9

The Endocrine System

The Endocrine System
• Second controlling system of the body
• Nervous system is the fast-control system
• Uses chemical messengers (hormones)
that are released into the blood
• Hormones control several major processes
• Reproduction
• Growth and development
• Mobilization of body defenses
• Maintenance of much of homeostasis
• Regulation of metabolism
 The Chemistry of Hormones

• Hormones are classified chemically as

• Amino acid–based, which includes
• Proteins
• Peptides
• Amines
• Steroids—made from cholesterol
• Prostaglandins—made from highly active lipids
 Mechanisms of Hormone Action

• Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target

cells or target organs)
• Target cells must have specific protein receptors
• Hormone-binding alters cellular activity
 Control of Hormone Release

• Hormone levels in the blood are mostly maintained by

negative feedback
• A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood triggers
the release of more hormone
• Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in the
blood is reached
 Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

• Most common stimuli

• Endocrine glands are activated by other hormones
• Examples:
• Anterior pituitary hormones travel to target glands, such as
the thyroid gland, to prompt the release of a particular
hormone, such as thyroid hormone
 (a) Hormonal stimulus
1 The hypothalamus secretes
hormones that…
Hypothalamus

2 …stimulate
the anterior Anterior
pituitary pituitary
gland to gland
secrete
hormones
that…

Thyroid Adrenal Gonad

gland cortex (Testis)

3 …stimulate other endocrine

glands to secrete hormones
Figure 9.2a
 Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

• Changing blood levels of certain ions stimulate hormone

release
• Humoral indicates various body fluids such as blood and
bile
• Examples:
• Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are produced in response
to changing levels of blood calcium levels
• Insulin is produced in response to changing levels of blood
glucose levels
 Neural Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

• Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release

• Most are under the control of the sympathetic nervous
system
• Examples:
• The release of norepinephrine and epinephrine by the adrenal
medulla
 (c) Neural stimulus
1 Preganglionic sympathetic
fiber stimulates adrenal medulla
cells…
CNS (spinal cord)

Preganglionic
sympathetic fibers

Medulla of
adrenal
gland

Capillary

2 …to secrete catecholamines

(epinephrine and norepinephrine)
Figure 9.2c
Major Endocrine Organs
• Pituitary gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid glands
• Adrenal glands
• Pineal gland
• Thymus gland
• Pancreas
• Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)
• Hypothalamus
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands

Thymus

Adrenal glands

Pancreas

Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

Figure 9.3
 Pituitary Gland

• Size of a pea
• Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus in the brain
• Protected by the sphenoid bone
• Has two functional lobes
• Anterior pituitary—glandular tissue
• Posterior pituitary—nervous tissue
• Often called the “master endocrine gland”
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
• Six anterior pituitary hormones
• Two affect non-endocrine targets
• Growth hormone
• Prolactin
• Four stimulate other endocrine glands (tropic
hormones)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropic hormone)
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone
• Two gonadotropic hormones
 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

• Characteristics of all anterior pituitary hormones

• Proteins (or peptides)
• Act through second-messenger systems
• Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly negative feedback
 Releasing hormones Hypothalamus
secreted into portal
circulation
Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary
Hypophyseal
portal system Adrenocorticotropic
Growth hormone (GH) hormone (ACTH)

Bones and muscles Prolactin (PRL) Follicle-stimulating Thyrotropic Adrenal cortex

hormone (FSH) hormone (TH)
and luteinizing
Mammary
hormone (LH)
glands Thyroid

Testes or ovaries

Figure 9.4
 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

• Growth hormone
• General metabolic hormone
• Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles and
long bones
• Plays a role in determining final body size
• Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
• Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy
 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

• Growth hormone (GH) disorders

• Pituitary dwarfism results from hyposecretion of GH during
childhood
• Gigantism results from hypersecretion of GH during childhood
• Acromegaly results from hypersecretion of GH during
adulthood
Pituitary dwarf (left), Giant (center), Normal height woman
(right)

Figure 9.5
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Stimulates and maintains milk production
following childbirth
• Function in males is unknown
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal
cortex
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Influences growth and activity of the thyroid
gland
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
• Gonadotropic hormones
• Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Stimulates follicle development in ovaries
• Stimulates sperm development in testes
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Triggers ovulation of an egg in females
• Stimulates testosterone production in males
 Pituitary–Hypothalamus Relationship

• Hormonal release is regulated by releasing and

inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus produces two hormones
• These hormones are transported to neurosecretory cells of the
posterior pituitary
• Oxytocin
• Antidiuretic hormone
• The posterior pituitary is not strictly an endocrine gland,
but does release hormones
 Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

• Oxytocin
• Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor, sexual
relations, and breastfeeding
• Causes milk ejection in a nursing woman
 Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

• Inhibits urine production by promoting water reabsorption by
the kidneys
• In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction leading to increased
blood pressure
• Also known as vasopressin
 Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus

Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals

Posterior lobe
Capillary bed

Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

Uterine muscles Figure 9.6
 Thyroid Gland

• Found at the base of the throat

• Consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus
• Produces two hormones
• Thyroid hormone
• Calcitonin
Thyroid cartilage Epiglottis

Common carotid
artery
Isthmus of
thyroid gland

Trachea Left subclavian

artery
Brachiocephalic Left lobe of
artery thyroid gland

Aorta

(a) Gross anatomy of the thyroid gland, anterior view

Figure 9.7a
 Thyroid Gland

• Thyroid hormone
• Major metabolic hormone
• Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones
• Thyroxine (T4)—secreted by thyroid follicles
• Triiodothyronine (T3)—conversion of T4 at target tissues
 Thyroid Gland

• Thyroid hormone disorders

• Goiters
• Thyroid gland enlarges due to lack of iodine
• Salt is iodized to prevent goiters
• Cretinism
• Caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine
• Results in dwarfism during childhood
Figure 9.8
Thyroid Gland
• Thyroid hormone disorders (continued)
• Myxedema
• Caused by hypothyroidism in adults
• Results in physical and mental slugishness
• Graves’ disease
• Caused by hyperthyroidism
• Results in increased metabolism, heat intolerance,
rapid heartbeat, weight loss, and exophthalmos
Figure 9.9
 Thyroid Gland

• Calcitonin
• Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its deposition on
bone
• Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
• Produced by parafollicular cells
• Parafollicular cells are found between the follicles
 Parathyroid Glands

• Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid

• Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• Stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
• Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium
• Raise calcium levels in the blood
Adrenal Glands
• Sit on top of the kidneys
• Two regions
• Adrenal cortex—outer glandular region has
three layers
• Mineralocorticoids secreted by outermost layer
• Glucocorticoids secreted by middle layer
• Sex hormones secreted by innermost layer
• Adrenal medulla—inner neural tissue region
 Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area

Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal gland Adrenal

Cortex
• Medulla cortex
• Cortex

Sex hormone
Kidney secreting area
Medulla

Adrenal
medulla

Figure 9.11
 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

• Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)

• Produced in outer adrenal cortex
• Regulate mineral content in blood
• Regulate water and electrolyte balance
• Target organ is the kidney
• Production stimulated by renin and aldosterone
• Production inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

• Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)

• Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal cortex
• Promote normal cell metabolism
• Help resist long-term stressors
• Released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH
 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

• Sex hormones
• Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
• Small amounts are made throughout life
• Mostly androgens (male sex hormones) are made but some
estrogens (female sex hormones) are also formed
Adrenal Glands
• Adrenal cortex disorders
• Addison’s disease
• Results from hyposecretion of all
adrenal cortex hormones
• Bronze skin tone, muscles are weak,
burnout, susceptibility to infection
• Hyperaldosteronism
• May result from an ACTH-releasing
tumor
• Excess water and sodium are retained
leading to high blood pressure and
edema
Adrenal Glands
• Adrenal cortex disorders
• Cushing’s syndrome
• Results from a tumor in the middle
cortical area of the adrenal cortex
• “Moon face,” “buffalo hump” on the
upper back, high blood pressure,
hyperglycemia, weakening of bones,
depression
• Masculinization
• Results from hypersecretion of sex
hormones
• Beard and male distribution of hair
growth
 Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

• Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines)

• Epinephrine (adrenaline)
• Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
• These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-
term stress (“fight or flight”) by
• Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels
• Dilating small passageways of lungs
 Pancreatic Islets

• The pancreas is a mixed gland and has both endocrine

and exocrine functions
• The pancreatic islets produce hormones
• Insulin—allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells
from beta cells
• Glucagon—allows glucose to enter the blood from alpha cells
• These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar
homeostasis
 Stomach

Pancreas
(a)
Figure 9.14a
 Uptake of glucose
from blood is
enhanced in most
body cells

Insulin-secreting cells Insulin Tissue cells

of the pancreas
activated; release
insulin into the blood
Pancreas Glucose Glycogen
Blood glucose
falls to homeostatic
set point; stimulus
Elevated blood Liver takes up for insulin release
sugar level glucose and stores diminishes
IMB as glycogen
ALA
NC
Stimulus E
Blood
BALANCE: Normal blood glucose level (about 90 mg/100 ml)
glucose level
(e.g., after
eating four
Stimulus
jelly doughnuts)
IMB Blood glucose
ALA level (e.g., after
NC
Blood glucose rises E skipping a meal)
to homeostatic Low blood sugar level
set point; stimulus
for glucagon
release diminishes

Glucagon-releasing
Liver breaks Glucose Glycogen cells of pancreas
down glycogen activated; release
stores and Liver glucagon into blood
releases Glucagon
glucose to the
blood
Figure 9.15
 Pineal Gland

• Found on the third ventricle of the brain

• Secretes melatonin
• Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles
• Believed to coordinate the hormones of fertility in humans
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands

Thymus

Adrenal glands

Pancreas

Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

Figure 9.3
 Thymus Gland

• Located posterior to the sternum

• Largest in infants and children
• Produces thymosin
• Matures some types of white blood cells
• Important in developing the immune system
 Gonads

• Ovaries
• Produce eggs
• Produce two groups of steroid hormone
• Estrogens
• Progesterone
• Testes
• Produce sperm
• Produce androgens, such as testosterone
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands

Thymus

Adrenal glands

Pancreas

Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

Figure 9.3
 Hormones of the Ovaries

• Estrogens
• Stimulate the development of secondary female
characteristics
• Mature female reproductive organs
• With progesterone, estrogens also
• Promote breast development
• Regulate menstrual cycle
 Hormones of the Ovaries

• Progesterone
• Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
• Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
• Helps prepare breasts for lactation
 Hormones of the Testes

• Produce several androgens

• Testosterone is the most important androgen
• Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
• Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
• Required for sperm cell production
Developmental Aspects of the
Endocrine System
• Most endocrine organs operate smoothly
until old age
• Menopause is brought about by lack of
efficiency of the ovaries
• Problems associated with reduced estrogen are
common
• Growth hormone production declines with age
• Many endocrine glands decrease output with
age