TO THE
EXITING
WORLD
OF
ELECTROSTATICS
THE BRANCH OF PHYSICS DEALING WITH
CHARGES AT REST AND THEIR PROPERTIES
STATIC ELECTRICITY WAS FIRST OBSERVED BY
THALES OF MILETUS IN 600 BC WHEN HE FOUND
THAT AMBER WHEN RUBBED WITH FUR
ACQUIRED THE PROPERTY OF ATTRCACTING
TINY PIECES OF SAW DUST ETC.
ELECTRICITY PRODUCED BY RUBBING IS CALLED
FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY
SINCE THE CHARGES SO PRODUCED ARE AT REST
IT IS ALSO CALLED STATIC ELECTRICITY
CHARGES ARE PRODUCED BY TRANSFER OF
ELECTRONS
IN 1600 AD, DR. WILLIAM GILBERT, COURT
PHYSICIAN TO QUEEN ELIZABETH I OF ENGLAND,
PUBLISHED THE BOOK (DE MAGNETO) IN WHICH
HE MADE AN ACCOUNT OF ALL THE EXPERIMENTS
AND OBSERVATIONS MADE SO FAR IN THE FIELD
OF ELECTROSTATICS.
GILBERT FOUND THAT THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF
CHARGES AND THAT LIKE CHARGES REPEL AND
UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT.
HE NAMED THE TWO KINDS OF CHARGES AS
RESINOUS AND VITREOUS.
THE CHARGE ACQUIRED BY AMBER OR EBONITE
(WHEN RUBBED WITH WOOL OR FUR) WAS
CALLED RESINOUS AND THE OTHER KIND OF
CHARGE WAS CALLED VITREOUS.
BENJAMIN
FRANKLIN,
AN AMERICAN
SCIENTIST
Introduced the convention
according to which resinous charge
was called negative and the other
was called positive
CONSERVATION OF CHARGES
THE TOTAL CHARGE IN ANY SYSTEM IS
ALWAYS CONSERVED
NET CHARGE CAN NEITHER BE CREATED
NOR BE DESTROYED IN ISOLATION
CHARGES CAN ONLY BE PRODUCED OR
DESTROYED IN EQUAL AND OPPOSITE PAIRS
THE TOTAL CHARGE BEFORE AND AFTER
ANY REACTION REMAINS THE SAME.
QUANTIZATION OF CHARGE
THE CHARGE PRESENT IN ANY BODY IS
ALWAYS THE INTEGRAL MULTIPLE OF
FUNDAMENTAL CHARGE THE
CHARGE OF AN ELECTRON (1.6 X 10-19C)
NO BODY CAN POSSESS FRACTIONAL
ELECTRONIC CHARGE (IN THE
MACROSCOPIC WORLD)
QUARKS
ARE PARTICLES CONSIDERED TO POSSESS
FRACTIONAL ELECTRONIC CHARGES -- ± 1/3
e, ± 2/3 e …..
THERE ARE SIX TYPES OF QUARKS UP,
DOWN, TOP, BOTTOM, CHARM AND
STRANGE
BUT THE EXISTENCE OF QUARKS DONOT
VIOLATE THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
CHARGE. IT ONLY CHANGES THE
MAGNITUDE OF FUNDAMENTAL CHARGE TO
THAT OF THE LOWEST POSSIBLE CHARGE
ON QUARKS.
ALSO, QUARKS CANNOT EXIST FREELY.
THEY ARE ALWAYS FOUND COMBINED TO
FORM INTEGRAL MULTIPLES OF
ELECTRONIC CHARGE.
Baryon
Mass*
Quark Symbol Spin Charge Num S C B T
ber
Up U 1/2 +2/3 1/3 0 0 0 0 360 MeV
Down D 1/2 -1/3 1/3 0 0 0 0 360 MeV
Charm C 1/2 +2/3 1/3 0 +1 0 0 1500 MeV
Strange S 1/2 -1/3 1/3 -1 0 0 0 540 MeV
Top T 1/2 +2/3 1/3 0 0 0 +1 174 GeV
Bottom B 1/2 -1/3 1/3 0 0 +1 0 5 GeV
COULOMB’S LAW
THE FORCE OF ATTRACTION OR REPULSION
BETWEEN TWO POINT CHARGES IS DIRECTLY
PROPORTIONAL TO THE PRODUCT OF THE
AMGNITUDE OF THE CHARGES AND
INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE SQUARE
OF THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THEM.
MATHEMATICALLY
1 Q1Q2
F
4 0 r 2
RELATIVE PERMITIVITY
Is defined as the ratio of the force between two
point charges separated in vacuum to the force
between the same two charges separated by
the same distance while kept in the medium.
i.e. r= F0 /Fm
PRINCIPLE OF SUPER POSITION
States that when there are a number of point
charges, the net force on any one of the
charges is equal to the vector sum of the forces
due to the individual charges.
i.e.
F1 = F12+ F13+ F14 + ……
DEFINE 1 COULOMB
One coulomb is defined as that charge which
when kept one metre apart from an equal and
similar charge in vacuum, repels it with a force
of 9 x 109N.
ELECTRIC FIELD
Qualitatively
The region of space around a charge where it can
exert a force of electrical origin on another charge.
Quantitatively
The intensity of ELECTRIC FIELD at any point is
defined as the force exerted per unit charge by a
positive test charge kept at that point.
F
E lim
qo 0 q
0
ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE
Are imaginary lines of force such that the
tangent to it at any point gives the direction of
electric field at that point.
A positive point charge free to move will move
in the direction of electric field and a negative
point charge will move in a direction opposite
to the direction of electric field along an
electric line of force.
The lines of force to represent uniform electric field
are as shown below
The electric lines of The electric lines of
force due to point force due to point
charge q < 0 are as charge q > 0 are as
shown below shown below
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE
Start from a positive charge and end in a negative charge.
The tangent to it at any point gives the direction of electric
field at that point.
They never intersect each other
They tend to contract longitudinally and expand laterally.
They always enter or emerge normal to the surface of a
charged conductor.
They are close together in regions of strong electric field
and far apart in regions of weak electric field.
WHY TWO ELECTRIC LINES OF
FORCE NEVER INTERSECT?
If they intersect two tangents can be
drawn from the same point( i.e. at the
point of intersection) indicating two
directions of electric field at the same
position which is impossible.
ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Two equal and opposite point charges
separated by a very small distance constitute
an electric dipole.
Electric dipole moment of a dipole is defined
as the product of the magnitude of either of the
charges and the distance between the charges.
Dipole moment,
p 2l q
ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT DUE TO A DIPOLE
On the axial position
1 2 pr
Eaxial
4 o r l
2 2
2
1 2p
Eaxial when r l
4 o r 3
On the equatorial position
1 p
Eequatorial
4 o r l 2
2 2
3
1 p
Eequatorial when r l
4 o r 3
TORQUE ON A DIPOLE
= pE sin
Or
=pXE
where p is the electric dipole moment and E
is the intensity of electric field.
DERIVATION ( = PE sin)
Force on charge +q at A .
F A
qE
force on charge - q at B
F B
qE
Forces F A and FB equal
and opposite form a
couple which tends to
rotate the dipole
torque acting on dipole is
force arm of couple
qE AC (1)
In ABC
AC AC AB sin AC 2l sin
sin
AB
so from -------- ( 1 )
qE 2l sin
(q 2l ) E sin
pE sin (2) p q 2l dipole moment
No torque acts when dipole moment aligns parallel to
electric field ( i.e = 0 )
from ( 2 ) =0
pE sin 0 pE 0
ELECTRIC FLUX
Is the total lines of force passing
normal to a given surface
E
s
E .d S
E = E A for uniform electric field
Electric flux is a scalar quantity
GAUSS’ THEOREM
States the total electric flux through a
closed surface (surface integral of
electric field over a closed surface) is
equal to 1/o times the total charge
enclosed by the surface.
Mathematically
1
s E .d S q enclosed
0
ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT DUE TO
DIFFERENT CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
1 q
E due to a point charge E po int
4 o r 2
E due to a line of charge
1 2
E line
E due to a plane sheet of 4 o r
charge
E sheet
E due to a sphere of 2 o
charge
1 q
E sphere
4 o r 2
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electric potential at any
point is defined as the
W
V
work done per unit
charge in bringing a
positive test charge
from infinity to that
point without any
qo
acceleration.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Potential difference
between two points
is defined as the
work done per unit WAB
charge in carrying a
positive test charge VAB
from one point to
other without any
qo
acceleration.
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A
SYSTEM OF CHARGES
Potential energy of a
system of charges is
defined as the total i n
work done in 1 1 qi q j
j n
assembling all the U
charges constituting
4 0 2 i 1 rij
the system from j 1
i j
infinity to their
respective positions.
WORK DONE IN ROTATING A
DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM
ELECTRIC FIELD
W PE (cos 2 cos1 )
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A
DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC
FIELD
U P.E
ACTION OF POINTS
The surface charge density is not uniform in
the case of uneven metal surfaces. It is
maximum at sharp points and hence the
intensity of electric field will also be
maximum at these points. This is known as
action of points.
CORONA DISCHARGE
When a metal with sharp points is charged, the
sharp points acquire a high electric field and
ionizes the air molecules nearby and then
repels them away. The charged air molecules
moving away from the sharp points constitute
an electric wind and the discharge of
electricity from sharp points like this is known
as corona discharge.
LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
Is a device made of metal with sharp points fixed on
the top of huge buildings and earthed by thick strips
of conductor.
They protect the building in two ways.
They avoid the occurrence of lightning by corona
discharge and neutralizing the clouds.
Even if lightning strikes, it provides a low resistance
conducting path for the charges coming from the
clouds and protects the building from damage.
VAN DE GRAFF
GENERATOR
Is a device used to
produce very high
potential by the action
of points.
It works on the
principle that whenever
a charge is given to a
hollow conductor, the
charge is immediately
transferred to the outer
surface.
A
Van de Graff
Generator
CAPACITANCE
The ratio of electric charge to electric
potential of a conductor or a device is
called capacitance
Capacitance C = Q/V
Unit is farad (F)
1 farad = 1 coulomb / 1 volt
PRINCIPLE OF A CAPACITOR
Capacitor is based on the principle that
the capacitance of an isolated charged
conductor increases when an uncharged
earthed conductor is kept near it and the
capacitance is further increased by
keeping a dielectric medium between the
conductors.
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL
PLATE CAPACITOR
Electric field between the plates,
E = /0
But =Q/A
E=Q/A0
Potential difference between the two
plates , V = Ed = Qd/A 0
Capacitance, C = Q/V
C=A 0/d
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL
PLATE CAPACITOR WITH A
DIELECTRIC SLAB
When a dielectric slab is kept between the plates
COMPLETELY filling the gap
E’ = E0/K where K is the dielectric constant of the
medium.
Potential difference
V’ = E’d = E0d/K=Qd/K 0A
Capacitance C’ = Q/V’ = K 0A/d = KC
when a dielectric medium is filled between the plates
of a capacitor, its capacitance is increased K times.
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL
PLATE CAPACITOR WITH A
DIELECTRIC SLAB
When a dielectric slab is kept between the plates
PARTIALLY filling the gap
0 A
C"
1
d t 1
K
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL
PLATE CAPACITOR WITH A
METAL SLAB OF THICKNESS t
0 A
C"
d t
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
SERIES COMBINATION
When capacitors are combined in
series, the reciprocal of effective
capacitance 1 1 1 1
.......... .
C s C1 C2 Cn
PARALLEL COMBINATION
When capacitors are combined in
series, the effective capacitance
C p C1 C2 ........... Cn
DEFINE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT ON THE
BASIS OF CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL
PLATE CAPACITOR
Dielectric constant of a
medium is defined as
the ratio of the
capacitance of a Cm
capacitor completely
filled with the medium K
to the capacitance of the
capacitor without any
Co
dielectric.
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
Dielectric strength of a dielectric
is the maximum electric field that
can be applied to it beyond which
it breaks down.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Calculate the number of electrons in excess in
a body with 1 coulomb of negative charge.
Q = ne
Q = 1C
e = 1.6 X 10-19C
n = Q/e= 1/(1.6 X 10-19C) = 6.25 X 1018
