LEVELS OF ABSTRACTION
•Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., instructor) is stored.
•Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships
among the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
•View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can
also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security purposes.
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
VIEW OF DATA
An architecture for a database system
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
INSTANCES AND SCHEMAS
Similar to types and variables in programming languages
Logical Schema – the overall logical structure of the database
Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and accounts in a bank
and the relationship between them
Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
Physical schema–
schema the overall physical structure of the database
Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
Analogous to the value of a variable
Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema
without changing the logical schema
Applications depend on the logical schema
In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be well defined so
that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
DATA MODELS
•A collection of tools for describing
• Data
• Data relationships
• Data semantics
• Data constraints
•Relational model
•Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
•Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
•Semistructured data model (XML)
•Other older models:
• Network model
• Hierarchical model
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
RELATIONAL MODEL
• All the data is stored in various tables.
• Example of tabular data in the relational model
Columns
Rows
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
A SAMPLE RELATIONAL
DATABASE
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE
(DDL)
• Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
• DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a data dictionary
• Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
• Database schema
• Integrity constraints
• Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
• Authorization
• Who can access what
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
DATA MANIPULATION
LANGUAGE (DML)
•Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by
the appropriate data model
• DML also known as query language
•Two classes of languages
• Pure – used for proving properties about computational power and for
optimization
• Relational Algebra
• Tuple relational calculus
• Domain relational calculus
• Commercial – used in commercial systems
• SQL is the most widely used commercial language
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
SQL
•The most widely used commercial language
•SQL is NOT a Turing machine equivalent language
•SQL is NOT a Turing machine equivalent language
•To be able to compute complex functions SQL is usually embedded
in some higher-level language
•Application programs generally access databases through one of
• Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
• Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL queries to be
sent to a database
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
DATABASE DESIGN
The process of designing the general structure of the
database:
•Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database
design requires that we find a “good” collection of relation
schemas.
• Business decision – What attributes should we record in the database?
• Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we have and
how should the attributes be distributed among the various relation schemas?
•Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the
database
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
DATABASE DESIGN (CONT.)
•Is there any problem with this relation?
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
DESIGN APPROACHES
•Need to come up with a methodology to ensure that each of the
relations in the database is “good”
•Two ways of doing so:
• Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7)
• Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
• Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:
• Normalization Theory (Chapter 8)
• Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
OBJECT-RELATIONAL DATA
MODELS
•Relational model: flat, “atomic” values
•Object Relational Data Models
• Extend the relational data model by including object orientation and constructs to deal
with added data types.
• Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-atomic values such as
nested relations.
• Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative access to data, while
extending modeling power.
• Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
XML: EXTENSIBLE MARKUP
LANGUAGE
•Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
•Originally intended as a document markup language not a database
language
•The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures
made XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents
•XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange
formats.
•A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and
querying XML documents/data
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
DATABASE ENGINE
•Storage manager
•Query processing
•Transaction manager
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
STORAGE MANAGEMENT
•Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface
between the low-level data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system.
•The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
• Interaction with the OS file manager
• Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
•Issues:
• Storage access
• File organization
• Indexing and hashing
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
QUERY PROCESSING
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
QUERY PROCESSING
(CONT.)
•Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
• Equivalent expressions
• Different algorithms for each operation
•Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query
can be enormous
•Need to estimate the cost of operations
• Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the database must
maintain
• Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of complex
expressions
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
TRANSACTION MANAGEMENT
•What if the system fails?
•What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same
data?
•A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single
logical function in a database application
•Transaction-management component ensures that the database
remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g.,
power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction
failures.
•Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the
concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
DATABASE USERS AND
ADMINISTRATORS
Databas
e
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
DATABASE SYSTEM INTERNALS
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
DATABASE ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by
the underlying computer system on which the database is running:
•Centralized
•Client-server
•Parallel (multi-processor)
•Distributed
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
HISTORY OF DATABASE
SYSTEMS
•1950s and early 1960s:
• Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
• Tapes provided only sequential access
• Punched cards for input
•Late 1960s and 1970s:
• Hard disks allowed direct access to data
• Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
• Ted Codd defines the relational data model
• Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
• IBM Research begins System R prototype
• UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
• High-performance (for the era) transaction processing
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
HISTORY (CONT.)
•1980s:
• Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
• SQL becomes industrial standard
• Parallel and distributed database systems
• Object-oriented database systems
•1990s:
• Large decision support and data-mining applications
• Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
• Emergence of Web commerce
•Early 2000s:
• XML and XQuery standards
• Automated database administration
•Later 2000s:
• Giant data storage systems
• Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon, ..
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
END OF CHAPTER 1
SAY2SUDARSHAN@[Link]
