Chapter 6

Preview
• Lesson Starter
• Objectives
• Chemical Bond
 Section 1 Introduction to
Chapter 6 Chemical Bonding

Lesson Starter
• Imagine getting onto a crowded elevator. As people
squeeze into the confined space, they come in
contact with each other. Many people will experience
a sense of being too close together.

• When atoms get close enough, their outer electrons

repel each other. At the same time, however, each
atom’s outer electrons are strongly attracted to the
nuclei of the surrounding atoms.

• The degree to which these outer electrons are

attracted to other atoms determines the kind of
chemical bonding that occurs between the atoms.
 Section 1 Introduction to
Chapter 6 Chemical Bonding

Objectives

• Define chemical bond.

• Explain why most atoms form chemical bonds.

• Describe ionic and covalent bonding.

• Explain why most chemical bonding is neither purely

ionic nor purely covalent.

• Classify bonding type according to

electronegativity differences.
 Section 1 Introduction to
Chapter 6 Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bond

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 1 Introduction to
Chapter 6 Chemical Bonding

Ionic Bonding

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 1 Introduction to
Chapter 6 Chemical Bonding

Covalent Bonding

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 1 Introduction to
Chapter 6 Chemical Bonding

Using Electronegativity Difference to Classify

Bonding
Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 1 Introduction to
Chapter 6 Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bonding, continued

Sample Problem A
Use electronegativity values listed in Figure 20 from the
previous chapter in your book, on page 161, and Figure
2 in your book, on page 176, to classify bonding between
sulfur, S, and the following elements: hydrogen, H;
cesium, Cs; and chlorine, Cl. In each pair, which atom
will be more negative?
 Section 1 Introduction to
Chapter 6 Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bonding, continued

Sample Problem A Solution
The electronegativity of sulfur is 2.5. The
electronegativities of hydrogen, cesium, and chlorine are
2.1, 0.7, and 3.0, respectively. In each pair, the atom with
the larger electronegativity will be the more-negative
atom.
Bonding between Electroneg. More-neg-
sulfur and difference Bond type ative atom
hydrogen 2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4 polar-covalent sulfur
cesium 2.5 – 0.7 = 1.8 ionic sulfur
chlorine 3.0 – 2.5 = 0.5 polar-covalent chlorine
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Preview
• Objectives
• Molecular Compounds
• Formation of a Covalent Bond
• Characteristics of the Covalent Bond
• The Octet Rule
• Electron-Dot Notation
• Lewis Structures
• Multiple Covalent Bonds
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Objectives

• Define molecule and molecular formula.

• Explain the relationships among potential energy,

distance between approaching atoms, bond length,
and bond energy.

• State the octet rule.

 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Objectives, continued

• List the six basic steps used in writing

Lewis structures.

• Explain how to determine Lewis structures for

molecules containing single bonds, multiple bonds,
or both.

• Explain why scientists use resonance structures to

represent some molecules.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Molecular Compounds

• A molecule is a neutral group of atoms that are held

together by covalent bonds.

• A chemical compound whose simplest units are

molecules is called a molecular compound.
 Visual Concepts
Chapter 6

Molecule
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Molecular Compounds
• The composition of a compound is given by its
chemical formula.

• A chemical formula indicates the relative numbers of

atoms of each kind in a chemical compound by using
atomic symbols and numerical subscripts.

• A molecular formula shows the types and numbers

of atoms combined in a single molecule of a molecular
compound.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Chemical Formula

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Structure of a Water Molecule

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Visual Concepts
Chapter 6
Comparing Monatomic, Diatomic, and
Polyatomic Molecules
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Formation of a Covalent Bond

• Most atoms have lower potential energy when they
are bonded to other atoms than they have as they are
independent particles.

• The figure below shows potential energy changes

during the formation of a hydrogen-hydrogen bond.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Formation of a Covalent Bond

• The electron of one atom
and proton of the other
atom attract one another.

• The two nuclei and two

electrons repel each other.

• These two forces cancel out

to form a covalent bond at a
length where the potential
energy is at a minimum.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Formation of a Covalent Bond

 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Characteristics of the Covalent Bond

• The distance between two bonded atoms at their
minimum potential energy (the average distance
between two bonded atoms) is the bond length.

• In forming a covalent bond, the hydrogen atoms

release energy. The same amount of energy must be
added to separate the bonded atoms.

• Bond energy is the energy required to break a

chemical bond and form neutral isolated atoms.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Bond Energy

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Bond Length and Stability

 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths for Single

Bonds
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Characteristics of the Covalent Bond

• When two atoms form a
covalent bond, their
shared electrons form
overlapping orbitals.

• This achieves a noble-

gas configuration.

• The bonding of two

hydrogen atoms allows
each atom to have the
stable electron
configuration of helium,
1s2.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

The Octet Rule

• Noble gas atoms are unreactive because their
electron configurations are especially stable.

• This stability results from the fact that the noble-gas

atoms’ outer s and p orbitals are completely filled by a
total of eight electrons.

• Other atoms can fill their outermost s and p orbitals

by sharing electrons through covalent bonding.

• Such bond formation follows the octet rule:

Chemical compounds tend to form so that each
atom, by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons, has
an octet of electrons in its highest energy level.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

The Octet Rule

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

The Octet Rule, continued

Exceptions to the Octet Rule
• Exceptions to the octet rule include those for atoms that
cannot fit eight electrons, and for those that can fit more than
eight electrons, into their outermost orbital.

• Hydrogen forms bonds in which it is surrounded by only

two electrons.

• Boron has just three valence electrons, so it tends to

form bonds in which it is surrounded by six electrons.

• Main-group elements in Periods 3 and up can form

bonds with expanded valence, involving more than eight
electrons.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Electron-Dot Notation
• To keep track of valence
electrons, it is helpful to use
electron-dot notation.

• Electron-dot notation is an
electron-configuration
notation in which only the
valence electrons of an atom
of a particular element are
shown, indicated by dots
placed around the element’s
symbol. The inner-shell
electrons are not shown.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Electron-Dot Notation

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Electron-Dot Notation, continued

Sample Problem B
a. Write the electron-dot notation for hydrogen.
b. Write the electron-dot notation for nitrogen.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Electron-Dot Notation, continued

Sample Problem B Solution
a. A hydrogen atom has only one occupied energy level,
the n = 1 level, which contains a single electron.

H
b. The group notation for nitrogen’s family of elements is
ns2np3.
Nitrogen has five valence electrons.

N
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Lewis Structures
• Electron-dot notation can also be used to represent
molecules.
HH
• The pair of dots between the two symbols represents
the shared electron pair of the hydrogen-hydrogen
covalent bond.

• For a molecule of fluorine, F2, the electron-dot

notations of two fluorine atoms are combined.
FF
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Lewis Structures
• The pair of dots between the two symbols represents
the shared pair of a covalent bond.
F F
• In addition, each fluorine atom is surrounded by three
pairs of electrons that are not shared in bonds.

F F
• An unshared pair, also called a lone pair, is a pair of
electrons that is not involved in bonding and that
belongs exclusively to one atom.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Lewis Structures

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Lewis Structures

• The pair of dots representing a shared pair of

electrons in a covalent bond is often replaced by a
long dash.

• example:
H H F F

• A structural formula indicates the kind, number, and

arrangement, and bonds but not the unshared pairs of
the atoms in a molecule.

• example: F–F H–Cl

 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Lewis Structures
• The Lewis structures and the structural formulas for
many molecules can be drawn if one knows the
composition of the molecule and which atoms are
bonded to each other.

• A single covalent bond, or single bond, is a covalent

bond in which one pair of electrons is shared between
two atoms.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Lewis Structures, continued

Sample Problem C
Draw the Lewis structure of iodomethane, CH3I.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Lewis Structures, continued

Sample Problem C Solution
1. Determine the type and number of atoms in the molecule.
The formula shows one carbon atom, one iodine atom, and three
hydrogen atoms.

2. Write the electron-dot notation for each type of atom in the

molecule.
Carbon is from Group 14 and has four valence electrons.
Iodine is from Group 17 and has seven valence electrons.
Hydrogen has one valence electron.

C I H
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Lewis Structures, continued

Sample Problem C Solution, continued
3. Determine the total number of valence electrons
available in the atoms to be combined.

C 1 × 4e– = 4e–
I 1 × 7e– = 7e–
3H 3 × 1e– = 3e–
14e–
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Lewis Structures, continued

Sample Problem C Solution, continued
4. If carbon is present, it is the central atom. Otherwise, the least-
electronegative atom is central. Hydrogen, is never central.
H
HC I
H
5. Add unshared pairs of electrons to each nonmetal atom (except
hydrogen) such that each is surrounded by eight electrons.

H H
HC I or H C I
H H
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Multiple Covalent Bonds

• A double covalent bond, or simply a double bond, is a

covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are
shared between two atoms.

• Double bonds are often found in molecules

containing carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.

• A double bond is shown either by two side-by-side

pairs of dots or by two parallel dashes.
H H H H
C C or C C
H H H H
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Multiple Covalent Bonds

• A triple covalent bond, or simply a triple bond, is a

covalent bond in which three pairs of electrons are
shared between two atoms.

• example 1—diatomic nitrogen:

N N or N N
• example 2—ethyne, C2H2:

H C C H or H C C H
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Comparing Single, Double, and Triple Bonds

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Multiple Covalent Bonds

• Double and triple bonds are referred to as multiple

bonds, or multiple covalent bonds.

• In general, double bonds have greater bond energies and

are shorter than single bonds.

• Triple bonds are even stronger and shorter than

double bonds.

• When writing Lewis structures for molecules that

contain carbon, nitrogen, or oxygen, remember that
multiple bonds between pairs of these atoms
are possible.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Drawing Lewis Structures with Many Atoms

 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Drawing Lewis Structures with Many Atoms

 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Multiple Covalent Bonds, continued

Sample Problem D
Draw the Lewis structure for methanal, CH2O, which is
also known as formaldehyde.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Multiple Covalent Bonds, continued

Sample Problem D Solution
1. Determine the number of atoms of each element present in
the molecule.
The formula shows one carbon atom, two hydrogen atoms, and
one oxygen atom.

2. Write the electron-dot notation for each type of atom.

Carbon is from Group 14 and has four valence electrons.
Oxygen, which is in Group 16, has six valence electrons.
Hydrogen has only one valence electron.

C O H
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Multiple Covalent Bonds, continued

Sample Problem D Solution, continued
3. Determine the total number of valence electrons
available in the atoms to be combined.

C 1 × 4e– = 4e–
O 1 × 6e– = 6e–
2H 2 × 1e– = 2e–
12e–
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Multiple Covalent Bonds, continued

Sample Problem D Solution, continued
4. Arrange the atoms to form a skeleton structure for the
molecule. Connect the atoms by electron-pair bonds.
H
HC O
5. Add unshared pairs of electrons to each nonmetal
atom (except hydrogen) such that each is surrounded
by eight electrons.
H
H CO
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Multiple Covalent Bonds, continued

Sample Problem D Solution, continued
[Link] the electrons in the Lewis structure to be sure
that the number of valence electrons used equals the
number available.
The structure has 14 electrons. The structure has two
valence electrons too many.

[Link] one or more lone pairs until the total number

of valence electrons is correct.
Move one or more lone electron pairs to existing bonds
until the outer shells of all atoms are completely filled.
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Multiple Covalent Bonds, continued

Sample Problem D Solution, continued
Subtract the lone pair of electrons from the carbon
atom. Move one lone pair of electrons from the
oxygen to the bond between carbon and oxygen to
form a double bond.

H H
HC O or H C O
 Section 2 Covalent Bonding and
Chapter 6 Molecular Compounds

Atomic Resonance

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Preview
• Objectives
• Ionic Compounds
• Formation of Ionic Compounds
• A Comparison of Ionic and Molecular Compounds
• Polyatomic Ions
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Objectives
• Compare a chemical formula for a molecular
compounds with one for an ionic compound.

• Discuss the arrangements of ions in crystals.

• Define lattice energy and explain its significance.

• List and compare the distinctive properties of ionic

and molecular compounds.

• Write the Lewis structure for a polyatomic ion given

the identity of the atoms combined and other
appropriate information.
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Ionic Compounds
• Most of the rocks and minerals that make up Earth’s
crust consist of positive and negative ions held
together by ionic bonding.

• example: table salt, NaCl, consists of sodium and

chloride ions combined in a one-to-one ratio—
Na+Cl–—so that each positive charge is balanced
by a negative charge.

• An ionic compound is composed of positive and

negative ions that are combined so that the numbers
of positive and negative charges are equal.
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Ionic Compounds
• Most ionic compounds exist as crystalline solids.

• A crystal of any ionic compound is a three-

dimensional network of positive and negative ions
mutually attracted to each other.

• In contrast to a molecular compound, an ionic

compound is not composed of independent, neutral
units that can be isolated.
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Ionic Compounds, continued

• The chemical formula of an ionic compound

represents not molecules, but the simplest ratio of
the compound’s ions.

• A formula unit is the simplest collection of atoms

from which an ionic compound’s formula can be
established.
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Ionic Vs. Covalent Bonding

 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Formation of Ionic Compounds

Na Cl
Sodium atom Chlorine atom
• The sodium atom has two valence electrons and the
chlorine atom has seven valence electrons.

• Atoms of sodium and other alkali metals easily lose

one electron to form cations.

• Atoms of chlorine and other halogens easily gain one

electron to form anions. + -
Na + Cl Na + Cl
Sodium atom Chlorine atom Sodium cation Chloride anion
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Formation of Ionic Compounds, continued

• In an ionic crystal, ions minimize their potential energy
by combining in an orderly arrangement known as a
crystal lattice.

• Attractive forces exist between oppositely charged ions within

the lattice.

• Repulsive forces exist between like-charged ions within

the lattice.

• The combined attractive and repulsive forces within a

crystal lattice determine:

• the distances between ions

• the pattern of the ions’ arrangement in the crystal

 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Characteristics of Ion Bonding in a Crystal

Lattice
Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

NaCl and CsCl Crystal Lattices

 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Lattice Energy

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

A Comparison of Ionic and Molecular

Compounds
• The force that holds ions together in an ionic
compound is a very strong electrostatic attraction.

• In contrast, the forces of attraction between

molecules of a covalent compound are much weaker.

• This difference in the strength of attraction between

the basic units of molecular and ionic compounds
gives rise to different properties between the two
types of compounds.
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

A Comparison of Ionic and Molecular

Compounds, continued
• Molecular compounds have relatively weak forces
between individual molecules.
• They melt at low temperatures.

• The strong attraction between ions in an ionic

compound gives ionic compounds some
characteristic properties, listed below.

• very high melting points

• hard but brittle

• not electrical conductors in the solid state,

because the ions cannot move
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Melting and Boiling Points of Compounds

 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

How to Identify a Compound as Ionic

 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

How to Identify a Compound as Ionic

 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Comparing Ionic and Molecular Compounds

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Polyatomic Ions

• Certain atoms bond covalently with each other to form

a group of atoms that has both molecular and ionic
characteristics.

• A charged group of covalently bonded atoms is known

as a polyatomic ion.

• Like other ions, polyatomic ions have a charge that

results from either a shortage or excess of electrons.
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Polyatomic Ions

• An example of a polyatomic ion is the ammonium

ion: NH+4 . It is sometimes written as [NH4 ]+ to show
that the group of atoms as a whole has a charge of
1+.
• The charge of the ammonium ion is determined
as follows:

• The seven protons in the nitrogen atom plus the

four protons in the four hydrogen atoms give the
ammonium ion a total positive charge of 11+.
 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Polyatomic Ions, continued

• The charge of the ammonium ion is determined

as follows, continued:

• When nitrogen and hydrogen atoms combine to

form an ammonium ion, one of their electrons is
lost, giving the polyatomic ion a total negative
charge of 10–.

• The total charge is therefore (11+) + (10–) = 1+.

 Section 3 Ionic Bonding and
Chapter 6 Ionic Compounds

Polyatomic Ions, continued

• Some examples of Lewis structures of polyatomic

ions are shown below.

+ 2
H O O
HNH N O OS O
H O O
Ammonium ion Nitrate ion Sulfate ion
 Visual Concepts
Chapter 6

Comparing Monatomic, Polyatomic, and

Diatomic Structures
 Section 4 Metallic Bonding
Chapter 6

Preview
• Objectives
• Metallic Bonding
• The Metallic-Bond Model
 Section 4 Metallic Bonding
Chapter 6

Objectives

• Describe the electron-sea model of metallic bonding,

and explain why metals are good electrical
conductors.

• Explain why metal surfaces are shiny.

• Explain why metals are malleable and ductile but

ionic-crystalline compound are not.
 Section 4 Metallic Bonding
Chapter 6

Metallic Bonding
• Chemical bonding is different in metals than it is in
ionic, molecular, or covalent-network compounds.

• The unique characteristics of metallic bonding gives

metals their characteristic properties, listed below.

• electrical conductivity

• thermal conductivity

• malleability

• ductility
 Section 4 Metallic Bonding
Chapter 6

Metallic Bonding, continued

• Malleability is the ability of a substance to be

hammered or beaten into thin sheets.

• Ductility is the ability of a substance to be drawn,

pulled, or extruded through a small opening to
produce a wire.
 Section 4 Metallic Bonding
Chapter 6
Properties of Substances with Metallic, Ionic,
and Covalent Bonds
 Section 4 Metallic Bonding
Chapter 6

The Metallic-Bond Model

• In a metal, the vacant orbitals in the atoms’ outer
energy levels overlap.

• This overlapping of orbitals allows the outer electrons of

the atoms to roam freely throughout the entire metal.

• The electrons are delocalized, which means that they

do not belong to any one atom but move freely about
the metal’s network of empty atomic orbitals.

• These mobile electrons form a sea of electrons around

the metal atoms, which are packed together in a crystal
lattice.
 Section 4 Metallic Bonding
Chapter 6

The Metallic-Bond Model, continued

• The chemical bonding that results from the attraction

between metal atoms and the surrounding sea of
electrons is called metallic bonding.
 Section 4 Metallic Bonding
Chapter 6

Metallic Bonding

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 4 Metallic Bonding
Chapter 6

Properties of Metals: Electrical and Thermal

Conductivity
Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Preview
• Objectives
• Molecular Geometry
• VSEPR Theory
• Hybridization
• Intermolecular Forces
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Objectives

• Explain VSEPR theory.

• Predict the shapes of molecules or polyatomic ions

using VSEPR theory.

• Explain how the shapes of molecules are accounted

for by hybridization theory.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Objectives, continued

• Describe dipole-dipole forces, hydrogen bonding,

induced dipoles, and London dispersion forces and
their effects on properties such as boiling and
melting points.

• Explain the shapes of molecules or polyatomic ions

using VSEPR theory.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Molecular Geometry
• The properties of molecules depend not only on the bonding
of atoms but also on molecular geometry: the three-
dimensional arrangement of a molecule’s atoms.

• The polarity of each bond, along with the geometry of the

molecule, determines molecular polarity, or the uneven
distribution of molecular shape.

• Molecular polarity strongly influences the forces that act

between molecules in liquids and solids.

• A chemical formula, by itself, reveals little information about

a molecule’s geometry.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory
• As shown at right, diatomic
molecules, like those of
(a) hydrogen, H2, and
(b) hydrogen chloride, HCl,
can only be linear because
they consist of only two
atoms.
• To predict the geometries of more-complicated
molecules, one must consider the locations of all
electron pairs surrounding the bonding atoms. This
is the basis of VSEPR theory.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory
• The abbreviation VSEPR (say it “VES-pur”) stands for
“valence-shell electron-pair repulsion.”

• VSEPR theory states that repulsion between the sets of

valence-level electrons surrounding an atom causes
these sets to be oriented as far apart as possible.

• example: BeF2
• The central beryllium atom is surrounded by only the two
electron pairs it shares with the fluorine atoms.

• According to VSEPR, the shared pairs will be as far away from

each other as possible, so the bonds to fluorine will be 180°
apart from each other. F Be F
• The molecule will therefore be linear:
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory
• Representing the central atom in a molecule by A and
the atoms bonded to the central atom by B, then
according to VSEPR theory, BeF2 is an example of an
AB2 molecule, which is linear.

• In an AB3 molecule, the three A–B bonds stay farthest

apart by pointing to the corners of an equilateral
triangle, giving 120° angles between the bonds.

• In an AB4 molecule, the distance between electron

pairs is maximized if each A–B bond points to one of
four corners of a tetrahedron.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

Sample Problem E
Use VSEPR theory to predict the molecular geometry of
boron trichloride, BCl3.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

Sample Problem E Solution
First write the Lewis structure for BCl3.
Boron is in Group 13 and has three valence electrons.
B

Chlorine is in Group 17, so each chlorine atom has

seven valence electrons.

Cl
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

Sample Problem E Solution, continued
The total number of electrons is calculated as
shown below.
B 1 × 3e– = 3e–
3Cl 3 × 7e– = 21e–
24e–
The following Lewis structure uses all 24 electrons.

Cl
Cl B Cl
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

Sample Problem E Solution, continued

Cl
B
Cl Cl
Boron trichloride is an AB3 type of molecule.

Its geometry should therefore be trigonal-planar.

 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

• VSEPR theory can also account for the geometries of
molecules with unshared electron pairs.
• examples: ammonia, NH3, and water, H2O.

• The Lewis structure of ammonia shows that the

central nitrogen atom has an unshared electron pair:
HNH
H
• VSEPR theory postulates that the lone pair occupies
space around the nitrogen atom just as the bonding
pairs do.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

• Taking into account its unshared electron pair, NH3
takes a tetrahedral shape, as in an AB4 molecule.

• The shape of a molecule refers to the positions of

atoms only.

• The geometry of an ammonia molecule is that of a

pyramid with a triangular base.

• H2O has two unshared pairs, and its molecular

geometry takes the shape of a “bent,” or angular,
molecule.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

• Unshared electron pairs repel other electron pairs

more strongly than bonding pairs do.

• This is why the bond angles in ammonia and water are

somewhat less than the 109.5° bond angles of a
perfectly tetrahedral molecule.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR and Lone Electron Pairs

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

• The same basic principles of VSEPR theory that have
been described can be used to determine the
geometry of several additional types of molecules,
such as AB2E, AB2E2, AB5, and AB6.

• Treat double and triple bonds the same way as

single bonds.

• Treat polyatomic ions similarly to molecules.

• The next slide shows several more examples of

molecular geometries determined by VSEPR
theory.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR and Molecular Geometry

 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR and Molecular Geometry

 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

Sample Problem F
a. Use VSEPR theory to predict the shape of a molecule
of carbon dioxide, CO2.
b. Use VSEPR theory to predict the shape of a chlorate ion,

. ClO 3
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

Sample Problem F Solution
a. Draw the Lewis structure of carbon dioxide.

O C O
There are two carbon-oxygen double bonds and no
unshared electron pairs on the carbon atom.
This is an AB2 molecule, which is
linear.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

VSEPR Theory, continued

Sample Problem F Solution, continued
b. Draw the Lewis structure of the chlorate ion.

Cl
O O O

There are three oxygen atoms bonded to the central

chlorine atom, which has an unshared electron pair.
This is an AB3E molecule, which is
trigonal-pyramidal.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Hybridization
• VSEPR theory is useful for predicting and explaining
the shapes of molecules.

• A step further must be taken to explain how the

orbitals of an atom are rearranged when the atom
forms covalent bonds.

• For this purpose, we use the model of hybridization,

which is the mixing of two or more atomic orbitals of
similar energies on the same atom to produce new
hybrid atomic orbitals of equal energies.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Hybridization
• Take the simple example of methane, CH4. The
carbon atom has four valence electrons, two in the 2s
orbital and two in 2p orbitals.
• Experiments have determined that a methane
molecule is tetrahedral. How does carbon form four
equivalent, tetrahedrally arranged, covalent bonds?

• Recall that s and p orbitals have different shapes. To achieve

four equivalent bonds, carbon’s 2s and three 2p orbitals
hybridize to form four new, identical orbitals called sp3
orbitals.

• The superscript 3 on the p indicates that there are three p

orbitals included in the hybridization. The superscript 1 on
the s is left out, like in a chemical formula.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Hybridization, continued
• The four (s + p + p + p) hybrid orbitals in the
sp3-hybridized methane molecule are equivalent: they
all have the same energy, which is greater than that of
the 2s orbital but less than that of the 2p orbitals.

• Hybrid orbitals are orbitals of equal energy produced

by the combination of two or more orbitals on the
same atom.

• Hybridization explains the bonding and geometry of

many molecules.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Geometry of
Hybrid
Orbitals
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Hybrid Orbitals

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Intermolecular Forces
• The forces of attraction between molecules are known
as intermolecular forces.

• The boiling point of a liquid is a good measure of the

intermolecular forces between its molecules: the higher the
boiling point, the stronger the forces between the molecules.

• Intermolecular forces vary in strength but are generally

weaker than bonds between atoms within molecules, ions in
ionic compounds, or metal atoms in solid metals.

• Boiling points for ionic compounds and metals tend to

be much higher than those for molecular substances:
forces between molecules are weaker than those
between metal atoms or ions.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Comparing Ionic and Molecular Substances

 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Intermolecular Forces, continued

• The strongest intermolecular forces exist between
polar molecules.

• Because of their uneven charge distribution, polar

molecules have dipoles. A dipole is created by equal
but opposite charges that are separated by a short
distance.

• The direction of a dipole is from the dipole’s positive

pole to its negative pole.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Intermolecular Forces, continued

• A dipole is represented by an arrow with its head

pointing toward the negative pole and a crossed tail at
the positive pole. The dipole created by a hydrogen
chloride molecule is indicated as follows:

H Cl
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Intermolecular Forces, continued

• The negative region in one polar molecule attracts the
positive region in adjacent molecules. So the
molecules all attract each other from opposite sides.

• Such forces of attraction between polar molecules are

known as dipole-dipole forces.

• Dipole-dipole forces act at short range, only between

nearby molecules.

• Dipole-dipole forces explain, for example the

difference between the boiling points of iodine
chloride, I–Cl (97°C), and bromine, Br–Br (59°C).
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Comparing Dipole-Dipole Forces

 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Dipole-Dipole Forces

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Intermolecular Forces, continued

• A polar molecule can induce a dipole in a nonpolar
molecule by temporarily attracting its electrons.

• The result is a short-range intermolecular force that is

somewhat weaker than the dipole-dipole force.

• Induced dipoles account for the fact that a nonpolar

molecule, oxygen, O2, is able to dissolve in water,
a polar molecule.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Dipole-Induced Dipole Interaction

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Intermolecular Forces, continued

• Some hydrogen-containing compounds have
unusually high boiling points. This is explained by a
particularly strong type of dipole-dipole force.

• In compounds containing H–F, H–O, or H–N bonds,

the large electronegativity differences between
hydrogen atoms and the atoms they are bonded to
make their bonds highly polar.

• This gives the hydrogen atom a positive charge that is

almost half as large as that of a bare proton.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Intermolecular Forces, continued

• The small size of the hydrogen atom allows the atom
to come very close to an unshared pair of electrons in
an adjacent molecule.

• The intermolecular force in which a hydrogen atom

that is bonded to a highly electronegative atom is
attracted to an unshared pair of electrons of an
electronegative atom in a nearby molecule is known
as hydrogen bonding.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Intermolecular Forces

• Hydrogen bonds are usually represented by dotted

lines connecting the hydrogen-bonded hydrogen to the
unshared electron pair of the electronegative
atom to which it is attracted.

• An excellent example of hydrogen bonding is that

which occurs between water molecules. The strong
hydrogen bonding between water molecules accounts
for many of water’s characteristic properties.
 Visual Concepts
Chapter 6

Hydrogen Bonding
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Intermolecular Forces, continued

London Dispersion Forces
• Even noble gas atoms and nonpolar molecules can
experience weak intermolecular attraction.

• In any atom or molecule—polar or nonpolar—the

electrons are in continuous motion.

• As a result, at any instant the electron distribution

may be uneven. A momentary uneven charge can
create a positive pole at one end of an atom of
molecule and a negative pole at the other.
 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

Intermolecular Forces, continued

London Dispersion Forces, continued
• This temporary dipole can then induce a dipole in an
adjacent atom or molecule. The two are held together
for an instant by the weak attraction between
temporary dipoles.

• The intermolecular attractions resulting from the

constant motion of electrons and the creation of
instantaneous dipoles are called London
dispersion forces.

• Fritz London first proposed their existence in 1930.

 Section 5 Molecular Geometry
Chapter 6

London Dispersion Force

Click below to watch the Visual Concept.

Visual Concept
End of Chapter 6 Show