UNIT-1

Introduction to information system in business:-

Information system is an organized combination of people, hardware, software,
communications network, and data resources that collects, transforms and
disseminates information in an organization. Information systems and technologies
have become a vital component of businesses and organizations

In Short we can say that An Information System is a system that gathers data and
disseminates information with the sole purpose of providing information to its
users.
 Fundamental of Information System:-
A Management Information System is an information system that evaluates,
analyzes, and processes an organization's data to produce meaningful and useful
information based on which the management can take right decisions to ensure
future growth of the organization.
The major components of a typical MIS long-form (Management Information System)
are:
People – people who use the information system

Data – the data that the information system records

Business Procedures – procedures put in place on how to record, store and analyze
data

Hardware – these include servers, workstations, networking equipment, printers, etc.

Software – these are programs used to handle the data. These include programs such
as spreadsheet programs, database software, etc.
Solving business problem with information technology:-
· Information technology can allow to securely store company's file and sensitive
customer or patient information. Data will be accessible only to authorized users within
the company and will be protected from hackers who could try to steal it and
technological problems that could cause it to be lost or corrupted.

· Rapid communication is essential to compete in today’s business world. Email servers,

routers, internal company billboards, and chat services can enable employees to
communicate with customers and with each other, making communications smooth and
easy.

· IT can help to improve workers’ efficiency by streamlining workflow systems, sharing

storage, and creating collaborative work spaces. This can enable employees to produce
more work in a shorter amount of time.

· Technology can let you automate routine tasks, improve data analysis, and store data for
easy retrieval

· IT can also help you maintain your company’s competitive advantage . You can create
new products, differentiate your products from those of your competitors, and improve
customer service.
· You can lower your company’s costs by using technology to centralize redundant tasks in
one location. You can support an online environment to reduce cost. You can offer
customers email support at a lower cost than phone support.
· You can also outsource some functions, offer employees the opportunity to work
remotely, and use less expensive communication options

Types of Information Systems

The type of information system that a user uses depends on their level in an organization.
The following diagram shows the three major levels of users in an organization and the
type of information system that they use.
Information Vs Data
Data can be described as unprocessed facts and figures. Plain collected data as raw facts
cannot help in decision-making. However, data is the raw material that is organized,
structured, and interpreted to create useful information systems.
Data is defined as 'groups of non-random symbols in the form of text, images, voice
representing quantities, action and objects'.
Information is interpreted data; created from organized, structured, and processed data in
a particular context.

Information, Knowledge and Business Intelligence

Professor Ray R. Larson of the School of Information at the University of California,
Berkeley, provides an Information Hierarchy, which is −
Data − The raw material of information.
Information − Data organized and presented by someone.
Knowledge − Information read, heard, or seen, and understood.
Wisdom − Distilled and integrated knowledge and understanding
Information/Data Collection Techniques
The most popular data collection techniques include −

•Surveys − A questionnaires is prepared to collect the data from the

field.

•Secondary data sources or archival data: Data is collected through

old records, magazines, company website etc.

•Objective measures or tests − An experimental test is conducted on

the subject and the data is collected.

•Interviews − Data is collected by the system analyst by following a

rigid procedure and collecting the answers to a set of pre-conceived
questions through personal interviews.
Decision Support System (DSS)
It is an interactive, flexible computer based information system or sub-system
intended to help decision makers use communication technologies, data,
documents to identify and solve problems, complete decision process tasks and
make decision.

Management Information System (MIS) consists of following three pillars:

Management, Information, and System. These are explained as following below.

Management: art of getting things done through and with the people of in formally
organized groups.

Information: data that have a meaning with a context, where data is raw facts about
an entity (entity is the object of interest).

System: set of inter-related components with a clearly defined boundary working

together to achieve a common goal.
 UNIT 2
1. Management Information System (MIS) :
MIS is an application of computer related technology to programs. It provides
managers with information and support for effective decision-making and
provides the feedback on daily operations. The outputs or reports are usually
generated through accumulation of transaction processing data.
It ensures that appropriate data is collected from the valid sources, processed
and passed to needy destinations. It satisfies the needs through query systems,
analysis systems, modelling
The main characteristics of MIS are :

1. Accuracy:- The information should be correct and accurate. Accuracy is a crucial

data quality characteristic because inaccurate information can cause significant
problems with severe consequences
2. Completeness:- It should contain all the facts that are necessary for the decision
maker to satisfactorily solve the problem at hand using such information.
3. Reliability:- It should be accurate, consistent with facts and verifiable. Inadequate
or incorrect information generally leads to decisions of poor quality
4. Relevance:- The information should be pertinent and meaningful to the decision
maker and should be in his area of responsibility.
5. Timeliness:- Information must be delivered at the right time and the right place
to the right person.

For Example : Human resource management systems, sales and marketing systems
etc.
 2. Data Processing System (DPS) :
DPS is the manipulation of data by computers. It represents the automation of
routines processing to support operations. Basically, it converts raw data into
readable format which can be easily utilized by the people in the organization.

The data processing functions are data collection, manipulation, storage as

used to report and analyze business activities. It is oriented primarily to
processing transaction data for day-to-day transactions

There are six stages of data processing :

Data Collection
Data Preparation
Data Input
Processing
Data Output
Data Storage
For Example : Typing sales numbers into an inventory control software
program.
 Difference between MIS and DPS
MIS DPS

• It uses an integrated database. • It does not use integrated

databases.
• It provides greater flexibility to
• It provides no such flexibility.
the management.
• It tends to support a single
• It integrates the information functional area.
flow between functional areas. • It focuses on departmental level
• It focus on information needs of support.
all level of management. • Output is in the form of the table.
• Output is in the form of graph. • Sometimes, the model becomes
• The model is simple. complex.
• Focuses on operational • It focuses on converting data to
functionality. another form or language
 Decision Support System
Decision Support System (DSS) is an interactive, flexible computer based information
system or sub-system intended to help decision makers use communication
technologies, data, documents to identify and solve problems, complete decision process
tasks and make decision.
Difference between Management Information System (MIS) and Decision Support
System (DSS):
MIS(MANAGEMENT INFORMATION
PARAMETER DSS(DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM)
SYSTEM)

1. Main task Identifies information requirement. Develop certain tools for using decision process.

2. Main stress Main stress is on efficiency. Main stress is on effectiveness.

3. Type of database used Uses corporate database. Uses special database.

4. Data related task Data storage is of great importance Main emphasis is on data manipulation

5. Dependency on Very much dependent on computer dependent on management judgement.

6. Access to data Indirect access of data by provided Management enjoys direct access

7. Principal use Principal use is control Principal use is planning, staffing, decision making.

Constructed by vendors or information

8. Created/developed by Created by users alone or with specialists.
specialists
Middle level, lower level, sometimes senior
9. Types of users Analysts, professionals, managers.
executive

10. Main focus Focuses on information processing. Focuses on decision support, analysis.
 MIS and Information Resource Management
Information Resources Management (IRM) is the process of managing
information resources to accomplish agency missions and to improve agency
performance, including the reduction of information collection burdens on the
public. When standardized and controlled, these resources can be shared and
reused throughout an agency, not just by a single user or application.

There are three (3) classes of information resources:

Business Resources: Enterprises, Business Functions, Positions (Jobs), Human/Machine
Resources, Skills, Business Objectives, Projects, and Information Requirements.

System Resources: Systems, Sub-Systems (business processes), Administrative

Procedures (manual procedures and office automation-related), Computer Procedures,
Programs, Operational Steps, Modules, and Subroutines.

Data Resources: Data Elements, Storage Records, Files (computer and manual), Views,
Objects, Inputs, Outputs, Panels, Maps, Call Parameters, and Data Bases
Benefits of IRM
•All information resources are controllable, permitting the ability to design integrated
systems and perform an “impact analysis” of a proposed resource change.

•The simplified search of information resources for reuse. The redundancy of resource
definition is eliminated.

•Complete and current documentation of all information resources, in an organized and

meaningful way.

Communications within the organization are improved since developers and users
would use standard and common definitions for information resources, all of which
would be in standard business terminology
 End User Computing
End User Computing (EUC) encompasses user access to enterprise applications and
data anywhere, anytime, using one or more devices to access
virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI) located either at the enterprise’s premises or in
the public cloud. EUC provides support for a broad range of client devices including
traditional PC, tablet, smartphone, or thin-client terminal device. EUC devices can
either be provided by the enterprise or bring-your-own-device (BYOD) owned by
employees or other users
Benefits of End User Computing:-

There are many benefits to end user computing including bottom-

line savings, efficiency gains, and mobility enhancements.

From a security perspective, EUC has several benefits. First,

sensitive data never resides on the end-user device; it is always
accessed from the application server. Even if a device is lost or
stolen, access to corporate information is limited, assuming that
proper device access controls are in place and network application
credentials aren’t on a sticky note on the back of a smartphone. In
this manner, devices need not be considered as part of a backup or
disaster recovery plan, since no business-critical applications or
data reside on the device itself.
 Concept of MIS
1. Data Capturing
MIS captures data from various internal and external sources of the organization.
Data capturing may be manual or through computer terminals.

2. Processing of Data
The captured data is processed to convert into the required information. Processing
of data is done by such activities as calculating, sorting, classifying, and
summarizing.
3. Storage of Information
MIS stores the processed or unprocessed data for future use. If any information is
not immediately required, it is saved as an organization record, for later use.
4. Retrieval of Information
MIS retrieves information from its stores as and when required by various users.

5. Dissemination of Information
Information, which is a finished product of MIS, is disseminated to the users in the
organization. It is periodic or online through a computer terminal.
 Structure of Management Information
System
The physical structure of an MIS includes hardware, software, database, personnel and
procedures

Hardware
Hardware consists of all physical components of a computer system like central
processing unit (CPU), input devices, output devices, storage and communication devices.

Software
Software is an interface between the information system and users of the
information system. Software can be of two types’ system software and
applications. The system software includes the operating system and special
purposes programs. Application is developed to achieve a specific task. Software
plays an important part in MIS.
Database
A database is a centrally managed and organized collection of data. Database helps
to store data in an organized manner and to make available to those who need that
data. Database helps to reduce duplication of data as it is centrally managed data
one data can be stored at one place avoiding redundancy and duplication of data.

Procedures
Procedures are essential for effective use of the information system. Procedures
consist of various instructions like user instructions, instructions for input
preparation and operating instructions. These instructions help in using the
information system effectively.

Personnel
Number of personnel is required for implementation of MIS like computer operators,
programmers, systems analysts and managers. Human beings are key requirements
for implementation of MIS. In MIS both technical and managerial level people are
required for proper implementation of MIS.
 UNIT-3
Organizational Planning:-Organizational planning refers to the process of creating
a plan for a company or organization that outlines its goals and objectives, as well
as the strategies and actions necessary to achieve them. An effective organizational
plan helps organizations to align their resources, prioritize their activities, and make
informed decisions that support their overall mission and goals.

Organizational planning is essential for the success of any company or organization.

By defining clear goals and objectives and outlining the steps necessary to achieve
them, organizations are better equipped to make informed decisions, allocate
resources effectively, and prioritize their activities to support their overall mission.

An effective organizational plan also helps to ensure that everyone within the organization is
working towards the same goals and objectives, which can help to increase collaboration,
efficiency, and overall performance.
There are four phases of a proper organizational plan: strategic, tactical,
operational,and contingency.

Strategic
Strategic planning covers long-term goals with all the necessary resources to
achieve these goals. It typically includes a timeframe from 1 to 5 years.
A strategic plan ensures that those goals align with the company’s mission,
vision, and values. Strategic planning usually involves top managers, although
some smaller companies choose to bring all of their employees along when
defining their mission, vision, and values.

Tactical
The tactical strategy describes how a company will implement its strategic plan. A
tactical plan is composed of several short-term goals, typically carried out within one
year, that support the strategic plan. Generally, it’s the responsibility of middle
managers to set and oversee tactical strategies, like planning and executing a marketing
campaign
Operational
Department, or functional planning, also known as operational planning, refers to the
process of creating goals, work standards, and schedules for specific departments or
functional areas within an organization. This type of planning focuses on the day-to-day
operations of the department.

The operational planning typically includes department managers and key personnel
within the department. They are responsible for ensuring that the department's goals
and plans are aligned with the broader goals and strategies of the organization.

Contingency planning refers to the process of preparing for and responding to

unexpected events, crises, or disruptions in an organization. It involves developing plans
and strategies to mitigate the impact of such events on the organization, its employees,
and its stakeholders. A contingency plan is a critical component of an overall
organizational plan, as it helps organizations anticipate and respond.
 Planning Process
The planning process is a process used to develop objectives, develop tasks to meet
objectives, determine needed resources, create a timeline, determine tracking and
assessment, finalize the plan, and distribute the plan to the team

1. Develop the strategic plan:-

● Review your mission, vision, and values

● Gather data about your company, like performance-indicating metrics from

your sales department

● Perform a SWOT analysis; take stock of your company’s strengths,

weaknesses, opportunities, and threats

● Set big picture goals that take your mission, vision, values, data, and SWOT
analysis into account
2. Translate the strategic plan into tactical steps:-

At this point, it’s time to create tactical plans. Bring in middle managers to help
to do the following:

Define short-term goals—quarterly goals are common—that support the

strategic plan for each department, such as setting a quota for the sales
team so the company can meet its strategic revenue goal

● Develop processes for reviewing goal achievement to make sure strategic

and tactical goals are being met, like running a CRM report every quarter and
submitting it to the Chief Revenue Officer to check that the sales department
is hitting its quota

● Develop contingency plans, like what to do in case the sales team’s CRM
malfunctions or there’s a data breach
 3. Plan daily operations:-

Operational plans, or the processes that determine how individual employees

spend their day, are largely the responsibility of middle managers and the
employees that report to them.
For example, the process that a sales representative follows to find, nurture,
and convert a lead into a customer, is an operational plan.
Work schedules, customer service workflows, or GDPR( general data protection
regulation) policies that protect prospective customers’ information all aid a
sales department in reaching its tactical goal—in this case, a sales quota—so
they fall under the umbrella of operational plans.
 4. Execute the plans

It’s time to put plans into action. Theoretically, activities carried out on a day-to-
day basis (defined by the operational plan) should help reach tactical goals, which
in turn supports the overall strategic plan.

5. Monitor progress and adjust plans

No plan is complete without periods of reflection and adjustment. At the end of

each quarter or the short-term goal period, middle managers should review
whether or not they hit the benchmarks established in step two, then submit data-
backed reports to C-level executives.
Computational Support for planning
Computational support for planning:

1. An analysis of historical data to obtain relationship useful for projection.

2. Various projection and forecasting techniques to estimate future value.

4. Computations internal to the plan and computation required for outputs.

5. Output of the results in a meaningful planning format.

Business application of Information
Technology
 Internet and Electronic commerce
E-commerce
E-commerce (electronic commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services,or the
transmitting of funds or data, over an electronic network, primarily the

internet.
E-commerce is powered by the internet, where customers can access an online
store to browse through, and place orders for products or services via their own
devices.

Types Of E-commerce

Business-to-business (B2B)
Business-to-business e-commerce refers to the electronic exchange of products, services or
information between businesses rather than between businesses and consumers.
Business-to-consumer (B2C)
Business-to-consumer is the retail part of e-commerce on the internet. It is when businesses sell
products, services or information directly to consumers.

Consumer-to-consumer (C2C)
Consumer-to-consumer is a type of e-commerce in which consumers trade products, services and
information with each other online. These transactions are generally conducted through a third party that
provides an online platform on which the transactions are carried out. Online auctions and classified
advertisements are two examples of C2C platforms, with eBay and Craigslist being two of the most popular
of these platforms.

Consumer-to-business (C2B)
Consumer-to-business is a type of e-commerce in which consumers make their products and services
available online for companies to bid on and purchase. This is the opposite of the traditional commerce
model of B2C.

Business-to-administration (B2A)
Business-to-administration refers to transactions conducted online between companies and public
administration or government bodies. Many branches of government are dependent on e-services or
products in one way or another, especially when it comes to legal documents, registers, social security,
fiscals and employment.
Consumer-to-administration (C2A)
Consumer-to-administration refers to transactions conducted online between individual consumers and
public administration or government bodies. The government rarely buys products or services from
citizens, but individuals frequently use electronic means in the following areas:

Education: Disseminating information, distance learning/online lectures, etc .

Social security: Distributing information, making payments, etc.

Taxes: filing tax returns, making payments, etc.

Health: Making appointments, providing information about illnesses, making health

services payments, etc.

Mobile e-commerce (M-commerce)

Mobile e-commerce is a type of e-commerce on the rise that features online sales transactions made
using mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets. M-commerce includes mobile shopping,
mobile banking and mobile payments.
 Information system and business operations

Information System helps in business operations in following way

Improving business operations
• helps the company to cut the costs
• improve quality and customer services
• helps to develop innovative products for new markets.
Promoting business innovation
Investment in IT can result in the development of unique products and services
or
processes.
Locking in customers and suppliers
Inter organizational IS, EDI, automatic inventory replenishment system.
 Information system for Strategic advantage
• Strategic Information System keeps the organization focused on its vision and
organizational transformation.
• It is used to provide information about the current situation of an individual, group or
organization.
• It is a conceptual system that helps in understanding the present and the future
environment in which an individual or organization operates.
• A strategic information system (SIS) is a business information system (BIS) with the
features Systematic approach to collecting, storing, and retrieving data; Integration with
other systems.
• It is essential for your company to have a clear vision, business plan, strategy and
organization structure.
• Improve its operational efficiency;
• Promote business innovation and
• Build strategic information resources.
 Information system for Strategic advantage
Strategy
Strategy is the determination of the basic long-term purpose and objectives of an enterprise and the
adoption of courses of action and allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals.
Strategic Advantage
Strategic advantage refers to obtaining a sustainable competitive edge over competitors. The ability to
obtain a greater than normal return on investment
Strategic Necessity
Strategic necessity is a system that must be installed to remain competitive and stay in business

Types of strategies
Cost Leadership strategies
● Become a low cost producer of products and services
● Find ways to help suppliers or customers reduce their costs

Differentiation strategies
● Developing ways to differentiate a firm's products and services from its
competitors
● Reduce the differentiation advantages of competitors
Innovation strategies
● Finding new way of doing business, enter new market
Growth strategies
● Expanding into global market
● Diversifying into new products and services
● Integration into related products or services
Alliance strategies
● Establish alliances with customers, suppliers, competitors, other companies.
 Decision support system and its benefits and characteristics
Benefits of DSS
• Improves efficiency and speed of decision-making activities.
• Increases the control, competitiveness and capability of futuristic decision-making of
the organization.
• Facilitates interpersonal communication.
• A DSS enables a thorough quantitative analysis in a very short time. Even frequent
changes in a scenario can be evaluated objectively in a timely manner.
• A DSS enables the solution of complex problems that ordinarily cannot be solved by
other computerized approaches.
• A DSS enables a thorough quantitative analysis in a very short time. Even frequent
changes in a scenario can be evaluated objectively in a timely manner.
Following are the salient characteristics of DSS:
(i) DSS incorporate both data and models.

(ii) They are designed to assist managers in their decision processes in semi-structured
or unstructured tasks.
(iii) They support managerial judgment; rather than replacing it.
(iv) DSS improve the effectiveness of the decisions; not the efficiency with which
decisions are being made.
 Information System for Business Operations(SDLC)

SDLC stands for "Systems Development Life Cycle".

It's a common phenomenon that any organization who wants to create a new system
like machine, tool, logical or physical system, they create the system in such a way so
that it will have its long life. To create a new system with its long life, an expert
member (system analyst) follows some phases, these phases are known as SDLC
phases.

The SDLC phases are as follows

Problem identification
Requirement analysis
System design
Implementation
Testing
Deployment
Maintenance
1) Problem identification
This is the first and initial phase of SDLC. In this phase, the analyst, identify the actual
problem for which they want a solution or create a system. The main concern of this phase
is to recognize the real problem, if the problem is significant then the solution will be useful
otherwise the solution will not be fruitful or it will be useless.

2) Requirement analysis
The requirement analysis is a detailed analysis which includes the answer to different
questions like –
What is the problem?
What is the solution?
Is solution feasible?
How much time required solving the problem?
How it will be resolved?
How many resources will be required?
Do we have sufficient resources to solve the problem?
What kind of environment required by solution?
These are the few key questions for which an analyst finds real solutions. It shows the
proper planning to get all solutions in our hands before solving the actual problem.
3) System design
System design is a blueprint of the solution. In this process first creates logical design and
gets design confirmation by top management or decision-makers of the company. During
the designing process, if any changes required, analysts redesign it. So, it is good to make
the required changes on papers rather than the physical system. Changes in the physical
system always make losses to the company in terms of wastage of time, resources, money,
etc.

4) Implementation
The implementation shows the final integration of the system. Implementation
describes how the product will get converted it into its final form. There are different
components associated with the system and during the implementation process, all
parts of the system are linked with one another according to a proper plan so that they
can work properly and fulfill the objective of the system.
5) Testing
Testing is a process to validate the objective of the system through various steps. It is a
mechanism that makes sure that the system is working properly or not. After the
implementation of the system, it is tested on different aspects..
Once, experts are 100% sure about the system’s smooth-running process, performance,
accuracy, etc then only they forward it on the next phase.

6) Deployment
After successful testing of the developed system, it is deployed to the concern candidate
or company for which it has designed. Deployment is a process to deploy the new one
designed system at clients/customers end.

7) Maintenance
Maintenance is the last and one of the most important phases of SDLC. Maintenance of
the system gives long life to the new system. After the successful deployment of the
system at clients end, it is compulsory to maintain it from time to time.
 Unit-4
Enterprise management systems are large-scale software packages that are able to track
and control all of the complex operations of a business. These systems are used as a
central command hub to help automate the business and make reporting and decision
making easier.

MIS for Enterprise management

1. Managing Business and IT strategy

This is generally used by the CEO & CIO of the Enterprise. This helps to determine the way how to
manage the business and build the IT strategy

2. Managing Application Development and Technology

This is generally used by the CIO & CTO of the Enterprise. This leads to the
application and technology determination which give the best result.

3. Managing the IT organization and infrastructure

This is generally used by the CTO & IT managers of the Enterprise. Manages the
roles of the employee of the company and how to divide the workload and make
quick and smooth work.
 MIS for Global Management

1. The International dimension

● Managing a business today means dealing with the international dimension
● Must include cultural, political, and geo economic challenges of the business
community

2. Global Business/IT applications

● Global Business Drives - business requirements caused by the nature of the
industry and its competitive environment
● Global Customers - customers may be anywhere
● Global Products - products are the same throughout the world
● Global Operations - subsidiaries may change based on economics
● Global Resources - use/cost of resources are shared by subsidiaries
● Global Collaboration - knowledge/expertise of colleagues is shared
3. Global IT Platforms (Infrastructure)
● Technically complex and has political and cultural implications
● The Internet as a Global IT Platform - it has become a low-cost interactive channel for
communication and data exchange

4. Global Systems Development

● Imagine the challenges of developing a domestic system, then multiply that
by the number of countries/cultures where that systems will be used
 Security and ethical challenges
Information system security refers to the way the system is defended against
unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, perusal, inspection,
recording or destruction.
There are two major aspects of information system security −

1. Security of the information technology used − securing the system from

malicious cyber-attacks that tend to break into the system and to access critical
private information or gain control of the internal systems.

2. Security of data − ensuring the integrity of data when critical issues, arise such
as natural disasters, computer/server malfunction, physical theft etc. Generally an
off-site backup of data is kept for such problems.
some of the threats that information system face and what can be done to
eliminate or minimize the damage -
Computer viruses – these are malicious programs as described in the above section.
The threats posed by viruses can be eliminated or the impact minimized by using Anti-
Virus software and following laid down security best practices of an organization.

Unauthorized access – the standard convention is to use a combination of a

username and a password. Hackers have learnt how to circumvent these controls if
the user does not follow security best practices. Most organizations have added the
use of mobile devices such as phones to provide an extra layer of security.

Data loss – if the data center caught fire or was flooded, the hardware with the
data can be damaged, and the data on it will be lost. As a standard security best
practice, most organizations keep backups of the data at remote places. The
backups are made periodically and are usually put in more than one remote area.

Identity theft
Identity theft occurs when a cyber-criminal impersonates someone else identity to
practice malfunction. This is usually done by accessing personal details of someone
else. The details used in such crimes include social security numbers, date of birth,
credit and debit card numbers, passport numbers, etc.
Copyright infringement
Piracy is one of the biggest problems with digital products. Websites such as the pirate
bay are used to distribute copyrighted materials such as audio, video, software, etc.
Copyright infringement refers to the unauthorized use of copyrighted materials.

Hacking
Hacking is used to by-pass security controls to gain unauthorized access to a system.
Once the attacker has gained access to the system, they can do whatever they want.

Information Communication Technology (ICT) policy:-

ICT policy 2015
Vision:-
• To transform Nepal into an information and knowledge-based society and economy.
Mission:-
• To create conditions for the intensified development and growth of ICT sector as a
key driver for Nepal's sustainable development and poverty reduction strategies.
ICT policy defines the following points:
• E-Learning systems will be promoted to extend the reach of educational services
including teachers training programs.
• The development and the adoption of IT enabled Educational Management
Information Systems within the public and private educational institutions will be
promoted and facilitated to improve the quality of managing educational delivery
activities, operations and monitoring.
• The integration of computer skills into the teaching and learning process at primary,
high school and tertiary levels will be promoted and facilitated.
• To facilitate the adoption of E-Commerce especially by SMEs in agriculture, tourism,
and manufacturing as well as non-traditional exports to ensure productivity and growth.
• To transform Government service delivery regime by promoting transparency,
efficiency, inclusiveness and participation through effective utilization of information
and communication technologies.

An ICT policy is a set of guidelines that defines how an organization should use information
technology and information systems responsibly. ICT policies usually include guidelines on;
•Purchase and usage of hardware equipment and how to safely dispose them
•Use of licensed software only and ensuring that all software is up to date with latest patches for
security reasons
•Rules on how to create passwords (complexity enforcement), changing passwords, etc.
•Acceptable use of information technology and information systems
•Training of all users involved in using ICT and MIS

• Planning and Implementing changes

•An MIS is a computerized database of financial, administrative and programmatic information organized
and programmed in such a way that it produces regular reports on operations for every level of
management in an organization. Planning is the steps of achieving the goal. Planning helps to work with
gaining the heavy workload.

Process of planning to adopt an MIS

1. Define Outcomes
Investments in management information systems can help strengthen your
project/organization, but there are limited resources. Make a clear articulated case to secure funding
and prioritize the effort.
• Identify tangible benefits that an MIS will bring to your organization
• Define the scope of the MIS (organizational level, regional level, country level)
• Develop measurements to assess whether MIS is successful
2. Form your team
•The successful implementation of an MIS requires a combination of people and technology.
•Determine resources and skills needed for each of the three phases of an MIS
(develop, scale, and sustain)

3. Define what your system needs to do

•Documenting system requirements and communicating them well is crucial. Lack of understanding
between the future users of a system and the people who design it is one of the main causes of
frustration, delays and cost overruns in IT projects

4. Find the right solution

•There is a range of potential solutions depending on your resources and needs. This includes buying
or building your system, selecting open-source or proprietary systems

5. Select the right vendors

•Asking the right questions when selecting a vendor will help you select the best vendor for your
needs.
•Evaluate the merit of each proposal
• Evaluate the cost of each proposal and select a vendor
• Make a contract or memorandum of understanding
6. Estimate implementation and operating costs
•Estimate project cost for pilot, scale up, and maintenance
• Pilot the functional, technical, and organizational complexity of the project drives costs. Costs do not
vary significantly for a large or a small country.
• Scale the number of future users and the cost per user to deploy it are the most important variables.
The cost per user depends on the way in which users will access the system (for example, desktop
computer, mobile phone, paper) and their training needs.
• Sustain: Apart from the number of users, the selected technology is critical here.
For example, any solution that requires local software installation and maintenance will be more
expensive than a centralized system, such as a web-based or cloud system

7. Create an implementation plan

•Develop an implementation plan for the MIS development, pilot, and scale up
• Define work plan for development, pilot. and scale up. Don’t forget to include training of MIS users.
•Track milestones
8. Understand and manage project risks
The seven steps above should lower project risk by aligning requirements to
organizational objectives, understanding costs, planning appropriately, and choosing the right
vendors..
 Information Technology Trends
Some of the new and innovative technology trends in information
technology and completely shaping it in new form. These are as
follows:

1. Artificial intelligence :- AI has revolutionized various industries by enabling machines

to create content that resembles human-generated work. It encompasses a wide range
of applications, from text generation to image synthesis and even music composition.

2. Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality:- AR and VR have enormous potential in

training, entertainment, education, marketing, and even rehabilitation after an injury. This
technology trend has primarily been used for gaming thus far, it has also been used for
training, as with VirtualShip, a simulation software used to train U.S. Navy, Army and Coast
Guard ship captains.
3. Blockchain:- In general conception blockchain technology is related with
cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, blockchain offers security that is useful in many other
ways. But this technology also provides distributed ledger which may be very useful in
enterprises in future. In simplest terms, blockchain can be described as data you can
only add to, not take away from, or change.

4. Internet of things :- The Internet of things describes devices with sensors,

processing ability, software and other technologies that connect and exchange
data with other devices and systems over the Internet or other communications
networks.

5. Renewable Engergy:-

6.5G network:-

7. Cybersecurity :-
 Advance concept in MIS
a) Enterprise resource management

Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a process used by companies to manage and integrate the
important parts of their businesses. Many ERP software applications are important to companies
because they help them implement resource planning by integrating all of the processes needed to
run their companies with a single system. An ERP software system can also integrate planning,
purchasing inventory,sales, marketing, finance, human resources, and more.

ERP applications also allow the different departments to communicate and share information more
easily with the rest of the company. It collects information about the activity and state of different
divisions, making this information available to other parts, where it can be used productively.
 b.) Supply chain management

Supply chain management is the management of the flow of goods and services and includes all processes
that transform raw materials into final products. It involves the active streamlining of a business's supply-
side activities to maximize customer value and gain a competitive advantage in the marketplace
SCM represents an effort by suppliers to develop and implement supply chains that are as efficient and
economical as possible. Supply chains cover everything from production to product development to
the information systems needed to direct these undertakings.

SCM attempts to centrally control or link the production, shipment, and distribution of a product. By
managing the supply chain, companies are able to cut excess costs and deliver products to the
consumer faster. This is done by keeping tighter control of internal inventories, internal production,
distribution, sales, and the inventories of company vendors
Principles of designing a supply chain:-
•Less number of stages preferred between customer and goods/ service provider.
•Each stage is supported by ITsystem for faster information processing for local decisions and SCM
decisions
•All stages are in network of communications capable of providing seamless flow of information about
stock, stock movement, order and order deliveries, funds received and spent
•Decision on location of factory, warehouse, distributor and their numbers with the objective of
minimizing the cost of SC operations and maximizing the value of supply chain
•It infrastructure design should use B2C and or B2B e- business models
•Ease of integration in ERP System at Enterprise level is a necessity
c) Customer Relationship Management:-
CRM is a comprehensive set of processes and technologies for managing the relationships
with potential and current customers across the business functions.

The goal of CRM is to optimize customer satisfaction and revenue through relationship
built between customer and all those who deal with the customer. The relationship is
built through managing customer initiatives and behavior in such way that customer
experience is full of comfort, happiness and satisfaction.
CRM system is configured around three areas as under:-
1) Front office operations
2)Back office operations
3)Business relationships
A CRM Package generally has following functional modules
a) Sales force Automation(SFA) activities
b) Analytical CRM activities
c)Campaign Management activities
d) Sales Intelligence CRM generates 3 As( Attention, Alerts, Action) when
following change is seen-
-> cross selling / Up selling/ switch selling opportunities
->Customer drift or walk away to competition
-> Customer buying trends in choices, brands etc
 Procurement management
The procurement management process includes the transactional purchasing of goods
and services, and integrates with accounts payable to complete the source-to-settle
cycle by providing supporting documents to help with the processing of supplier
invoices for payment.

It encompasses the evaluation, selection, and creation of formal contractual

agreements as well as managing the company’s ongoing supplier relationships.

Procurement play an important role in any business or organization. It ensures that

materials, services and supplies are purchased at the best possible price while
meeting the required specifications. The four main roles of procurement are
sourcing, negotiation, contract management and supplier relationship management.
These activities require a strong understanding of market trend, organizational
objectives and supplier capabilities to ensure success
 UNIT-5

• Account information System

• Geographical information system
• Human resource information system
• Inventory information systems
• Manufacturing information systems
• Marketing information Systems
• Quality information Systems
Accounting information System
An accounting information system is a system of collecting, storing and processing
financial and accounting data that are used by decision makers. An accounting
information system is generally a computer-based method for tracking accounting
activity in conjunction with information technology resources.

Accounting information systems generally consist of six primary

components: people, procedures and instructions, data, software, information
technology infrastructure, and internal controls.
 Geographical Information System
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing,
checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earth’s surface. GIS can show
many different kinds of data on one map, such as streets, buildings, and vegetation.
This enables people to more easily see, analyze, and understand patterns and
relationships.
A working GIS integrates these five key components: hardware, software, data,
people, and methods.

Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. Today, GIS runs on a wide range
of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in
standalone or networked configurations.
Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and
display geographic information. Key software components are:

• A database management system (DBMS)

• Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
• Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
• A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools
People
GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system, to those
who use it to help them do their everyday work.
Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which
are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

Data
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or bought from a
commercial data provider. Most GIS employ a DBMS to create and maintain a database
to help organize and manage data.
The data that a GIS operates on consists of any data bearing a definable relationship to
space, including any data about things and events that occur in nature. It may consist
traditional cartographic maps, surveyor’s logs, demographic statistics, geographic
reports, and descriptions from the field. spatial data collection, classification, and
accuracy have allowed more and more standard digital base-maps to become available
at different scales.
 Human resource information system( HRIS)

The Human Resource Information System is a system used to collect and store data on
an organization's employees, like their name, address, age, salary, benefits, time and
attendance, performance reviews, and more. This data is valuable input for data-driven
decision-making in HR.

Benefits of an HRIS
Record-keeping. An HRIS is a record-keeping system that keeps track of changes to
anything related to employees. The HRIS can be seen as the single source of truth
when it comes to personnel data.
Efficiency. Having all this information stored in one place not only benefits
accuracy but also saves time. Some companies still keep a lot of data about
employees as physical paperwork. Finding the right folder, and locating the right
sheet, can take up a lot of staff time.
Compliance. Some data is collected and stored for compliance reasons in the HRIS.
This includes material for the identification of employees in case of theft, fraud, or
other misbehaviors, first contact information in case of accidents, citizens
identification information for the tax office etc.
HR strategy. The HRIS permits the tracking of data required to advance the HR and
business strategy . Depending on the priorities of the organization, different data will
be essential to track. This is where the HRIS shines.
Self-Service HR. A final benefit is the ability to offer self-service HR to employees and
managers. This enables employees to manage their own affairs. When done right,
the HRIS can offer a good employee experience.

HRIS functions

Applicant Tracking System (ATS). This software handles all the company’s recruiting
needs. It tracks candidate information and resumes, enables recruiters to match job
openings to suitable candidates from the company’s application pool, and helps in
guiding the hiring process.

Payroll. Payroll automates the pay process of employees. Contractual data and
information on new hires is often entered into this system – sometimes combined
with time & attendance data – and at the end of the month, payments orders are
created.
Benefits administration. Another functionality of the HRIS is benefits management.
Employee benefits are an important aspect of compensation and are also managed in
this system. More advanced systems offer an employee self-service model for
employee benefits. In this case, employees can select the benefits they are looking
for themselves.

Time & Attendance. This module gathers time and attendance data from employees.
These are especially relevant for shift workers where employees clock in and out. Based
on this data, payment orders were generated and paid to all employees. Nowadays,
workers often check into work by fingerprint or a card that is synced with an HRIS. This
gives an exact time for arrival and departure. Any issues with lateness are easily
detected.

Training. Learning and development is a key element when it comes to employee

management. This module allows HR to track qualification, certification, and skills
of the employees, as well as an outline of available courses for company
employees.
Performance management. Performance management is a key part of managing
people. Performance ratings are generated once or multiple times a year by the direct
manager or peers of the employee.
Inventory information systems:-

An inventory information system is the combination of inventory management

software and inventory management processes & procedures to connect, track
and manage the flow of goods, activities, information and resources across a
business.

Inventory management helps companies identify which and how much stock to
order at what time. It tracks inventory from purchase to the sale of goods. The
practice identifies and responds to trends to ensure there's always enough stock
to fulfill customer orders and proper warning of a shortage

There are several types of inventory management systems that businesses use
depending on how they operate. Three examples are manual inventory, periodic
inventory and perpetual inventory. Manual methods are the least sophisticated
and least accurate, and perpetual systems are the most sophisticated and most
accurate
 Benefits of Inventory Management Systems
1. Improved cash flow
2. Better reporting and forecasting capabilities
3. Reduction in storage costs (overhead)
4. Reduced labor costs
5. Reduction in deadstock
6. Better organization
7. Enhanced transparency
8. Improved supplier, vendor, and partner relationships
 Manufacturing information systems

The manufacturing information system is a system that supports the manufacturing

functions of purchasing, receiving, quality control, inventory management, material
requirements planning, capacity planning, production scheduling, and plant design.
They are computer software platforms used to track to and document the
transformation of raw materials to finished goods.
The manufacturing information system operates in real-time, covering the full
range of production elements in the process, including machines, inputs,
personnel, and more.

Advantages of a Manufacturing Information System

1. The system creates a real-time record, capturing relevant data throughout the
manufacturing process.
2. This enables optimization of the process , increasing efficiency and potentially
reducing errors and downtime.
3. In addition, the documentation and record keeping that the system provides is
especially useful in heavily regulated sectors, such as pharmaceuticals or food and
beverage
Marketing information System
A marketing information system is a management information system designed to
support marketing decision making. Jobber defines it as a "system in which marketing
data is formally gathered, stored, analysed and distributed to managers in accordance
with their informational needs on a regular basis."
This typically involves collection, analysis, and interpretation of various types of
data, such as customer behavior, competitor information, and market trends. By
managing this data effectively, organizations can gain valuable insights that enable
them to adjust their strategies and achieve better results.

The key elements of a marketing information system include data organization and
storage, data analysis, reporting and visualization, and system implementation.
Data organization and storage involves collecting and storing data from various
sources, while data analysis involves analyzing and interpreting this data to gain
insights. Reporting and visualization allow organizations to present their findings in
an easy-to-understand format, while system implementation involves a proper
integration of the system into existing processes.
 Quality information Systems
A Quality Information System (QIS) is an integrated set of activities that provides
timely, accurate, relevant, comprehensive, and reliable information about the quality
of products or services produced by organizations. A QIS can provide decision
support tools to help managers make informed decisions about their operations. It
also helps them identify areas where they need improvement in order to meet
customer expectations and improve overall performance.
The Quality Information System consists of all those actions taken to collect, analyze,
interpret, and use quality-related information to manage processes and systems so
that they produce consistently high-quality products or services
The Characteristics of quality of information are:

Timeliness- The speed at which the information is received. Normally, faster the
information better is its quality.
Appropriateness- is the suitability matching of the receiver and the information,
more the suitability of the information to the receiver, better its quality
Accuracy – is the correctness of the information. Normally, the higher the
accuracy of the information, the better is its quality.
Reliability – the reliability of information is a key attribute of quality. Only if the
information is reliable is it of any use. The understanding of reliability comes from past
experience, the standing/reliability of the source, the methodology adopted to acquire
and process the information and the channel of delivery.
 Unit -6

1. Security threats and vulnerability

2. Controlling security threats and
Vulnerability
3. Management security threats in e business
4. Disaster Management
5. MIS and Security Challenges
6. Firewall
 Disaster Management

Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society, which

involve widespread human, material, economic or environmental impacts that
exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own
resources.

Disaster management is a process of effectively preparing for and responding to

disasters. It involves strategically organizing resources to lessen the harm that
disasters cause. It also involves a systematic approach to managing the
responsibilities of disaster prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery

Disaster management is how we deal with the human, material, economic or

environmental impacts of said disaster.
 Types of Disaster
1. Natural Disasters
Natural Disasters are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either by rapid or
slow onset events that have immediate impacts on human health and secondary
impacts causing further death and suffering. These disasters can be :-

a) Geophysical (e.g. Earthquakes, Landslides, Tsunamis and Volcanic Activity)

b) Hydrological (e.g. Avalanches and Floods)
c) Climatological (e.g. Extreme Temperatures, Drought and Wildfires)
d) Meteorological (e.g. Cyclones and Storms/Wave Surges)
e) Biological (e.g. Disease Epidemics and Insect/Animal Plagues)

2. Man-Made Disasters
Man-Made Disasters are events that are caused by humans which occur in or close to
human settlements often caused as a results of Environmental or Technological
Emergencies. This can include :-
a) Environmental Degradation
b) Pollution
c) Accidents (e.g. Industrial, Technological and Transport usually involving the
production, use or transport of hazardous materials)
 Different phases of Disaster Management
Emergency managers think of disasters as recurring events with four phases:-

1. Mitigation :- This phase includes actions taken to prevent or reduce the cause,
impact, and consequences of disasters. Examples of hazard mitigation include:
-> Digging water channels to redirect water and planting vegetation to absorb water
-> Constructing levees or permanent barriers to control flooding
2. Preparedness:- This phase includes planning, training, and educational activities
for events that cannot be mitigated. Examples include:
-> Developing disaster preparedness plans for what to do, where to go, or who to call
for help in a disaster
-> Exercising plans through drills, tabletop exercises, and full-scale exercises
-> Creating a supply list of items that are useful in a disaster

3. Response:- The response phase occurs in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. During
the response phase, business and other operations do not function normally. Personal
safety and wellbeing in an emergency and the duration of the response phase depend on
the level of preparedness. Examples of response activities include:
-> Implementing disaster response plans ‹ Conducting search and rescue missions
-> Taking actions to protect yourself, your family, your animals, and others
4. Recovery :- During the recovery period, restoration efforts occur concurrently with
regular operations and activities. The recovery period from a disaster can be
prolonged. Examples of recovery activities include:
-> Preventing or reducing stress-related illnesses and excessive financial burdens
-> Rebuilding damaged structures based on advanced knowledge obtained from the
preceding disaster

Management security threats in e business:- Following are some

Important security threats in e business
1. Financial frauds
Ever since the first online businesses entered the world of the internet, financial
fraudsters have been giving businesses a headache. There are various kinds of
financial frauds prevalent in the e-commerce industry, but we are going to
discuss the two most common of them.

Phishing
Several e-commerce shops have received reports of their customers receiving
messages or emails from hackers masquerading to be the legitimate store owners.
Such fraudsters present fake copies of your website pages or another reputable
website to trick the users into believing them. For example, see this image below. A
seemingly harmless and authentic email from PayPal asking to provide details.
3. Spamming
Some bad players can send infected links via email or social media inboxes. They can
also leave these links in their comments or messages on blog posts and contact forms.
Once you click on such links, they will direct you to their spam websites, where you
may end up being a victim.
4. DoS & DDoS Attacks
Many e-commerce websites have incurred losses due to disruptions in their website
and overall sales because of DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attacks. What
happens is that your servers receive a deluge of requests from many untraceable IP
addresses causing it to crash and making unavailable to your store visitors.

5. Malware
Hackers may design a malicious software and install on your IT and computer
systems without your knowledge. These malicious programs include spyware,
viruses, trojan, and ransomware.
The systems of your customers, admins, and other users might have Trojan Horses
downloaded on them. These programs can easily swipe any sensitive data that
might be present on the infected systems and may also infect your website.
6. Exploitation of Known Vulnerabilities
Attackers are on the lookout for certain vulnerabilities that might be existing in your
e-commerce store.
Often an e-commerce store is vulnerable to SQL injection (SQLi) and Cross-site
Scripting (XSS).
Let’s take a quick look at these vulnerabilities:

7. Bots
Some attackers develop special bots that can scrape your website to get
information about inventory and prices. Such hackers, usually your competitors,
can then use the data to lower or modify the prices in their websites in an attempt
to lower your sales and revenue.

8. Brute force
The online environment also has players who can use brute force to attack your
admin panel and crack your password. These fraudulent programs connect to your
website and try out thousands of combinations in an attempt to obtain you site’s
passwords. Always ensure to use strong, complex passwords that are hard to guess.
Additionally, always change your passwords frequently.
9. Man in The Middle (MITM)
A hacker may listen in on the communication taking place between your e-
commerce store and a user. If the user is connected to a vulnerable Wi-Fi or
network, such attackers can take advantage of that.

10. e-Skimming
E-skimming involves infecting a website’s checkout pages with malicious software. The
intention is to steal the clients’ personal and payment details.
Are you an e-commerce business person? Don’t downplay the seriousness of these e-
commerce security threats.

MIS and Security Challenges

MIS security refers to measures put in place to protect information system
resources from unauthorized access or being compromised. Security
vulnerabilities are weaknesses in a computer system, software, or hardware that
can be exploited by the attacker to gain unauthorized access or compromise a
system.
Information Security threats can be many like Software attacks, theft of intellectual
property, identity theft, theft of equipment or information, sabotage, and
information extortion.

Threat can be anything that can take advantage of a vulnerability to breach

security and negatively alter, erase, harm object or objects of interest.

Software attacks means attack by Viruses, Worms, Trojan Horses etc. Many users
believe that malware, virus, worms, bots are all same things. But they are not
same, only similarity is that they all are malicious software that behaves
differently.
Malware is a combination of 2 terms- Malicious and Software. So Malware
basically means malicious software that can be an intrusive program code or
anything that is designed to perform malicious operations on system. Malware
can be divided in 2 categories
 Firewall
Firewall is a network security device that observes and filters incoming and outgoing
network traffic, adhering to the security policies defined by an organization. Essentially,
it acts as a protective wall between a private internal network and the public Internet

Firewalls are network security systems that prevent unauthorized access to a

network. It can be a hardware or software unit that filters the incoming and
outgoing traffic within a private network, according to a set of rules to spot and
prevent cyberattacks.

Firewalls are used in enterprise and personal settings. They are a vital
component of network security. Most operating systems have a basic built-in
firewall. However, using a third-party firewall application provides better
protection.
Types of Firewalls
A firewall can either be software or hardware. Software firewalls are programs installed
on each computer, and they regulate network traffic through applications and port
numbers. Meanwhile, hardware firewalls are the equipment established between the
gateway and network. Additionally, a firewall delivered by a cloud solution is called a
cloud firewall.

Packet Filtering
A packet filtering firewall controls data flow to and from a network. It allows or
blocks the data transfer based on the packet's source address, the destination
address of the packet, the application protocols to transfer the data, and so on.

Proxy Service Firewall

This type of firewall protects the network by filtering messages at the application
layer. For a specific application, a proxy firewall serves as the gateway from one
network to another.
Unified Threat Management (UTM) Firewall
A UTM device generally integrates the capabilities of a stateful inspection firewall,
intrusion prevention, and antivirus in a loosely linked manner. It may include
additional services and, in many cases, cloud management. UTMs are designed to be
simple and easy to use.

Next-Generation Firewall
According to Gartner, Inc.’s definition, the next-generation firewall is a deep-packet
inspection firewall that adds application-level inspection, intrusion prevention, and
information from outside the firewall to go beyond port/protocol inspection and
blocking.
 UNIT-7

6.1 Artificial Intelligence

6.2 Expert system
6.3 Neural system
6.1 Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines,
especially computer systems. Specific applications of AI include expert systems,
natural language processing, speech recognition, and machine vision
Advantages of AI
1. Good at detail-oriented jobs
2. Reduced time for data-heavy tasks
3. Delivers consistent results
4. AI-powered virtual agents are always available.

Disadvantages of AI
1. Expensive
2. Requires deep technical expertise
3. A limited supply of qualified workers to build AI tools
4. Only knows what it's been shown
5. Lack of ability to generalize from one task to another
AI in business
Machine learning algorithms are being integrated into analytics and customer
relationship management (CRM) platforms to uncover information on how to better
serve customers. Chatbots have been incorporated into websites to provide
immediate service to customers. Automation of job positions has also become a
talking point among academics and IT analysts

Expert systems:-
Expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex
problems in a particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence
and expertise

Characteristics of Expert Systems

1. High performance
2. Understandable
3. Reliable
4. Highly responsive
Capabilities of Expert Systems
1. Advising
2. Instructing and assisting humans in decision making
3. Demonstrating
4. Deriving a solution
5. Diagnosing
6. Explaining
7. Interpreting input
8. Predicting results
9. Justifying the conclusion
10. Suggesting alternative options to a problem
Benefits of Expert Systems
Availability:-They are easily available due to the mass production of software.
Less Production Cost:-Production cost is reasonable. This makes them affordable.

Speed:-They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual puts
in.
Less Error Rate:-The error rate is low as compared to human errors.
Reducing Risk:-They can work in an environment dangerous to humans.
Steady response:-They work steadily without getting emotional, tensed, or
fatigued
Neural networks:-
Neural networks reflect the behavior of the human brain, allowing computer
programs to recognize patterns and solve common problems in the fields of AI,
machine learning, and deep learning.
A neural network is a series of algorithms that endeavors to recognize underlying
relationships in a set of data through a process that mimics the way the human
brain operates. In this sense, neural networks refer to systems of neurons, either
organic or artificial in nature. Neural networks can adapt to changing input; so the
network generates the best possible result without needing to redesign the output
criteria. The concept of neural networks, which has its roots in artificial intelligence,
is swiftly gaining popularity in the development of trading systems.

A neural network works similarly to the human brain’s neural network. A “neuron” in
a neural network is a mathematical function that collects and classifies information
according to a specific architecture. The network bears a strong resemblance to
statistical methods such as curve fitting and regression analysis.
A neural network contains layers of interconnected nodes. Each node is a
perception and is similar to multiple linear regression. The perception feeds the
signal produce
 UNIT 7
1. Nature of Office
2. Types of office information System
3. Client server computing
Nature of office
Helps in Achievement of Targets
Targets or goals are results in quantitative terms which are to be achieved in a given
time. Management makes people realize the goals and directs their efforts towards
the achievement of these goals
Optimum Use of Resources
Management helps in the utilization of resources effectively. Scarce resources are
put to use optimistically by managers. Managers bring about coordination and
integration of various resources. It is management that guides the person in the
office in the use of resources
Minimization of Costs
Office costs can be reduced under the guidance and control of efficient
management. Office Management is concerned with doing office activities in the
best and cheapest way. Cost reduction is one of the objects of management
which can be achieved through work simplification and mechanization. Through
better planning, sound organization, and effective control, management enables
a concern to reduce costs and prepare an enterprise to face cut throat
competition