PSOC

Prof. Pratap K Chaini

AUTOMATIC GENERATION & VOLTAGE
CONTROL
Schematic diagram of load
frequency and excitation voltage
regulators of a turbo-generator
 Turbine Speed Governing
System
Assume that the system is initially operating
under steady conditions—
•the linkage mechanism stationary and pilot
valve closed,
• steam valve opened by a definite
magnitude,
• turbine running at constant speed with
turbine power output balancing the
generator load.
f0 = system frequency (speed)
PG 0 = generator output = turbine output
(neglecting
generator loss )
yE 0 = steam valve setting
Consider a small linear increment around
Components of Turbine speed Governing
System

1. Fly ball Governor

2. Hydraulic Amplifier

3. Linkage Mechanism

4. Speed Changer
This is a command to the system to increase the
turbine power output.
Therefore Δ yA = kc ΔPc.
-------------------(1)
ΔPc is the command to increase power.
This command starts a sequence of events. The
pilot valve moves upward.
High pressure oil flows on top of the piston
and moving it downwards.
Steam valve opening increases thereby
increasing speed and frequency.
To model ( writing equations for the events)
consider movement of point C .
Two factors contribute to the movement of C.
1. Movement of Δ yc = - (l2/l1) Δ yA = - k1 kc ΔPc
2. Increase in frequency causes fly ball to move
The net movement of C, Δ Yc = - k1 kc ΔPc + k2 Δ f
--------------- (2)
ΔyD is the movement of point D. This is the amount by
which the pilot valve opens.
Movement of point D is given by movement of point C
and movement of point E.
There fore ΔyD = k3ΔyC + k4ΔyE -------------------------------------
(3)
Where k3 =[ l4 /( l3+l4)] and k4 =[ l3 /( l3+l4)]
Movement of D depending upon its sign opens one of
the port and allows to enter high pressure oil
Into the cylinder , Thereby opens the steam valve by
ΔyE.
Here some assumptions are taken. They are Inertia of
piston and steam valve are negligible.
Because of the assumptions, the rate of oil admitted
into the cylinder is proportional to ΔyD opening.
So , ΔyE = k5 ∫ -(ΔyD ) dt .
----------------------------------------------------( 4)
The negative sign is because positive movement of D
results in negative
Movement of E .
Taking Laplace Transform of equations 2,3 4, we
have
ΔYc(s)= -k1kcΔPc(s) + k2ΔF(s)
----------------------------------------------(5)
ΔYD(s)= k3ΔYc(s) + k4ΔYE(s)
-----------------------------------------------(6)
ΔYE(s) = - k5[1/s] ΔYD(s)
----------------------------------------------------(7)
Eliminating ΔYc(s) and ΔYD(s) from above equations,
weBlock
havediagram of speed
ΔYgovernor system
E(s) = [k1 k3 kcΔPc(s) - k2 k3 ΔF(s) ] / [k4 + S / k5 ]
Turbine
Model

In Turbine , the dynamic response of steam turbine is

relation between power out put to steam valve
opening ΔYE. In above fig. Two stage turbine is
shown. As there are two stages 2 time constants are
involved. But for simplification , single Time Constant
is taken. Typically the time constant Tt has value in
the range of 02. to 0.5 sec.
Generator Load
Model

22
2
2 2
 (3
)

(4
)

(5
)
Equation (5) can be represented in block
diagram form as below.

All 3 models i.e. Governor model ,Turbine model and

Generator load model can be combined to Represent
an isolated power system block diagram.
STEADY STATE ANALYSIS OF ISOLATED
POWER SYSTEM

Here two differential inputs are there. One is ΔPc the

change in speed changer setting, and the other is
ΔPD the change in load demand. We can analyse
one situation at a time that is Change in speed
changer setting analysis and load change analysis.
Then both analysis can be combined.
If speed changer setting is not changed i.e. ΔPc = 0
and load demand changes such situation is called
FREE GOVERNOR OPERATION ( NO CHANGE IN
GOVERNOR SETTING)
 CONTROL AREA

We have considered the simplified case of a single

turbo-generator supplying an isolated load. Consider
now a practical system with a number of generating
stations and loads. It is possible to divide an extended
power system (say, national grid) into subareas (may
be, State Electricity Boards) in which the generators
are tightly coupled together so as to form a coherent
group, i.e., all the generators respond in unison to
changes in load or speed changer settings. Such a
coherent area is
called a control area in which the frequency is
assumed to be the same throughout in static as well
as dynamic conditions. For purposes of developing a
suitable control strategy, a control area can be
reduced to a single speed governor, turbo-generator
and load system. All the control strategies discussed
 PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL
CONTROL
From the above discussion that with the speed
governing system installed on each machine, the
steady load frequency characteristic for a given speed
changer setting has considerable droop, e.g., for the
system being used for the illustration above. The
steady change in frequency must be zero. While
steady state frequency can be brought back to the
scheduled value by adjusting speed changer setting,
the system could undergo intolerable dynamic
frequency changes with changes in load. It is
suggested that that the speed changer setting be
adjusted automatically by monitoring the frequency
changes. For this purpose, a signal from Δf is fed
through an integrator to the speed changer resulting
in the block diagram configuration shown in Fig. 8.10.
The system now modifies to a proportional plus
The signal ΔPC(s) generated by the integral
control must be of opposite sign to ΔF(s)
which accounts for negative sign in the
block for integral controller.
In central load frequency control of a given
control area, the change (error) in frequency is
known as Area Control Error (ACE). The
additional signal feedback in the modified
control scheme presented above is the
integral of ACE.
LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL AND
ECONOMIC DESPATCH CONTROL
Load frequency control with integral controller
achieves zero steady state frequency error and a fast
dynamic response, but it exercises no control over
the relative loadings of various generating stations
(i.e., economic despatch) of the control area. For
example, if a sudden small increase in load (say, 1%)
occurs in the control area, the load frequency control
changes the speed changer settings of the governors
of all generating units of the area so that, together,
these units match the load and the frequency returns
to the scheduled value (this action takes place in a
few seconds). However, in the process of this change
the loadings of various generating units change in a
manner independent of economic loading
considerations.
The operating point. The economic despatch
controller is a slow acting control, which adjusts
the speed changer setting every minute (or half a
minute) in accordance with a command signal
generated by the central economic despatch
computer. Figure 8.12 gives the schematic
diagram of both these controls for two typical
units of a control area. The signal to change the
speed changer setting is constructed in
accordance with economic despatch error, [PG
(desired) – PG (actual)], suitably modified by the
signal representing integral ACE at that instant of
time. The signal PG (desired) is computed by the
central economic despatch computer (CEDC) and
is transmitted to the local economic despatch
controller (EDC) installed at each station. The
system, thus operates with economic despatch
CONTROL AREA LOAD FREQUENCY AND ECONOMIC
DESPATCH CONTROL
 TWO AREA LOAD FREQUENCY
CONTROL
All power system can be divided into a number of
load frequency control areas interconnected by
means of tie lines. consider a two-area case
connected by a single tie line as illustrated in Fig.
The control
8.13 . objective
now is to regulate the
frequency of each area
and to simultaneously
regulate the tie line
power as per inter-area
power contracts. As in It is assumed that each
the case of frequency, control area can be
proportional plus represented by an
integral controller will be equivalent turbine,
installed so as to give generator and governor
zero steady state error system. Symbols used
with suffix I refer to area
It is conveniently assumed that each control area
can be represented by an equivalent turbine,
generator and governor system. Symbols used with
suffix I refer to area 7 and those with suffix 2 refer to
area 2. In an isolated control area case the
incremental power (ΔPc _ ΔPD) was
accounted for by the rate of increase of stored
kinetic energy and increase in area load caused by
increase in frequency. since a tie line transport,
power in or out of an area, this fact must be
accounted for in the incremental power balance
equation of each area.
Power transported out of area 1 is given by Ptie, 1 =
Where δ1, δ 2- power angles of equivalent machines
Of the two areas.
For incremental changes in δ1 and δ2 , the incremental
tie line power can be expressed as ΔPtie 1(pu) =
T12(Δδ1 - Δδ2),------ (1) here
Where Δf1 and Δf2 ,, are incremental frequency
changes of areas 1 and 2 respectively.
Similarly the incremental tie line power out of area 2
is given by
Δptie 2=2ᴨT21( ∫Δf2dt- ∫Δf1dt) ------------------------------(3)

--------------------(4)

With reference to the incremental power balance

equation for area 1 can be written as ΔPG1- ΔPD1 =( 2H1 ∕
f1⁰) (d ∕dt) Δf₁ + B1Δf₁ +ΔPtie1 ---------(5)
It may be noted that all quantities other than
frequency are in per unit in equation – 5. Taking the
laplace transform of Eq. (5) we get
ΔF₁(s) =[ ΔPG1 (s)- ΔPD1 (s) – ΔPtie1(s)]∙[Kps1/ 1+Tps1] -------------(6)
As defined Kps1=1/B1 and Tps1 = (2H1/B1f1⁰ ) -----------------(7)
Comparing with Isolated area case, the only change is the
 Eq. (6) shown
in Fig.8.14 And
Eq. (8) shown
in Fig. 8.15.
For the control
Area2
ΔPtie 2(s) as per
Eq.(3).,
ΔPtie 2(s)
In the case of an isolated control area, ACE a12the
=[−2ᴨis T12/s]
change in area frequency which when used [Δf1(s) – Δf2(s)]
in integral
control loop forced the steady state frequency error to
zero. In order that the steady state tie line power error
in a two-area control be made zero another integral
control loop (one for each area)
must be introduced to integrate the incremental tie
line power signal and feed it back to the speed
Thus for control area1 ACE1= ΔPtie1 + b1.Δf1 ---------------------------(9)
Eq.(9) Laplace Transform ACE1 (s)= ΔPtie1 (s) + b1.ΔF1 (s) . Similarly for Control Area 2
ACE2 (s) = ΔPtie2 (s) + b2.ΔF2 (s).
Combining the basic block diagrams:
Let the step changes in loads ΔPD1, and Δ PD2 be
simultaneously applied in control areas 1 and 2,
respectively. When steady conditions are reached,
the output signals of all integrating blocks will
become constant and in order for this to be so, their
OPTTMAL (TWO-AREA) LOAD FREOUENCY CONTROL
Using State Space modern control theory Optimal
control system for two area control is designed. Here
the state variables are defined as :

the outputs of all blocks having either an integrator

or a time, constant. As shown in above fig. there are
9 state variables. Formulating the State Model using
the state variables, which is written by writing
differential equations describing each individual
block. Differential equations are written by replacing
Comparing Fig. 8.16 and 8.17,