Network Models

OSI Model

Layered Architecture
In layered architecture, the task of data communication is
divided into layers.
The designers of the network identified the network
functions which had related uses and collected them into
discrete groups. And each of the group became a layer.
 Sender LAYERED TASK Receiver

The letter is written put

Higher layers The letter is picked up
in an envelop, and
and read.
dropped in a mailbox

The letter is carried

The letter is carried
Middle layers from the post office to
from the mailbox to a
the mailbox
post office

The letter is delivered to The letter is delivered

a carrier by the post Lower layers from the carrier to the
office post office.

The parcel is carried from the source to

destination
Hierarchy of Tasks:

Activities take place at the sender site and

Receiver Site:
Higher Layer:
Middle Layer:
Lower Layer:

Higher layer uses the services of lower layer.

OSI Model

Benefits of Layered Architecture

Layer architecture simplifies the network design. Protocol of a
layer can be developed independently.
The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of
networking into layers reduces complexity.
It is easy to debug network applications in a layered
architecture network.
The network management is easier due to the layered
architecture.
Change of the protocol on one layer is easy because it will not
effect the other layer.
 International Standards Organization(IS0)
International Standards Organization(ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards.

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network

communications is the Open system Interconnection (OSI)
model.

OSI is a set of protocols that allows any two different

systems to communicate regardless of their underlying
architecture.

The purpose of the OSI model is ensuring how to facilitate

communication between different systems without requiring
changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
OSI Model

OSI Reference Model

The OSI model is considered the primary Architectural
model for inter-computer communications.
The OSI model describes how information or data makes its
way from application programmes (such as spreadsheets)
through a network medium (such as wire) to another
application programme located on another network.
The OSI reference model divides the job of data transfer
between computers over a network medium into SEVEN
layers .
This separation into smaller more manageable functions is
known as layering.
Layers of OSI model
OSI Model

OSI: A Layered Network Model

Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the
protocol specification.
Each layer communicates with the same layer on other
computers.
The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical
—Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data
from end to end through the network.
The upper three layers of the OSI model (application,
presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated
more toward services to the applications.
Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol
information as it moves down the layers before network
transit.
OSI Layers
Peer to peer processes
The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer
are called peer to peer processes.
For example, the process of network layer on the sender side is
peer to the network layer process of the receiver side.
Interfaces between Layers
An interface between each pair of adjacent layers.

Each interface defines what information and services a layer must

provide for the layer above it.

Well defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to

the network. Specific implementation of a layer can be modified
without requiring changes to surrounding layers.
Organization Of the Layers
The seven layers can belong to three subgroups.
Layer1,2,3 i.e. Physical ,data link and network layers are the network
support layers.
•Network Support Layers deal with the physical aspects of moving
data from one device to another(such as electrical specifications,
physical connections, addressing)
•Lower layers are a combination of hardware and software, except for
the physical layer which is mostly hardware.

Layers 5,6,7-session,presentation, and application can be considered

as User support layers.
• User support layers allow interoperability among unrelated
software systems.
•Upper layers always implemented in software.

Layer 4, the transport layer ensures end-to-end reliable data

transmission while Layer 2 ensures reliable transmission on a single
link.
An Exchange Using the OSI Model
 Physical Layer

Sender Receiver
System System
 Physical Layer
 Physical characteristics of the interface and medium - It defines
the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the
transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission
medium.

 Representation of bits:- The physical layer data consists of a

stream of bits(sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To be
transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals-electrical or optical.
The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are
changed to signals).

 Data rate –The transmission rate (number of bits sent each

second) is also defined by the physical layer. It defines the duration
of a bit , which is how long it lasts.

 Synchronization of bits : The sender and receiver must be

synchronized at the bit level. The sender and the receiver clocks
must be synchronized.
 Physical Layer
Line Configuration :It is concerned with the connection of
devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two
devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint
configuration, a link is shared among several devices.

Physical Topology - Physical topology defines how the devices

are connected to make a network.

Transmission mode - The physical layer also defines the direction

of transmission between two devices.
Data Link Layer
 Data Link Layer
1. Framing – DLL divides the data received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.

2. Physical addressing –

3. Flow Control – If the rate at which the data are received by the receiver
is less than the rate at which data are transmitted in the sender, the
data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.

4. Error Control – The data link layer adds error control to the physical
layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames.
It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of
the frame.
5. Access control – When two or more devices are connected to the same
link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at any given time.
Data Link Layer Example
Hop-to-hop delivery

•Communication at the data link layer occurs between two adjacent nodes.
•For A to F, 3 partial deliveries are made. A to B, B to E, and E to F. Different headers.
Network Layer
Functionalities of Network Layer:
1. Logical Addressing – Logical addresses are necessary for universal
communications that are independent of the physical networks. A
universal addressing scheme is needed in which each host can be
identified uniquely.

2. Routing – Routing means to determine how packets are routed from

source to destination. Routes can be static or dynamic. In case of static
routing, the routes are stored in the routing table of the
router/machine. In case of dynamic routing, the routes are determined
dynamically on the basis of some parameters.
Source-to-destination delivery

When B gets packet, B makes a decision based on the final F. B is a router, it uses its routing table
to find that the next hop is router E, so send to E.
Network Layer Example
Network Layer Example
OSI Model

Transport Layer
Responsible for source-to-destination(end-to-end) delivery of
the entire message.
May create a connection between the two end ports. A
connection is a single logical path that is associated with all
the packets in a message.
Responsibilities of transport layer include:
Service-point addressing (Port addressing) – service point
address (port address) is used.
Segmentation and reassembly – Each segment contains a
sequence number.
Connection Management – Transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection oriented. Connectionless treats
each segment as an independent packet.
Flow Control:- end-to-end rather than a single link.
Error Control :- end-to-end rather than a single link.
Transport Layer
Transport Layer Example
Transport Layer Example
OSI Model
Session Layer
Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue
between the two end systems. (network dialog controller).

It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called

sessions) between applications.

It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction

between communicating devices.

This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on

an end-user’s request.

Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by

this layer.

This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be

full duplex or half duplex.
Responsibilities of session layer:
• Dialog Control: allows two systems to enter into a
dialog.
• Synchronization: Allows a process to add
checkpoints (synchronization points) into a stream of
data.
If a crash occurs, data is retransmitted from the last
checkpoint.
example: a file of 2000 pages, checkpoints after
every 100 pages to ensure 100 page unit is received
and acknowledged independently.
Session Layer
OSI Model

Presentation Layer
Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to
be exchanged between the two communicating entities.
This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.
Encryption – Encryption is the process of converting original
information to another form.
Presentation layer uses the encryption techniques before
passing the data to the session layer.
On the receiver side, the decryption is carried out by the
presentation layer of the receiving machine.
Decryption is the process of converting the encrypted data
into the original data.
The sender and receiver must agree the encryption algorithm
to be implemented on the data.
OSI Model

Presentation Layer
Compression – It is the process of reducing the number of bits
in the data. Using compression, the size of the data is reduced.
Presentation layer uses the compression techniques before
passing the data to the session layer.
On the receiver side, the decompression is carried out by the
presentation layer of the receiving machine. Decompression is
the reverse process of compression.
Translation – The information should be changed into
bit streams before being transmitted.
Because different computers use different encoding systems,
the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these encoding methods.
Presentation layer at sender changes sender-dependent
information to a common format.
At receiver machine, this common format is changed into
receiver-dependent format.
Presentation Layer
OSI Model

Application Layer
It provides user interface and support for services such as
electronic mail.
Application layer interacts with application programs and is
the highest level of OSI model.
Application layer contains management functions to support
distributed applications.
Examples of application layer are applications such as file
transfer, electronic mail, remote login etc.
Application Layer
Network virtual terminal: Software version of physical terminal and
allows a user to log on to a remote host.
User’s computer talks to software terminal, which in turn talks to host and
vice-versa.
The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own
terminals and allows you to log on.
File transfer, access and management: Allows a user to access files on a
remote computer.
Mail Services: Provides the basis for email forwarding and storage.
Protocol supported at various layers
OSI Model

OSI in Action
A message begins at the top application
layer and moves down the OSI layers to
the bottom physical layer.
As the message descends, each
successive OSI model layer adds a
header to it.
A header is layer-specific information
that basically explains what functions
the layer carried out.
Conversely, at the receiving end,
headers are striped from the message
as it travels up the corresponding
layers.
TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP Model

OSI & TCP/IP Models

TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP Model
Application Layer
Application programs using the network
Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
Management of end-to-end message transmission,
error detection and error correction
Network Layer (IP)
Handling of datagrams : routing and congestion
Data Link Layer
Management of cost effective and reliable data delivery,
access to physical networks
Physical Layer
Physical Media
Summary of Layer Functions