampled Analogue Signal

4.8
4.6

A m p litu d e
4.2
3.6
2.8

Time

Sampled & Quantised Signal

5 5
A m p litu d e

4 4
3

0101 0100 0011 0100 0101

Coded (or Digitised) signal Slide 12

 Digital switching systems: audio & PCM mix
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•Initially, a tandem exchange has mixture of PCM and analog

audio junctions.
•PCM terminal equipment is needed for audio junctions –
audio coding and multiplexing.
•The proportion of audio junction has decreased
significantly.

Slide 13
 Digital switching systems: trunk & junction
switch
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•There are no customer lines involved in tandem exchanges

– no disadvantage of high-cost customers’ lines.
•Thus, digital exchanges were first introduced for trunk and
junction switching.
•This led to the conversion of trunk networks into integrated
digital networks (IDN) – digital transmission and switching.

Slide 14
 Digital switching systems: local exchange
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•Digital switching can be applied to local exchange by

introducing concentrators
– cheap line circuits are retained and large number of subscribers share
PCM equipment to access TDM switch.

May be used for multiple extension

lines or other analog low bandwidth
signals.

Slide 15
 Digital switching systems: local exchange
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•Figure (c) shows a local exchange with codecs in customer line

circuits -> fully digital local exchange.

Slide 16
Digital switching systems: local exchange
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•We can set up digital concentrators at local exchanges and

connect them to a TDM route switch at large parent
exchange via PCM trunks.
•This enables wider coverage area of exchange since PCM
trunks are not so much limited by length.
•The next evolutionary step is to move PCM codec from
exchange end to customer end.
•Digital line all the way to customer. This enables data
transmission by removing codec. The concept of integrated
service digital network (ISDN).

Slide 17
 Tele-traffic engineering
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

Introduction

Telephone traffic profile

Definition

Trunking

Congestion

Traffic performance

Slide 18
 Introduction to Teletraffic Engineering
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•In the design of a telecommunication system, initial decision

must be made regarding its size in order to obtain the desired
capacity.
•Need to estimate the traffic amount and thus no. of trunks
provided.
•In teletraffic engineering, trunk  any entity that will carry one
call. The entity can be international circuit (thousands of km) or
wires in between switches (a few metres).
•The number of trunks to be provided obviously depends on the
traffic to be carried.
•It must be sufficient for the busiest time. However, this will
results in most equipment idling during non-busy hours.
Slide 19
 Telephone traffic profile
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching
•Operator thus offer cheaper call rates during off-peak hours. It
costs them almost nothing to carry such calls.
•If they manage to shift some calls from peak to off-peak
hours, less equipment and thus capital expenditure are
needed.

An example of
telephone traffic
profile of a service
area:

Slide 20
 Traffic
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•The traffic intensity (sometime referred simply as traffic) is

defined as the average number of calls in progress
simultaneously during a particular period of time.
•It is dimensionless but a name has been given to the unit of
traffic : Erlang (E) named after A. K. Erlang, the Danish
pioneer in traffic theory.
•One Erlang (E) represents the amount of traffic carried by a
trunk that is completely occupied i.e. one call-hour per hour
or one call-minute per minute.

Traffic Theory
1915: A. K.
Erlang
Slide 21
 Traffic
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•The traffic carried by

a groups of trunks is

Ch
A
T
A = traffic in Erlangs
C = average number of
call arrivals during
time T
h = average call
holding time

Slide 22
 Trunking concept
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

Slide 23
 Trunking concept
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

• The concept of trunking allows a large number of users to

share the relatively small number of trunks/links by
providing access to each user, on demand, from a pool of
available trunks/links.
• Trunking exploits the statistical behaviour of users so that
a fixed number of trunks/links may accommodate a large,
random user community.
• On a group of trunks, the average number of calls in
progress depends on :
1. The number of calls which arrive
2. Their duration (holding time)

Slide 24
 Trunking concept
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching
•A single trunk cannot carry more than one call, traffic A for a
single trunk is  1. The traffic is a fraction of an Erlang equal to
the average proportion of time for which the trunk is busy. This
is called the occupancy of the trunk.
•The probability of finding a trunk busy is equal to the proportion
of time for which the trunk is busy. Thus this probability =
occupancy of the trunk.

Slide 25
 Congestion
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

• It is uneconomic to provide sufficient equipment to carry all

the traffics that could possibly offered to a
telecommunication system.
• In a telephone exchange, it is possible that all subscribers
make calls simultaneously. The cost of meeting the demand
is prohibitive.
• Therefore, there is a possibility that all trunks in a group of
trunks are busy  congestion.
• There are 2 types of telecommunication system :
1. Lost Call (LC) system
2. Delay/queuing system

Slide 26
 Congestion
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching
•In delay systems, calls coming in during congestion wait in a
queue until an outgoing trunk becomes free.
•In lost call system, the call will be just dropped.
•Telephone systems are normally lost call systems.
•In such systems,
•Traffic carried (Ac) = traffic offered (Ao) - traffic lost (Al)
•The proportion of calls that is lost or delayed due to
congestion is a measure of the quality of the service provided.
It is called grade of service (GOS), B :
Number of calls lost
B
Number of calls offered
Traffic lost

Traffic offered Slide 27
 Congestion
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching
B = proportion of the time for which congestion exists.
= probability of congestion.
= probability that a call will be lost due to congestion.
•Thus, if traffic Ao Erlangs is offered to a group of trunks
having a GOS, B, the traffic lost is AoB and the traffic
carried is
• Ac = Ao(1 - B)
•The larger the GOS, the worse is the service given.
•If GOS is too large it will results in many users unable to
make successful calls and thus dissatisfied.
•If GOS is too small, unnecessary expenditure on
equipment which is rarely used is made.
Slide 28
 Dimensioning
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•The basic problem: dimensioning problem i.e. given the

offered traffic, A, and the specified GOS, B, find the number of
trunks, N, that is required.

Slide 29
 Traffic model
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•In order to obtain analytical solutions to teletraffic problems, it

is necessary to have a mathematical model of the traffic
offered.
•A simple model is based on the following assumptions :

(1) Pure-chance traffic - call arrivals and terminations are

independent random events.
(2) Statistical equilibrium - the generation of traffic is a
stationary random process i.e. the probabilities do not
change during the period considered.

Slide 30
 Traffic model
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•The number of call arrival in a given period of time, T has Poisson

distribution. x
 
P x   e
x!
•The intervals between call arrivals, T are intervals between two independent
events and the distribution is given by a negative exponential distribution

•The call duration, H is modelled as a negative exponential distribution

•For a group of N trunks the number of calls in progress varies randomly. This
is an example of birth and death process or renewal process.
•The number of calls in progress (i.e., so called the state) is always between 0
and N.
•Such process is called a simple Markov chain. Its behaviour depends on the
probability of change from each state to one state before or after the state.

Slide 31
 Traffic model
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•Simple Markov chain.

Transition probabilities

State probabilities

•At statistical equilibrium, the probabilities do not change and

process becomes regular Markov chain.

Slide 32
 Lost call systems
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•Using the traffic model described earlier, Erlang determined

the GOS of a loss-call system having N trunks, when offered
traffic is A :

•The following assumptions are made :

(1) Pure-chance traffic
(2) Statistical equilibrium
(3) Full availability - every call arrives can be connected to
any outgoing trunk which is free
(4) Calls that encounter congestion are dropped
Slide 33
 Lost call systems
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching
•Erlang found that the probability of x trunks is busy is given by:
A x N Ak If call arrivals have Poisson
P x   
x! k 0 k! distribution, so does the number
of call in progress
When N is large, it can be approximated as,

x An
given that e  
A A A
P x   e n 0 n!
x!
•The probability of a lost call which is the GOS,
B = E1,N(A) = P (N) A N N ! Erlang lost call formula
B  E1, N  A  N
 A k
k !
k 0
(or Erlang B)

•It can be shown that: E1, N  A  AE1, N 1  A

N  AE1, N 1  A
The second eqn allows E1,N(A), to be computed for all values of N interactively
Slide 34
 Lost call systems
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching
A group of five trunks is offered 2E of traffic. Find:
1. The grade of service
2. The probability that only one trunk is busy
3. The probability that only one trunk is free
4. The probability that at least one trunk is free
Solutions:
1. From Erlang lost call
Ax N
Ak
formula 2. From P x  
x!

k  0 k!

P(1) = 2/7.2667 = 0.275

3) P(4) = (16/24)/7.2667 = 0.0917

4. P(x<5) = 1 – P(5)
= 1 – B = 1 – 0.037 = 0.963
Slide 35
 Lost call systems
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

Slide 36
 Traffic performance
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•If the offered traffic, A increases, the number of trunks, N,

must obviously be increased to provide a given GOS.
•However, for the same trunk occupancy (or utilization), the
probability of finding all trunks busy is less for a large group
of trunks than for a small group.
•Thus for a given GOS, trunk occupancy is higher in a large
group of trunks than a small group  large group is more
efficient.
•This is the concept of trunking as explained earlier or
principle of concentration: it is more efficient to concentrate
traffic onto a single large group of trunks.

Slide 37
 Traffic performance
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•The penalty paid for high efficiency of large group is that the
GOS deteriorates more with traffic overloads compared to
small group.

Slide 38
 Traffic performance
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

Slide 39
 Traffic performance
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•Example : for trunk groups dimensioned to provide GOS of

0.002 at their normal load, a 5-trunk group suffers GOS
increase of 40% when traffic overload of 10% occurs while a
100-trunk group suffers a 550% increase in GOS.
•Most telecommunications operators adopt dual criteria: two
GOSs are specified - one at normal traffic load and another,
larger GOS for a given percentage of overload.
•The number of trunks provided is determined by which criterion
requires the greater number.

Slide 40
 Traffic performance
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

Slide 41
 Loss systems in tandem
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•Connection between users may span over multiple links in

the system.
•Thus the GOS for the whole connection needs to be
determined.
•Lets look at example of two links connection with each link
having GOS, B1 and B2.
Traffic offered to second link = A(1 - B1)
Traffic reaching destination = A(1 - B1)(1 - B2)
= A(1 + B1 B2 - B1 - B2)

Slide 42
 Loss systems in tandem
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

The overall GOS = B1 + B2 - B1 B2.

If B1, B2 << 1, then B1 B2 is negligible and the overall GOS is B1
+ B2.
•In general, for an n-link connection, the GOS is
n
B   Bk
k 1

Slide 43
 Traffic tables
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•E1,N(A) is suitable for solving problems : given A and N, find B.

•However, in network dimensioning the problem is : given A
and B, find N. The equation given earlier is not suitable.
Calculated values in table can be used..

(slide 22)

(next page)

Slide 44
Traffic tables
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

Slide 45
 References and Links
Chapter 1b: Circuit Switching

•J. E. Flood, “Chapter 4: Telecommunications traffics,”

Telecommunications, Switching, Traffic and Networks, Prentice
Hall, ISBN: 0130333093.

Slide 46