Data and Signals
3.1
Note
To be transmitted, data must be
transformed to electromagnetic signals.
3.2
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Data can be analog or digital. The
term analog data refers to
information that is continuous; digital
data refers to information that has
discrete states. Analog data take on
continuous values. Digital data take
on discrete values.
3.3
Note
Signals can be analog or digital.
Analog signals can have an infinite number
of values in a range; digital signals can
have only a limited
number of values.
3.4
Comparison of analog and digital signals
3.5
Note
In data communications, we commonly use
periodic analog signals and nonperiodic
digital signals.
3.6
PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Periodic analog signals can be classified
as simple or composite. A simple
periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler
signals. A composite
periodic analog signal is composed of
multiple sine waves.
3.7
A sine wave
3.8
Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different amplitudes
3.9
Note
Frequency and period are the inverse of
each other.
3.10
Units of period and frequency
3.11
Example
The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. The period of this sine wave can be
determined as follows:
3.12
Example
Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.
Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalents of 1 ms (1 ms is 10 −3 s) and 1 s (1 s is 106 μs). We
make the following substitutions:.
3.13
Example
The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from the period
(1 Hz = 10−3 kHz).
3.14
Note
Frequency is the rate of change with
respect to time.
Change in a short span of time
means high frequency.
Change over a long span of
time means low frequency.
3.15
Example
A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and
radians?
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
3.16
Figure 3.6 Wavelength and period
3.17
Note
A complete sine wave in the time domain
can be represented by one single spike in
the frequency domain.
3.18
Note
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful
in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.
3.19
Note
According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
3.20
Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal
3.21
Note
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the
difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
3.22
Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals
3.23
Example
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500,
700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components
have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz (see Figure next).
3.24
Figure The bandwidth for Example 3.10
3.25
Example
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the
lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the same
amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then
The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show this by a series of spikes (see
Figure next).
3.26
Figure The bandwidth for Example
3.27
DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog
signal, information can also be represented by a
digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a
positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital
signal can have more than two levels. In this case,
we can send more than 1 bit for each level.
3.28
Figure 3.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels
3.29
Example 3.16
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the
number of bits from the formula
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
3.30
Noise
3.31
Example
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are the values
of SNR and SNRdB ?
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:
3.32
Example
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are
We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.
3.33
DATA RATE
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in
bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
3.34
Note
Increasing the levels of a signal may
reduce the reliability of the system.
3.35
Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two
signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Formula : Bit Rate= 2 X Bandwidth X log2L , Where L= number of signal levels.
3.36
Example
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for each
level, we send 2 bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
3.37
Example
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How
many signal levels do we need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the number of levels or
reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels,
the bit rate is 240 kbps.
3.38
Note
In networking, we use the term bandwidth
in two contexts.
❏ The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to
the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.
❏ The second, bandwidth in bits per
second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.
3.39
