Introduction

• The antenna is the interface between the transmission

line and space
• Antennas are passive devices; the power radiated
cannot be greater than the power entering from the
transmitter
• When speaking of gain in an antenna, gain refers to the
idea that certain directions are radiated better than
others
• Antennas are reciprocal - the same design works for
receiving systems as for transmitting systems
 Simple Antennas
• The Isotropic Radiator would radiate all the
power delivered to it and equally in all
directions
• The isotropic radiator would also be a point
source
 Antennas
• Radiated Power
• Radiation Pattern
– Beamwidth
– Pattern Solid Angle
– Directivity
– Efficiency
– Gain
 Antennas – Radiation Power
Let us consider a transmitting antenna (transmitter) is located at the origin of a
spherical coordinate system.
In the far-field, the radiated waves resemble plane waves propagating in the
radiation direction and time-harmonic fields can be related by the equations.
E s  o a r  H s
Electric and and
Magnetic Fields:
1
Hs  a r  Es
o

The time-averaged power density vector of the wave is found by

the Poynting Theorem
1
Power Density: P  r ,  ,    Re  E s  H*s 
2
P  r ,  ,    P  r ,  ,   ar

The total power radiated by the antenna is found by integrating over a closed
spherical surface,
Radiated Power: Prad   P  r ,  ,   dS    P  r ,  ,   r 2 sin  d d
 EM wave in free space

 2 Ex 1  2 Ex
 E x  E0 e j (t  z )
t 2  0 0 z 2

 Hy
H y  H 0 e j ( t   z )
1  Hy
2 2


t 2  0 0 z 2

frequency f 
2
x Electric

1
field wavelength
 0 0 f
Direction of 2
Phase constant 
propagation 

y z Z0 
E0 0
Z0 
Magnetic H0 0
field
 Wave in lossy medium

E x  E0 e z e jt  E0  e z  e  jz  e jt

Attenuation Phase varies Periodic time

increases with z with z variation

    j Propagation constant

 Attenuation constant

 Phase constant
 Power flow

  
Poynting vector S  EH

Average power density 1 2 1 1 2

S av  E x  H y Z0
2 Z0 2
 Radiation pattern

•Far field patterns

•Field intensity decreases with increasing distance, as 1/r
•Radiated power density decreases as 1/r2
•Pattern (shape) independent on distance
•Usually shown only in principal planes

D2
Far field : r  2 D : largest dimension of the antenna

e.g. r > 220 km for APEX at 1.3 mm !
 Antennas – Radiation Patterns
Radiation patterns usually indicate either electric field intensity or power
intensity. Magnetic field intensity has the same radiation pattern as the
electric field intensity, related by o

It is customary to divide the field or power component by its

maximum value and to plot a normalized function

Normalized radiation intensity:

P  r, ,  
Pn   ,   
Pmax

Isotropic antenna: The antenna radiates

electromagnetic waves equally in all directions.

Pn   ,   iso  1
 Antennas – Radiation Patterns
Radiation Pattern: A polar plot
A directional antenna radiates and receives
preferentially in some direction.

It is customary, then, to take slices of the

pattern and generate two-dimensional plots.

The polar plot can also be in terms of decibels.

E  r, ,   A rectangular plot

En   ,   
Emax

En   ,    dB   20 log  En   ,   

It is interesting to note that a normalized electric

field pattern in dB will be identical to the power
pattern in dB.

Pn   ,    dB   10 log  Pn   ,   
 Radiation
Pattern
Polar plot
• Whenever we speak of
radiation patterns, we
normally mean we are at a
distance far enough from
the antenna known as the
far field.

dB= 10 log Pn(θ,Φ) or,

dB= 20 log En(θ,Φ)
 Radiation pattern (2)

Field patterns

E ( ,  ) E ( ,  )
+ phase patterns
 ( ,  )  ( ,  )

E2 ( ,  )  E2 ( ,  )
P ( ,  )  r2
Z0

P ( ,  )
Pn ( ,  ) 
P ( ,  ) max
HPBW: half power beam width
 Antennas
Antenna Pattern Solid Angle:

A differential solid angle, d, in sr, is

defined as
d   sin  d d .
For a sphere, the solid angle is found by A radian is defined with the aid of Figure a). It is the
angle subtended by an arc along the perimeter of the
integrating circle with length equal to the radius.
2  A steradian may be defined using Figure (b). Here,
   sin  d d  4 ( sr ). one steradian (sr) is subtended by an area r2 at the
surface of a sphere of radius r.
  0  0

An antenna’s pattern solid angle,

 p    Pn   ,   d 

All of the radiation emitted by the antenna is concentrated in a cone of solid

angle p over which the radiation is constant and equal to the antenna’s
maximum radiation value.
 Antennas – Directivity
Directivity:

The directive gain,, of an antenna is the ratio of the

normalized power in a particular direction to the
average normalized power, or
Pn   ,  
D   ,  
Pn   ,   avg

Where the normalized power’s average value taken

over the entire spherical solid angle is

  P   ,  d  
P   ,  
n p

  d
n avg
4

The directivity, Dmax, is the maximum directive gain,

Pn   ,   max
Dmax  D   ,   max 
Pn   ,   avg
4
Dmax  Using Pn   ,   max  1
p
 Resolution and Directivity
• Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle between two vectors
from the pattern’s origin to the points of the major lobe where the
radiation intensity is half its maximum
• Often used to describe the antenna resolution properties

• First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between two vectors,

originating at the pattern’s origin and tangent to the main beam at its
base.
• Directivity and resolution: Usually resolution of an antenna is it`s half
the BW between first nulls.
» Often FNBW/2 ≈ Resolution and it is approximately equal to HPBW
• So, ΩA = ( FNBW/2)θ ( FNBW/2)φ two plane of the field
• If N number of point source, the receiving antenna can resolve, N= 4Π/ ΩA,
• Directivity, D= 4Π/ ΩA, so number of point source in the sky is equal to directivity of the
antenna.
 Beam area and beam efficiency
2 
Beam area A    Pn ( ,  )  sin( )dd   Pn ( ,  )d
0 0
4

Main beam area M   P ( ,  )d

Main
n

beam

Minor lobes area m   P ( ,  )d

min or
n

lobes

 A  M  m

M
Main beam efficiency M 
A
 Effective aperture and aperture efficiency

Receiving antenna extracts power from incident wave

Prec  Sin  Ae

2
Aperture and beam area are linked: Ae 
A

For some antennas, there is a clear physical aperture

and an aperture efficiency can be defined

Ae
 ap 
Ap
 Directivity and gain

P( ,  ) max
Directivity D
P( ,  ) average

4 4
From pattern D 
 P ( , )d
4
n
A

Ae
From aperture D  4 Isotropic antenna:  A  4 D 1
2

Gain G  k g D

n  efficiency factor (0  n  1)
G is lower than D due to ohmic losses only
 Radiation resistance
• Antenna presents an impedance at its terminals

Z A  RA  jX A

•Resistive part is radiation resistance plus loss resistance

R A  RR  RL

The radiation resistance does not correspond to a real resistor

present in the antenna but to the resistance of space coupled
via the beam to the antenna terminals.
 The Half-Wave Dipole
• A more practical antenna is the half-wave
dipole
• Dipole simply means it is in two parts
• A dipole does not have to be one-half
wavelength, but that length is handy for
impedance matching
• A half-wave dipole is sometimes referred to
as a Hertz antenna
 Basics of the Half-Wave Dipole

• Typically, the length of a half-wave dipole is 95% of

one-half the wavelength measured in free space:
c

f
 Radiation Resistance
• The half-wave dipole does not dissipate power,
assuming lossless material
• It will radiate power into space
• The effect on the feedpoint resistance is the same as if a
loss had taken place
• The half-wave dipole looks like a resistance of 70 ohms
at its feedpoint
• The portion of an antenna’s input impedance that is due
to power radiated into space is known as radiation
resistance
 Antenna Characteristics
• It should be apparent that antennas radiate in
various directions
• The terms applied to isotropic and half-wave
dipole antennas are also applied to other
antenna designs
 Radiation Patterns

• Antenna coordinates are shown

in three-dimensional diagrams
• The angle  is measured from
the x axis in the direction of the
y axis
• The z axis is vertical, and angle
 is usually measured from the
horizontal plane to the zenith
 Plotting Radiation Patterns

• Typical radiation patters are displayed in a polar plot

 Gain and Directivity

• In antennas, power
gain in one direction
is at the expense of
losses in others
• Directivity is the gain
calculated assuming
a lossless antenna
 Beamwidth
• A directional antenna can be said to direct a
beam of radiation in one or more directions
• The width of this bean is defined as the angle
between its half-power points
• A half-wave dipole has a beamwidth of about
79º in one plane and 360º in the other
• Many antennas are far more directional than this
 Front-to-Back Ratio

• The direction of maximum

radiation is in the
horizontal plane is
considered to be the front
of the antenna, and the
back is the direction 180º
from the front
• For a dipole, the front and
back have the same
radiation, but this is not
always the case
 Major and Minor Lobes

• In the previous diagram, the antenna has one

major lobe and a number of minor ones
• Each of these lobes has a gain and a
beamwidth which can be found using the
diagram
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
and Effective Radiated Power
• In practical situations, we are more interested in the
power emitted in a particular direction than in total
radiated power
• Effective Radiated Power represents the power input
multiplied by the antenna gain measured with respect to
a half-wave dipole
• An Ideal dipole has a gain of 2.14 dBi; EIRP is 2.14 dB
greater than the ERP for the same antenna combination
 Impedance
• The radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole situated in
free space and fed at the center is approximately 70 ohms
• The impedance is completely resistive at resonance, which
occurs when the length of the antenna is about 95% of the
calculated free-space, half-wavelength value
• If the frequency is above resonance, the feedpoint
impedance has an inductive component; if the frequency is
below resonance, the component is capacitive
 Ground Effects
• When an antenna is installed within
a few wavelengths of the ground,
the earth acts as a reflector and
has a considerable influence on the
radiation pattern of the antenna
• Ground effects are important up
through the HF range. At VHF and
above, the antenna is usually far
enough above the earth that
reflections are not significant
• Ground effects are complex
because the characteristics of the
ground are variable
 Other Simple Antennas
• Other types of simple antennas are:
– The folded dipole
– The monopole antenna
– Loop antennas
– The five-eighths wavelength antenna
– The Discone antenna
– The helical antenna
Example
8.1: In free space, suppose a wave propagating radially away from an antenna
at the origin has
Is
Hs  sin  a
r
where the driving current phasor I s  I o e j
Find (1) Es
o I s
 
Is Is
E s  o a r  H s   o a r  sin  a   o sin  a r  a sin  a
r r r

Find (2) P(r,,)

1 1   o I s   Is  
*

P  r ,  ,    Re  E s  H   Re 
*
s
sin  a    sin  a  
2 2  r  r  

1   o I o e j
  Ioe j

*
 1   I e j   I o e  j 
 Re  sin  a    sin  a    Re  o o
sin  a    sin  a 
2  r   r   2  r   r 
 I o2 2  1 I o2
 Re o 2 sin   a  a    o 2 sin 2  a r
1 1 I o2
Magnitude: P  r ,  ,    o 2 sin 
2
2  r  2 r 2 r
Find (3) Prad

Prad   P  r ,  ,   dS    P  r ,  ,   r 2 sin  d d We make use of the formula

 1 I o2 2 cos3 
 sin  d   cos   3
3
Prad     o 2 sin 2  r sin  d d
2 r 
 
1 I 2
2   cos3  
0 sin  d    cos   3 
3
Prad   o    sin  d d
o 3
2
2 r 0 0 0

 cos3    cos 3 0  
 1 I o2    3   2     cos       cos 0  
Prad   o 2    sin  d    d  3 3 
  
 2 r  0  0 
 1   1  2 4
 1 I o2   4  4    1     1     2  
Prad   o 2     2    o I o  3   3  3 3
2

 2 r  3  3

Find (4) Pn(r,,) Normalized Power Pattern

1 I o2
P  r ,  ,    o 2 sin 2  1 I o2
2 r Pmax  o 2
2 r
P  r, , 
Pn   ,    Pn   ,    sin 2 
Pmax
 Find (5) Beam Width
1 1
Pn   ,    sin 
2
 sin 2  HP sin  HP  
2 2
1 z
sin  HP 
2  HP ,1  45 Pn  0.5
 HP ,2  135
 HP ,1  45 and  HP ,2  135

Beamwidth  BW   135  45  90 BW  90

(6) Pattern Solid Angle Ωp (Integrate over the entire sphere!)

Pn  0.5
 p    Pn   ,   d 
2 
 3   2   4  8
 P   sin  sin  d d    sin  d d    sin  d    d      2  
2 3

0 0 0  0   3 3
(7) directivity Dmax
4 4 2
Dmax     1.5
 P 8 3
3
(8) Half-power Pattern Solid Angle Ωp,HP (Integrate over the beamwidth!)
 p , HP    Pn   ,   d 
2 135  135   2   5 

5 2
 P , HP   sin  sin  d d 
2
  sin  d d    sin  d
3 3
   d   
 0   2  
0 45  45    3 2  3

135
 cos  
3 
135
cos3 135       cos  
cos3 45  
3 

 sin  d   cos  3      cos 135  3   
 
45 


3


45 45    
z
 1 1   1 1  2 2 10 5
           
 2 6 2   2 6 2  2 6 2 6 2 3 2

Power radiated through the beam width

BW PBW = 88%
5 2
 P , HP 5 2
PBW   3   0.88 (or) 88%
P 8 8
3
 Antennas – Efficiency
Efficiency

Power is fed to an antenna through a T-Line and

the antenna appears as a complex impedance
Z ant  Rant  jX ant .
where the antenna resistance consists of
radiation resistance and and a dissipative
resistance.
Rant  Rrad  Rdis
j
For the antenna is driven by phasor current I o  I s e

The power radiated by the antenna is The power dissipated by ohmic losses is
1 1 2
Prad  I o2 Rrad Pdiss  I o Rdiss
2 2
An antenna efficiency e can be defined as the ratio of the radiated power
to the total power fed to the antenna.
Prad Rrad
e 
Prad  Pdiss Rrad  Rdiss
 Antennas – Gain
Gain

The power gain, G, of an antenna is very much like its directive gain, but
also takes into account efficiency

G   ,    eD   ,  

The maximum power gain

Gmax  eDmax

The maximum power gain is often expressed in dB.

Gmax  dB   10 log 10  Gmax 

Example
: Suppose an antenna has D = 4, Rrad = 40  and Rdiss = 10 . Find antenna
efficiency and maximum power gain. (Ans: e = 0.80, Gmax = 3.2).

Antenna efficiency
Rrad 40
e   0.8 (or) 80%
Rrad  Rdiss 10  40

Maximum power gain

Gmax  eDmax   4   0.8   3.2

Maximum power gain in dB

Gmax  dB   10 log 10  Gmax   10 log 10  3.2   5.05