CHAPTER I
Introduction to network analysis and synthesis
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1.1 Introduction-Network and Circuit
An electric network is any possible interconnection of electric circuit elements such as
resistors, inductors, capacitors, transmission lines, voltage sources, current sources,
and switches.
An electrical circuit is a network that has a closed loop, giving a return path for the
current.
All the circuits are networks, while a network is not necessarily a circuit.
Ex: T-network
The keywords in Network analysis and synthesis
[Link] (or) Causes
2. Network
3. Responses (or) Effects
Network analysis : Network analysis concerned with determining the response, given the
excitation and the network.
Network synthesis : The problem is to design the network given the excitation and the 2
response
1. 2 Signal Analysis
In electric networks the excitation and response are given in terms of voltages
and currents which are function of time t.
Electrical signals are described by time and frequency.
Between time and frequency the translation is effected by the Fourier series,
Fourier integral and Laplace transform.
Signal description in time and frequency
consider the sinusoidal signal expressed as:
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CONT.…
An equally complete description of signal is obtained if we let the angular frequency
ω to be independent variable. In this case the signal is described in terms of
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1.3 System
A system is a combination and interconnection of several components to perform a desired
task.
Basic Definitions:
1. Linear : A system (network ) is linear, if that holds the super position principle i.e.,
additivity and homogeneity (or scaling)
Additivity
Homogeneity
Super position e1(t), e2(t) Excitations
r1(t), r2(t) Responses
C1,C2 Constants
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2. Passive : A linear network is passive if :
The energy delivered to network is non negative for any arbitrary excitation.
No voltage or current appear between an two terminals before the excitation is applied.
3. Reciprocal
A network is said to be reciprocal if when the points of excitation and measurement of
response are interchanged. The relationship between excitation and response remain
the same.
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4. Causal
A system is said to be causal or non-anticipative if the output of the system at any time
depends only on values of the input at the present time and in the past. i.e., the system
output does not anticipate future values of the input.
if then
Example: y(t)=x(t)+x(t-1) ; y[n]=x[n]+x[n-1]
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5. Time invariant
A system is time-invariant, or fixed, if its input-output relationship does not change with
time.[if a time shift in the input signal results in an identical time shift in the output
signal].
i.e., r(t) is the output of the system when e(t) is the input, then r(t ± T) is the output when e(t
± T) is applied
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[Link]
If e(t) at the input give rise to r(t) at the output, then if the input where , the output would
be .
7. Some ideal models
a) Amplifier : An amplifier scales up the magnitude of the input, i.e., r(t)=K e(t),
where K is a constant
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b) Differentiator: The input signal is differentiated and possibly scaled up or down
c) Integrator
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d) Time delay
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i) Electrical Sources
There are 2 types of sources of electrical energy, the voltage source and the current
source
Ideal Ideal voltage source: Which
maintains a constant terminal
Voltage voltage regardless of the
value of the current through its
sources Non-ideal terminal
Non-ideal voltage source: In which
Current the voltage across the terminals of
Ideal the source
keeps falling as the current through
it increases. This can be explained
Non-ideal by connecting a internal resistance
in series with an ideal voltage source
Ideal current source: Which maintains a constant terminal current regardless of the
value of the voltage through its terminal
Non-ideal current source: In which the current across the terminals of the source
keeps falling as the voltage across it increases. This can be explained by connecting a
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internal resistance in parallel with an ideal current source
INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND
LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Reading Assignment
Solving ordinary linear differential equations
Laplace Transform
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Network Elements
A port is defined as any pair of two terminals into which energy is supplied or
withdrawn or where network variables may be measured or observed
Two-port Network
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ii) Resistor
Has no memory
Dissipate or absorb energy
Relationship between V and I
As function of time
As function of frequency
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iii) Inductor
Has memory / no memory
Store energy
Relationship between V and I
As function of time As function of frequency
Where the constants of integration i(0) and v(0) are initial conditions
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iv) Capacitor
Has memory / no memory
Store energy
Relationship between V and I
As function of time As function of frequency
Where the constants of integration i(0) and v(0) are initial conditions
When a network is made up of an interconnection of linear circuit element, the
network is described by its system or transfer function H(s).
In network analysis, we are given E(s), H(s). Our task is to determine R(s).
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CHAPTER 2 NETWORK ANALYSIS I
2.1. Initial and final conditions
2.2. Solution of network equations
2.3. Poles and zeros of rational functions
2.4. Partial fraction expansion
2.5. Transformed Networks
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2.1. INITIAL AND FINAL CONDITIONS
In the solution of network differential equations, the complementary
function is called transient solution or free response. The particular
integral is known as a forced response.
In the case of constant or periodic excitations the forced response at is
steady state or final solution.
There are two ways to obtain initial conditions:
i. through differential equations
ii. Through knowledge of physical behavior of R,L,C elements in the
network.
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INITIAL CONDITIONS FOR CAPACITOR
For a capacitor the voltage-current relationship at t=0+ is :
If i(t) doesn't contain impulse or derivatives of impulse . If q is a charge on the
capacitor at t=0-, the initial voltage is :
When there is no charge on the capacitor, We conclude that when there is no stored
energy on the capacitor its equivalent circuit at t=0+ is short circuit.
The final condition or steady state condition is obtained from the knowledge of dc
circuits. For a dc excitation a capacitor is an open circuit
Thus
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Initial conditions for an inductor
For an inductor the voltage current relationship at t=0+ is
If v(t) doesn’t contain impulses then .
If there is no initial current, which corresponds to an open circuit at t=0+.
An inductor is acting as a short circuit at steady state condition
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2.2. SOLUTION OF NETWORK EQUATIONS
Solution of network equation can be based on:
KCL, KVL , OHMS LAW, Laplace Transform , Fourier Transform
We can write a network equations in two different bases
1 mesh equations /loop equation
2 node equations
A mesh is the smallest size closed path which doesn’t contain any closed path
inside it
A mesh is loop , but a loop is not mesh.
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2.3. POLES AND ZEROS OF RATIONAL FUNCTION (LAPLACE DOMAIN)
A generalized network function can be written as
By factorizing each polynomial the above function can be written as
Where z1, z2… zn are n roots of the polynomial P(s) and p1, p2... pm are m roots of the
polynomial Q(s).
The roots of polynomial P(s) are called zeros whereas the roots of the polynomial Q(s)
are called poles.
In complex frequency domain, a zero is denoted by a small circle and a pole by a cross.
From the above equation, H(s) becomes zero when s is equal to any of the zeros and H(s)
becomes infinite when s is equal to any of the poles.
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When the degree of P(s) is greater than the degree of Q(s), then H(s) goes to infinite as s goes to
infinity; and hence, H(s) is said to have pole at infinity.
Similarly, when the degree of P(s) is less than the degree of Q(s), then H(s) goes to zero as s goes
to infinity; and hence, H(s) is said to have zero at infinity.
Poles and zeros at s = 0 and s =∞ are called external critical frequencies, and other poles and
zeros are called internal critical frequencies.
H(s) is said to have simple poles and zeros when the poles and zeros are not repetitive, otherwise
the network function may have multiple poles and zeros.
H(s) can have three types of critical frequencies (poles and
zeros)
1) Poles and zeros at s = 0 and s = ∞
2) Poles and zeros at real frequency (σ). These poles and zeros have the form of (s+σ1) during
factorization.
3) Poles and zeros at complex frequency (σ + jω). These poles and zeros have the form of (s -
σ1 - jω) during factorization. For network functions, these complex poles and zeros exist in
conjugates so that the product of these terms [(s - σ1 - jω) x (s - σ1 + jω)] gives the term (s2
- 2 σ1s+ σ21+ω2).
For poles and zeros on the jω –axis, σ is zero so that the above term is reduced to (s2+ω2)
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EXAMPLE 1 FIND THE POLES AND ZEROS OF THE FOLLOWING TRANSFER
FUNCTION AND LOT ON COMPLEX DOMAIN
Solution :
Zeros ->,
Poles ->
jω
j3
-3 -2
Exercise : Find the poles and zeros of a transfer function -j3
-jω
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2.4. PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION AND RESIDUES
Consider the general network function
When the denominator polynomial is factorized H(s) can be written as
Partial fraction expansion is done by breaking up H(s) in to sum of smaller functions each
containing a pole. The partial fraction expansion of H(s) is given as
Where, q(s) is the quotient polynomial found by long division.
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CASE 1 SIMPLE POLES
Simple pole is a first order pole
assuming the degree of p(s) is less than degree of Q(s), we use partial fraction expansion to
decompose H(s) in to
The expansion coefficients ,and are known as residues of H(s).
A, Residue method !
Generally
Example 1 : find the partial fraction expansion of
2 8 7
𝐹 ( 𝑠) = − +
𝑠 𝑠 +2 𝑠 +3
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Example 2 : Find the partial fraction expansion of the following admittance function
Solution :
ansion of Y(s) is
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CASE 2 REPEATED POLES
Suppose F(s) has n repeated poles at s=p. Then we may represent F(s)
Where F1(s) is the remaining part of F(s) that doesnt have a pole at s=-[Link] determine the
expansion coefficient kn as:
To determine , we multiply each term of F(s) by and deffirentiat to get rid of then
evaluate the result at s=-p.
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The term becomes
Example : Find the Partial fraction expansion of
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CASE 3 COMPLEX ROOTS
Case s=0
Example : Find the partial fraction
expansion of
Case s=1.
Solution
Exercises : Determine the FE of the
functions
Let s=0,1.
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2.5 Transformed Circuit component Representation
Ideal Sources:
The ideal sources v(t) and i(t) may be represented by their transformations
V(s)=L[v(t)]
I(s)=L[i(t)]
Resistance parameter:
By ohms law, the v-i relationship for a ressistor
v(t)=Ri(t)
In frequency domain
V(s)=RI(s)
Inductance parameter:
The v-i relationship for an inductor
Laplace Transform
Laplace Transform
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Capacitance parameter:
The v-i relationship for a capacitor
Laplace Transform
Laplace Transform
Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem:
Consider an active linear network N, represented as a black box shown in fig. Let A and B be any
pair of terminals of N with respect to which an equivalent circuit is desired.
Statement of Thevenin’s theorem:
With respect to terminal pair AB, the network N may be replaced by a voltage source Vth in series
with an internal impedance Zth. The voltage source Vth called Thevenin’s voltage, is the potential
difference between the terminals A and B, and Zth is the internal impedance of the network N as seen
from the terminals A and B with all the sources set to zero.i.e., with all the voltage sources shorted
and all the current sources open circuited leaving behind their internal resistance or impedances. 32
