SQL

Structured Query Language

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 Database
 Every Organization had some information needs.
 Organizations can store ‘pieces of information’ called DATA.
 Data stored in different formats, hard copy document, electronic
spread
sheet or in database.
 A database is an organized collection of information.
 DBMS a program that stores retrieves and modifies data in the
database
on request.
 Types of Database – Hierarchical, Network, Relational, Object
Relational.
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 Agenda
SQL
 Database Basics
 Different types of commands(DDL,DML,TCL and DCL)
 Functions and Aggregations
 Joins and Set Operators
 Object types – Constraints, Index, Views, M Views ,Synonyms, DB Links and Sequences
 Oracle Architecture
PL SQL
 Basics of PLSQL
 Anonymous Blocks
 Cursors
 Procedures, Function, Package and Trigger
 Ref Cursor, Nested Cursor, Parametric cursor, IOT, PLSQL Tables
 TOAD Overview

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 Entity Relationship Model

 Entity / Table : A thing of significance about which information needs to be known.

e.g. emp, dept, Students, and Orders.
 Attribute / Column : Something that qualifies an entity. eg. eno, ename, ordno.,
 Relationship : Association between entities showing cardinality / degree.

emp dept
number number
name name
job title location

Scenario:
- “ … assign one or more emp to a department…”
- “ … some dept do not yet have assigned emp…”
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 Architecture Oracle

Two Tier Three Tier

Client Client

Application Server

Server

Database Server

[Link]
C:\Oracle\ORA10_2\NETWORK\ADMIN

Oracle Product Non-Oracle Product

SQL, PL/SQL, Developer, Forms ... Java, XML, HTML,JSON ..
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 Communicating with a RDBMS using SQL

SQL Statement SELECT last_name

is entered FROM emp;

Statement is sent
LAST_NAME
to Oracle Server
King

Kochhar Oracle Server

Reynardo
DeCarl

Abel
Grant
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 SQL Statements
Data Retrieval
SELECT

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DELETE INSERT MERGE
UPDATE

Data Definition Language (DDL)

CREATE ALTER DROP RENAME TRUNCATE

Transaction Control Language (TCL)

COMMIT ROLLBACK SAVEPOINT

Data Control Language (DCL)

GRANT REVOKE

Session Control Statements System Control Statements

ALTER SESSION ALTER SYSTEM

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Creating and Managing Tables

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 Table

Basic unit of storage ; composed of rows and columns

CREATE TABLE [schema.]table

(column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [,..]);

TABLE name and COLUMN name

 Must begin with a letter
 Must between 1-30 characters long
 Must contain only A-Z, a-z, 0-9, _ , $ , #
 Must not be an Oracle server reserved word

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 Creating Table
CREATE TABLE student

(sno number(2),
sname varchar2(15),
dob date,
age number(2),
tno number(2));
CREATE TABLE teacher
(tno number(2),
tname varchar2(15),
dept varchar2(15) DEFAULT ‘no dept’);
Creating a table by using a Subquery
CREATE TABLE dept
AS SELECT employee_id, last_name, hire_date,
deptno
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 80;

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 The ALTER TABLE statement
Use ALTER TABLE statement to add, modify or drop columns

ALTER TABLE dept

ADD (job_id varchar2(9);

ALTER TABLE dept

MODIFY (last_name varchar2(30);

ALTER TABLE dept ALTER TABLE dept

DROP COLUMN job_id; SET UNUSED (last_name);

ALTER TABLE dept ALTER TABLE dept

SET UNUSED COLUMN job_id; DROP UNUSED COLUMNS ;

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 Dropping a Table
DROP TABLE dept;

Changing the Name of an Object / Column

RENAME dept TO detail_dept;

ALTER TABLE emp RENAME COLUMN dept TO depart;

Truncating a table
TRUNCATE TABLE detail_dept;

 Removes all the rows from a Table

 Releases storage space used by that table HWM
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 Adding Comments to a Table & Column
COMMENT ON TABLE emp
IS ‘Employee Information’;

Removing Comments from a Table

COMMENT ON TABLE emp
IS ‘ ’;

COMMENT ON COLUMN emp.last_name

IS ‘Last Name of the Employee’;

ALL_COL_COMMENTS USER_COL_COMMENTS
ALL_TAB_COMMENTS USER_TAB_COMMENTS

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 Summary

CREATE TABLE
ALTER TABLE
DROP TABLE
RENAME
TRUNCATE
COMMENT

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 Oracle SQL Data Type
Datatype Description Max/Min Size:
VARCHAR2(size) Variable length character string having 4000 bytes. Minimum is 1.
max length size bytes. You must
specify size
CHAR(size) Fixed length character data of length 2000 [Link] and minimum
size bytes. This should be used for size is 1 byte.
fixed length data. Such as codes A100,
B102…
NUMBER(p,s) Number having precision p and scale s. The precision p can range from 1 to
38. The scale s can range from -84 to
127.
LONG Character data of variable length (A 2 Gigabytes
bigger version the VARCHAR2
datatype)
DATE Valid date range from January 1, 4712 BC to
December 31, 9999 AD.
TIMESTAMP the number of digits in the fractional Accepted values of
(fractional_seconds_precision) part of the SECOND datetime field. fractional_seconds_precision are 0
to 9. (default = 6)
CLOB Character Large object 4 Gigabytes

BLOB Binary Large Object 4 Gigabytes

BFILE pointer to binary file on disk 4 Gigabytes

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 Constraints

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 Constraints

Constraints enforce rules at the Table level

NOT NULL value must exist

UNIQUE no duplicates
PRIMARY KEY NOT NULL & UNIQUE
FOREIGN KEY relationship between two
columns
CHECK condition must be true

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 Defining Constraint
CREATE TABLE student1
(sno number(2) CONSTRAINT s_sno_pk PRIMARY KEY,
sname varchar2(15) NOT NULL,
dob date UNIQUE, SYS_Cnnnnnn
age number(2) CHECK (age < 25),
tno number(2),
CONSTRAINT st_te_fk FOREIGN KEY (tno)
REFERENCES teach(tno) ON DELETE CASCADE
);

ON DELETE CASCADE Deletes the dependent rows in the child

table when a row in parent table is deleted

ON DELETE SET NULL

Converts dependent foreign key values to null

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 Constraints

ALTER TABLE teach

ADD CONSTRAINT emp_mgr_uk UNIQUE (tname);

ALTER TABLE teach

DROP CONSTRAINT emp_mgr_uk;

ALTER TABLE teach

DISABLE CONSTRAINT emp_mgr_uk;

ALTER TABLE teach user_constraints

ENABLE CONSTRAINT emp_mgr_uk; user_cons_columns

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Manipulating Data

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SQL Statements

SELECT Data retrieval

INSERT DML Data Manipulation Language
UPDATE
DELETE
MERGE
CREATE DDL Data Definition Language
ALTER
DROP
RENAME
TRUNCATE
COMMIT Transaction Control
ROLLBACK
SAVEPOINT
GRANT DCL Data Control Language
REVOKE

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 Data Manipulation Language

A DML statement is executed when

 Add new rows to a table.
 Modify existing rows in a table.
 Remove existing rows from a table.

The INSERT statement

Add new rows to a table by using the INSERT statement

INSERT INTO table [(column [, column…])]

VALUES (value [, value…]);

 Only one row is inserted at a time with this syntax

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 Inserting New Rows

INSERT INTO dept(deptno,

department_name, manager_id, locid)
VALUES (9, ‘Database Admin’, 100, 1700);

INSERT INTO dept

VALUES (9, ‘Database Admin’,100,1700);

INSERT INTO dept(deptno,

locid)
VALUES (9, 1700);

INSERT INTO dept(deptno,

department_name, manager_id, locid)
VALUES (9, USER , null ,’’);

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 Inserting New Rows

INSERT INTO emp

VALUES (18,’Reyarndo’,’DeCarl’,’RDECARL’, ‘515.17.61’,
TO_DATE(‘FEB 3, 2005’,’MON DD, YYYY’), ‘DBA’, 11000,
NULL, 100, 30);

Copying Rows from Another Table

INSERT INTO empp
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job_id LIKE ‘%REP%’;

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 The UPDATE statement
Modify existing rows with the UPDATE statement

UPDATE table
SET column = value [, column = value,…]
[WHERE condition];

 Update more than one row at a time, if required

UPDATE emp
SET deptno = 70
WHERE employee_id = 113;

 Updates all rows, if WHERE clause is omitted

UPDATE empp
SET deptno = 70;

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 The UPDATE statement

UPDATE emp
SET job_id = (SELECT job_id FROM emp
WHERE employee_id = 205),

salary = (SELECT sal FROM emp

WHERE eid = 200)

WHERE employee_id = 114;

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 The DELETE statement
Remove existing rows with the DELETE statement
DELETE [FROM] table
[WHERE condition];

 Delete more than one row at a time, if required

DELETE FROM dept

WHERE department_name = ‘Finance’;

DELETE FROM empp;

DELETE emp
WHERE deptno = (SELECT deptno
FROM dept
WHERE department_name
LIKE ‘%Public%’);

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 The MERGE statement
Insert or Update rows in the COPY_EMP table to match the emp
table.

MERGE INTO copy_emp c

USING emp e
ON (c.employee_id = e.employee_id)
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE SET
c.first_name = e.first_name,
... ...
[Link] = [Link]
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT VALUES (e.employee_id, e.first_name, ...
[Link]);

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 Transaction

Transaction consists of the collection of DML statements that form a

logical unit of work

 DML statements which constitute one consistent change to the data.

 One DDL statement
 One DCL statement

 Begin when the first DML statement is executed

 End with one of the following events :
- A COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement is issued
- A DDL or DCL statement executed
- The user exits SQL*Plus / Worksheet

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 Controlling Transactions

COMMIT
Transaction
DELETE
SAVEPOINT A
INSERT

UPDATE
SAVEPOINT B
INSERT

ROLLBACK TO ROLLBACK TO ROLLBACK

SAVEPOINT B SAVEPOINT A

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 Summary

INSERT DML Data Manipulation Language

UPDATE
DELETE
MERGE
COMMIT Transaction Control
ROLLBACK
SAVEPOINT

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 Writing Basic SQL
SELECT Statements

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 Basic SELECT Statement

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column_name|expression

[ alias],…}
FROM table_name;
SELECT identifies what column(s)
FROM identifies which table

Selecting All Columns

SELECT *
FROM dept;

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 Selecting Specific Columns

SELECT deptno, locid

FROM dept;

Writing SQL Statements

 SQL Statements are not case sensitive.

 SQL statements can be on one or more lines.
 Key words cannot be abbreviated or split across lines.
 Clauses are usually placed on separate lines.

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 Arithmetic Expressions

Create expressions with number and date data by using arithmetic

operators.

SELECT last_name, salary, salary+300

FROM emp;

Operator Precedence

SELECT last_name,salary,12*salary+300,12+salary*300

FROM emp;
Override the rule by using
Parentheses 12*(salary+300)

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 Defining a Null Value
 A NULL is a value that is unavailable, unassigned, unknown,
or inapplicable.
 A null is not the same as zero or a blank space.
 Arithmetic expressions containing a null value evaluate to null.

ENO ENAME SALARY COMM COMM+1 DNO

100 King 24000 .3 1.3 90
101 Kochhar 17000 90
102 Ernst 6000 60
103 Rajs 3500 50
104 Abel 11000 .5 1.5 80
105 Grant 7000 .15 1.15 40
106 Gietz 8300 110

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 Defining a Column Alias

 Renames a column heading.

 Is useful with calculations.
 Immediately follows the column name, AS keyword can be
optional between the column name and alias.
 Requires double quotation marks if it contains spaces or
special characters or is case sensitive.

SELECT last_name AS name, commission_pct comm

FROM emp;

SELECT last_name AS “Name”, salary*12 “Annual Salary”

FROM emp;

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 Concatenation Operator

 Concatenates columns or character strings to other columns.

 Is represented by two vertical bars ||

SELECT last_name||job_id AS “emp”

FROM emp;

 Date and character literal values must be enclosed within

single quotation marks.

 Each character string is output once for each row returned.

SELECT last_name||’ is a ‘||job_id AS “emp”

FROM emp;

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 Duplicate Rows
 The default display of queries is all rows, including duplicate rows

SELECT deptno
FROM emp;

 Eliminate duplicate rows by using the DISTINCT or UNIQUE

keyword in the SELECT clause. You cannot specify
SELECT DISTINCT deptno DISTINCT if the
select_list contains
FROM emp;
LOB columns.

Display Table Structure

DESC[RIBE] tablename;

DESCRIBE emp; DESC emp;

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 Summary

SELECT statement
- Returns all rows and columns from a table
- Returns specified columns from a table
- Uses column aliases to give descriptive column headings

To write, save, execute the SQL statements

use the i*SQLPlus environment, SQL WorkSheet.

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [ alias],…}

FROM table;

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Restricting and Sorting Data

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 Limiting Rows using a Selection

The WHERE clause follows the FROM clause

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [ alias],…}

FROM table
[ WHERE condition(s) ];

 “… retrieve all emp in department 90 .”

SELECT employee_id, last_name, deptno

FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 90;

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 Character Strings and Dates

 Character strings and date values are enclosed in single

quotation marks.
 Character values are case sensitive, and
Date values are format sensitive.
 The default date format is DD-MON-YY / DD-MON-YYYY.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, deptno

FROM emp
WHERE last_name = ‘Adam’;

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 Comparison Conditions

 Used in conditions that compare one expression to another

value or expression.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, deptno

FROM emp
WHERE last_name = ‘Adam’;

WHERE hire_date = ’01-Jan-95’ ;

WHERE salary >= 6000 ;
WHERE deptno <> 80 ; != ^=

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 BETWEEN Condition
 Use the BETWEEN condition to display rows based on a
range of values.
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary
FROM emp
WHERE salary BETWEEN 2500 AND 3500 ;

Lower limit Upper limit

IN Condition
 Use the IN membership condition to test for values in a list.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, manager_id

FROM emp
WHERE manager_id IN (100, 101, 201) ;

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 LIKE Condition
 LIKE condition to perform wildcard searches of valid search
string values.
 Can contain either literal character or numbers
% denotes zero or many characters.
_ denotes any single character.

SELECT employee_id, last_name

FROM emp
WHERE last_name LIKE ‘S%’;

 Use the ESCAPE identifier to search for the

actual % and _ symbols
SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id
FROM emp
WHERE job_id LIKE ‘SA\_%’ ESCAPE ‘\’;

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 Using the NULL Conditions

 Test for nulls with the IS NULL operator.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, manager_id

FROM emp
WHERE manager_id IS NULL;

Logical Conditions
AND Returns TRUE if both component conditions are true

OR Returns TRUE if either component condition are true

NOT Returns TRUE if the following condition is false

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 Using the AND Operator

 AND requires both conditions to be true.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary

FROM emp
WHERE salary >= 10000
AND job_id LIKE ‘%MAN%’;

Using the OR Operator

 OR requires either condition to be true.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary

FROM emp
WHERE salary >= 10000
OR job_id LIKE ‘%MAN%’;

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 Using the NOT Operator
SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id
FROM emp
WHERE job_id NOT IN (‘IT_PROG’, ‘ST_CLERK’);

Rules of Precedence
1 Arithmetic operators
2 Concatenation operators
3 Comparison Conditions
4 IS [NOT] NULL, LIKE, [NOT] IN
5 [NOT] BETWEEN
6 NOT logical condition
7 AND logical condition
8 OR logical condition
Override rules of precedence by using parentheses
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 Rule of Precedence

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary

FROM emp
WHERE job_id = ‘SA_REP’
OR job_id = ‘AD_PRES’
AND salary > 15000;

Select the row if an employee is AD_PRES and earns more than 15000,
or if the employee is a SA_REP

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary

FROM emp
WHERE (job_id = ‘SA_REP’
OR job_id = ‘AD_PRES’)
AND salary > 15000;

Select the row if an employee is AD_PRES or SA_REP , and if the

employee earns more than 15000.

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 ORDER BY Clause

 Sort rows with the ORDER BY clause

- ASC ascending order, default

- DESC descending order
 The ORDER BY clause comes last in the SELECT statement

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary

FROM emp
ORDER BY hire_date;

ORDER BY salary DESC ;

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 Sorting by Column Alias
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary*12 annsal
FROM emp
ORDER BY annsal ;

Sorting by Column position

SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary*12 annsal
FROM emp
ORDER BY 3 ;

Sorting by Multiple Columns

SELECT last_name, deptno, salary
FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno, salary DESC ;

 You can sort by a column that is not in the SELECT list

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 Summary

 Use WHERE clause to restrict rows of output

- Use the comparison conditions
- Use the BETWEEN, IN, LIKE, and NULL conditions
- Apply the logical AND, OR, and NOT operators

 Use the ORDER BY clause to sort rows of output

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [ alias],…}

FROM table
[ WHERE condition(s) ]
[ORDER BY {column, expr, alias} [ASC|DESC]];

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Single-Row Functions

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 Single-Row Functions

 Manipulate data items

 Accepts arguments and returns one value
 Act on each row returned
 Return one result per row
 Displays the input/output requested data format
 Can be nested
 Accept arguments which can be a column or an expression

function_name [(arg1, arg2,…)];

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 Character Functions

 Case-manipulation functions
LOWER(‘Hello Bangalore’) hello bangalore
UPPER(‘Hello Bangalore’) HELLO BANGALORE
INITCAP(‘HeLlo BangAlore’) Hello Bangalore

SELECT employee_id, last_name, deptno

FROM emp
WHERE lower(last_name) = ‘abel’;

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 Character Functions
 Character - manipulation functions
CONCAT(‘Hello’, ’World’) HelloWorld
SUBSTR(‘HelloWorld,1,5) Hello
LENGTH(‘HelloWorld’) 10
INSTR(‘HelloWorld’,’o’) 5
LPAD(salary,10,’*’) *****24000
RPAD(salary,8,’#’) 9900####
WHERE SOUNDEX(city) = SOUNDEX(‘Sidny’)
RTRIM(’AMERICA, ‘A’) AMERIC
LTRIM(’AMERICA, ‘A’) MERICA
TRIM(‘H’ FROM ’HelloWorld’) elloWorld
TRIM(‘A’ FROM ’AMERICA’) MERIC
TRANSLATE
REPLACE
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 Number Functions
ABS(-6) 6
ABS(6) 6
CEIL(1.4) 2
FLOOR(1.6) 1
SIGN(-25) -1
SIGN(25) 1
SQRT(36) 6
VSIZE(city) – The storage size in bytes

For any datatype :

GREATEST(10,45,100,1) 100
LEAST(10,45,100,1) 1

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 Number Functions

 ROUND : Rounds value to specified decimal

SELECT ROUND(45.923,2),ROUND(45.923,0),ROUND(45.923,-1)
FROM DUAL;
45.92 46 50

DUAL is a dummy table you can use to view results from functions and calculations

 TRUNC : Truncates value to specified decimal

SELECT TRUNC(45.923,2),TRUNC(45.923),TRUNC(45.923,-2)
FROM DUAL;
45.92 45 0
 MOD : Returns remainder of division
SELECT MOD(10,3), MOD(10,7)
1 3
FROM DUAL;

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