Revision- Statics

Introduction

• Engineering Mechanics: Study of forces acting on a

rigid body
– a) Statics - body remains at rest
– b) Dynamics - body moves

• Mechanics of materials or structural mechanics

– Branch of mechanics that studies the relationships between
the external loads applied to a deformable body and the
intensity of internal forces acting within the body

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Basic Quantities
• Length
– needed to locate the position of a point in space and describe the
size of a physical system. (Units: meter, millimeter, centimeter)
• Time
– Is conceived as a succession of events. Although the principles
of statics are time independent, this quantity plays an important
role in the study of dynamics. (Units: seconds, minutes)

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Basic Quantities
• Mass
– Is a property of matter which we can compare the action of one
body with another. (Units: grams, kilograms, tonnes)
• Force
– Is considered as a ‘push’ or ‘pull’ exerted by one body on
another.
– Can occur when there is direct contact between the bodies; eg. a
person pushing on a wall.
– It can also occur through a distance when the bodies are
physically separated; eg. Gravitational, electrical and magnetic
forces.
– In any case, a force is completely characterized by its
magnitude. (Units: Newton, kilo Newton)
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Idealizations
• Models or idealizations are used in mechanics in order
to simplify application of the theory
• Types of models:
a. Particle – it has a mass, but a size that can be neglected
b. Rigid body – Can be considered as a combination of a large
number of particles in which all the particles remain at a fixed
distance from one another both before and after applying a
load.

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c. Concentrated load – applied to a point in the body.
Eg. Loads transferred by a column to a beam.

d. Linear distributed load – surface loading is applied

along a narrow area. Here the loading is measured as
having an intensity of force/length along the area. Eg.
Wall load applied on beams.

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Newton’s Three Law of Motions
• First Law – A particle originally at rest, or moving in a straight
line with constant velocity, will remain in this state provided the
particle is not subjected to an unbalanced force.
• Second Law – A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force, F
experiences an acceleration (a), that has the same direction as the
force and magnitude that is directly proportional to the force. If F
is applied to a particle of mass, m, this law may be expressed
mathematically as
F = m.a

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c. Third Law – The mutual forces of action and reaction
between two particles are equal, opposite and collinear

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Newton’s Law of Gravitational Attraction
• Gravitational attraction between any two particles
m1 m 2
FG 2
r
Where F = force of gravitation between the two
particles
G = universal constant of gravitation;
= 66.73 (10-12) m3/(kg.s2)
m1, m2 = mass of each of the two particles
r = distance between two particles
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Weight (W)
W = m.g

Where m = mass of the object

g = acceleration due to gravity
(g = 9.81 m/s2)

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Force Vectors
Scalar and Vectors
a. Scalar
• A mathematical quantity possessing magnitude only. A
quantity characterized by a positive or negative number is
called a scalar.
• Eg. Mass, volume & length.
• Scalars are normally indicated by letters in italic, such as scalar
A

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b. Vector
• A vector is a quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction.
• Eg. Position, force & moment.
• A vector is normally
 indicated by a letter with an arrow written over
it such as A or in boldface A (books use this).
• Its magnitude, which is always a positive quantity, is written as A .
Books use italics for all scalars.
• A vector is represented graphically by an arrow, which is used to
define its magnitude, direction and sense.

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• Magnitude – length of the arrow
• Direction – angle between a reference axis and line of action
• Sense – Arrowhead
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 Vector Operations
a. Scalar multiplications and divisions
b. Vector addition
• The sum of 2 vectors can be obtained by attaching the 2
vectors to the same point and constructing a
parallelogram (parallelogram law)

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c. Vector subtraction
• The addition of the corresponding negative vector

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d. Resolution of Vector

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Vector Addition of Forces

R
Fy

Fx

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Trigonometry
A line intersecting parallel lines:

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Addition of a System of Coplanar Forces
• In two-dimensional Euclidean space, any force
vector can be resolved into its Cartesian
components.
• The Cartesian unit vectors i and j are used to
designate the directions of the x and y axes
• Thus,
F = Fxi + Fyj

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• If there are multiple force vectors acting on a
system, the resultant force vector is given by

where n is the number of force vectors

• The magnitude of the resultant is given by

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• The directional angle, θ, can be computed as

• We always adopt the Right Hand Rule convention,

i.e. → and ↑ are considered positive.

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3-Dimensions

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3-D: Cartesian Force Representation

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Important Relationships:
1. Cartesian vector representation: A = Axi + Ayj + Azk
2. Magnitude of a Cartesian vector:
A  Ax2  Ay2  Az2
3. Direction of a Cartesian vector:
A Ay Az
cos   x cos   cos  
A A A
4. cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1
5. Magnitude and coordinate direction angles of A:
A = A cos αi + A cos βj + A cos γk
= Axi + Ayj + Azk

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• Position vector: A fixed vector which locates a
point in space relative to another point.

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Moment of a Force
• The moment of a force about a point or axis
provides a measure of the tendency of the force to
cause a body to rotate about the point or axis. It is
denoted M, and is a vector quantity.
M = ∑F × d
• Clockwise moment = –ve
• Anti-clockwise moment = +ve

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 Line of action F

r
F

d θ θ

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Moment of a Force – Vector Formulation
i j k
MO = ua.(r × F) = rx ry rz
Fx Fy Fz
Where rx, ry, rz represent the x, y, z components of the
position vector drawn from point O to any point on
the line of action of the force

Fx, Fy, Fz represents the x, y, z components of the

force vector

ua represent the x, y, z components of the unit vector

defining the direction of the aa’ axis
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 Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

• Equilibrium
– Equilibrium of a body requires both a balance of
external and internal forces to prevent a body from
having accelerated motion; and a balance of moments
to prevent a body from accelerated rotating

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Conditions for Rigid Body Equilibrium
• The equilibrium of a body is expressed as

FR = ∑F = 0

(MR)o = ∑Mo = 0
• Consider summing moments about some
other point, such as point A, we
require

MA = r x FR + (MR)o = 0 32
 External Loads
• Can be classified as either surface forces or a body force
• Surface forces are caused by the direct contact of one body
with the surface of another body.
– Concentrated load : applied to a point in the body.
– Linear distributed load: surface loading is applied along a narrow
area. Here the loading is measured as having an intensity of
force/length along the area.
• Body force is developed when one body exerts a force on
another body without direct physical contact between the
bodies. E.g. weight of a body
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Support reactions
• The surface forces those develop at the supports or
points of contact between bodies are called
reactions
• As a general rule, if a support prevents the
translation of a body in a given direction, then a
force is developed on the body in that direction.
Likewise, if rotation is prevented, a couple is
exerted on the body.

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Support reactions

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 Springs
• If a linear elastic spring is used for support, the length
of the spring will change in direct proportion to the
force acting on it
• The magnitude of force exerted
F  ks,
where: k  the spring constant or stiffness
s  compressed or elongated distance
measured from its unloaded
position
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 (a) Original
position

(b)

For spring (a): F = ks = 500 × (0.2 – 0.4) = – 100 N

For spring (b): F = ks = 500 × (0.6 – 0.4) = 100 N

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Cables and pulleys
• Cables are assumed to have negligible weight and
they cannot stretch. They can only support tension
or pulling (you can’t push on a rope)
• Pulleys are assumed to be frictionless. A
continuous cable passing over a frictionless pulley
must have tension force of a constant magnitude.
The tension force is always directed in the
direction of the cable.

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 Free body diagrams
• This diagram is a sketch of the outlined shape of the
body, which represents it as being isolated or ‘free’
from its surroundings

• The effects of all the applied forces and couple

moments can be accounted for when the equations of
equilibrium are written

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Procedure for drawing a free body diagram :

1. Decide which body to analyze

2. Separate this body from everything else and draw the
outlined shape
3. Identify each loading and draw all applied forces on
the body. Place each force and couple at the point that
it is applied
4. Label the forces and include any necessary
dimensions and coordinate axis
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Equilibrium of Rigid Body – 2D
• When the body is subjected to a system of forces,
which all lie in the x-y plane, then the forces can
be resolved into their x and y components.
• The conditions for equilibrium in two-dimensions
are

∑Fx = 0 ; ∑Fy = 0 ; ∑Mo = 0

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Two- and Three- Force Members
• Two-force members:
when a member is
subject to no couple
moments and forces are
applied at only two
points on a member

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• Three-force members:
– Forces must be concurrent or parallel.
– Assume only two forces are concurrent.
– Then the ΣMO = 0 about that point, O must be satisfied.
– The third force must also pass through the point O,
making the force system concurrent.

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Free-body Diagrams – 3D

• Similar method to 2D diagrams

• Know the support reactions

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 Equilibrium of Rigid Body – 3D

In a rectangular coordinate system the equilibrium equations

can be represented by three scalar equations, where the sums
of forces in all three directions are equal to zero.

The sums of moments relative to all three axis are also equal
to zero.

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 Equilibrium of Rigid Body – 3D
We need to form six scalar equilibrium equations to solve for
at most six unknowns shown on the free-body diagrams.

F x  0; F y  0; F z  0;

M x  0; M y  0; M y  0;

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Friction
• Up to now, the surfaces of contact between two
bodies were considered to be perfectly smooth.
Consequently, the force of interaction between the
bodies always acts normal to the surface at points
of contact
• In reality, all surfaces are rough – friction!
• Friction force always acts tangent to the surface at
points of contact with other bodies.
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• 2 types of friction can occur between surfaces:
(i) fluid friction – when the contacting surfaces
are separated by a film of fluid (gas or liquid)
(ii) dry friction – occurs between the
contacting surfaces of bodies in the absence of a
lubricating fluid

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Consider this block:
• For equilibrium, the normal forces
must act upward to balance the
block’s weight (W), and the frictional
forces act to the left to prevent the
applied force (P) from moving the
block to the right.
• Notice that N acts a distance x to the
right of the line of action of W. This
location which coincides with the
centroid or geometric center of the
loading diagram is necessary in order
to balance the ‘tipping effect’ caused by
P.
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 Taking moment about
O:
∑MO = 0 = Wx – Ph

Ph
x=
W

a
If , x = the block is about to tip.
2

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Impending Motion

• If P increases, F also increases. A stage will reach

when F attains a maximum value, Fs, called the
limiting static frictional force
Fs = μsN
where μs is the coefficient of static friction

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 • When the block is on the
verge of sliding, the normal
force (N) and frictional force (Fs)
combine to create a resultant
force (RS). The angle that
RS makes with N is called the
angle of static friction.

Fs  μs N 
φs = tan -1
= tan-1   = tan-1μs
N  N 

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Motion
• When P is further increases such that P>Fs, the
block starts to move. At this stage, the frictional
force at the contacting surfaces drops to a smaller
value, Fk, called the kinetic frictional force where
Fk < Fs.
• The formula for Fk is
Fk = μkN
where μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction
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Structural Analysis of Trusses
– Method of Joints
Truss
• Definition: A truss is a structure composed of
slender members joined together at their end
points. The members are usually made of wood or
metal
• Steel trusses: Joints are usually formed by bolting
or welding the members to a common plate, called
a gusset plate, or simply passing a large bolt
through each member.
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Planar Trusses
• What we will encounter most frequently is planar
truss structure.
• Planar truss structures are structures which can be
assumed to lie in a single plane and are often used
to support roof and bridges.

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Assumptions for Design
• To design truss structure and its connections, it is
first necessary to determine force in each member.
• Newton’s First and Third Law will be used to
solve the equilibrium equations.

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• General assumptions concerning truss structures are:
1. All loadings are applied at the joints
2. The weights of the members are neglected.
3. All members are two force members
4. The members are joined together by smooth pins.

• Note:
1. To prevent collapse, the framework of a truss must be rigid
2. The simplest framework which is rigid and stable is a triangle.
3. Therefore, a triangle is the building block of all truss structures.

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The Method of Joints
• It is important to know that for equilibrium of
forces, the sufficient condition is
External Force = Internal Force
• External force: reaction forces, applied forces
• Internal force: tension/compression force set up in
the member

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• To analyze a truss structure using method of joint, these
steps are useful:
1. Draw the free-body diagram of a joint having at least one
known force and at most two unknown forces.
2. Orient the x- and y-axes such that the force can be resolved
into their x and y components
3. Apply force equilibrium equations
4. Continue to analyze each of the other joints by repeating
procedure (i) to (iii)
5. A member in compression (C) “pushes” on the joint and a
member in tension (T) “pulls” on the joints. Normally, take
compression as –ve and tension as +ve.

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Note:
• In the beginning of a calculation, ignore all the
compression/tension sign.
• Start off by simply labeling each member consistently
according to the applied force (a little bit of common
sense is required here).
• The final calculated numerical values will tell us if we
have labeled the members correctly.

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Structural Analysis of Trusses –
Method of Sections
Zero-Force Members
• Our analysis can be greatly simplified if one can
identify those members that support no loads. We
call these zero-force members.
• These members can used to increase the stability
of the truss during construction and to provide
support if the applied loading is change.

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• Rule 1:
If only two members form a truss joint and no external
load or support reaction is applied to the joint, the
members must be a zero-force member.

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• Rule 2:
If three members form a truss joint for which two of the
members are collinear, the third member is a zero-force
member provided no external force or support reaction is
applied to the joint.

FDA & FCA are zero-force members 71

The Method of Sections
• Based on principle that if a body is in equilibrium then any
(all) parts of the body must be in equilibrium.
• If a body is in equilibrium, then any parts of the body is
also in equilibrium. We can thus ‘cut’ the body and
analyze the section in isolation.
• Generally, the ‘cut’ should not pass more than three
members in which the forces are unknown

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Different Types of Roof Trusses

KING POST

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Types of bridge trusses

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 Internal Loadings

Characteristics of External
Loading
Introduction
• One of the most important applications of statics, in
the analysis of problems involving mechanics of
materials is to be able to determine the internal
resultant force developed within the body, which are
necessary to hold the body together when the body
is subjected to external loads.
• Mathematically, this requires

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External Forces
• In reality, the structures under investigation may
be subjected to very complicated loadings in a
form of distribution.
• How is it possible to reduce a very complicated
external loading to a characteristics or equivalent
loading.

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Pressure Distribution Over a Flat Surface

• The external force is described by the load function p = p (x, y). For an
infinitesimal area, δA, the force is given by
δF = p(x, y) δA
• The resultant loading is therefore given by

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• This resultant force can be represented as shown below:

The location where FR acts on the surface can be evaluated using the
formulae

where ( x , y ) is the geometric center of the volume under the

distributed load.
Note: Observe that p(x, y) dA = dV, the infinitesimal volume of the p – A diagram. 83
• Pressure distribution can be caused by wind,
fluid, weights of objects etc.
• The intensity of the pressure distribution is
measured in SI as N/m2.
• In Imperial System, it is measured in lb/ft 2 (psf)
or lb/in2 (psi).
• Sometimes, kips is used for kilo-pound per sq.
inch.

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Linear Distribution of Load Along a
Straight Line
Consider the loading
function shown. Here,

Because the pressure is

uniform along the y-axis.
We can write

which is the load per unit

length along the line y = 0.
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• The three-dimensional problem is now reduced to a
two-dimensional problem, as shown.
The resultant force is
calculated by

and the location x of the line of

action of FR is

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• The equivalent force is thus as shown.

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 Internal Forces
• Consider an arbitrary body • If we make an imaginary cut
subjected to the external forces through the body, we can see that
as shown in Fig. A. there is a distribution of internal
force acting on the ‘exposed’ area;
as shown in Fig. B.

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• These forces represent the effect of the material of the top
part of the body acting on the adjacent material of the
bottom part.
• Although the exact distribution is unknown, we can use
statics to determine the resultant internal force (FR) and
moment (MR) and at any arbitrary point.

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• In fact, these resultant forces, FR and MR, can be resolved into
four components each; as shown in Fig. D, where
N – Normal force
V – Shear force
T – Torsional moment
M – Bending moment

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The rigid pole and cross-arm assembly is shown below. Determine the vector
expression for the moment of the 1.2-kN tension (a) about point O and (b)
about the pole z-axis.

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Determine the force in each member of the loaded truss

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Determine the force in members GE, GC, and BC of the truss shown in the
Figure below. Indicate whether the members are in tension or compression.
 

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