ANGLE MODULATION

Angle modulation is a process of varying angle of

carrier in accordance with the the
modulating signal. instantaneous values
of

Angle can be varied by varying frequency or

phase.

Angle modulation is of 2
types.

• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
The process of varying frequency the carrier in
accordance with the of values the
modulating signal.
instantaneous of

Relation between angle and frequency :

Consider carrier signal c(t)= Ac Cos (wct+φ)

= Ac Cos (2πfct +φ)
Where, Wc= Carrier frequency
φ = Phase

C(t) = Ac Cos[ψ(t)], where, ψ(t)= wct+φ

i.e Frequency can be obtained by

derivating angle and angle can be obtained by
integrating frequency.
Frequency Modulation

Frequency modulator converts input voltage

into frequency i.e the amplitude of modulating signal
m(t) changes to frequency at the output.

Consider carrier signal c(t) =Ac Coswct

The frequency variation at the output
is called instantaneous frequency and is
expressed as,
wi = wc + kf m(t)
Where, kf = frequency sensitivity factor in Hz/volt
 Frequency Modulation
The angle of the carrier after modulation can
written as, be

Frequency modulated signal can be written as,

AFM(t) = Ac Cos [ψi(t)] = Ac Cos [wct + kfʃm(t)dt]

Frequency Deviation in FM:

The instantaneous frequency, wi = wc + kf m(t)

= wc + Δw
Where, Δw = kf m(t) is called frequency deviation which
may be positive or negative depending on the sign
of m(t).
 Phase Modulation
The process of varying the phase of carrier in accordance
with instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Consider modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) =

Ac
Coswct

Phase modulating signal,

APM(t) = Ac Cos[ ψi(t)]

Where, ψi(t) = wct + kpm(t)

Where, kp = Phase
sensitivity factor in rad/volt

APM
(t) = Ac Cos[wct +
 Phase Modulation
Frequency deviation in PM:

Conversion between Frequency and Phase

Modulation:
Modulation Index
Definition:
Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of frequency
deviation () to the modulating frequency (fm).

M.I.=Frequency Deviation
Modulating
Frequency

mf =δ
fm

In FM M.I.>1

Modulation Index of FM decides −

(i)Bandwidth of the FM wave.
(ii)Number of sidebands in FM wave.
Deviation Ratio
The modulation index corresponding to maximum
deviation and maximum modulating frequency is called
deviation ratio.

Deviation Ratio= Maximum Deviation

Maximum modulating Frequency

= δmax
fmax

In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is

limited to 75
kHz. The maximum modulating frequency is also limited to
15 kHz.
Percentage M.I. of FM

The percentage modulation is defined as the ratio of

the actual frequency deviation produced by the modulating
signal to the maximum allowable frequency deviation.

% M.I = Actual deviation

Maximum allowable deviation


Mathematical Representation of FM

(i) Modulating
Signal:

It may be represented as,

em = Em (1)
cos mt
Here cos term taken for
simplicity
em
where, = Instantaneous amplitude
m = Angular velocity
= 2fm
fm = Modulating frequency
(ii) Carrier Signal:

Carrier may be represented as,

ec = Ec sin (ct + ) -----(2)

where,
ec = Instantaneous amplitude
c = Angular velocity
= 2fc
fc = Carrier frequency
 = Phase angle
(iii) FM Wave:

Fig. Frequency Vs. Time in FM

FM is nothing but a deviation of frequency.
From Fig. 2.25, it is seen that instantaneous frequency ‘f’ of the FM
wave is given by,
f =fc (1 + K Em cos mt) (3)
where,
fc =Unmodulated carrier frequency
K= Proportionality
constant
Em cos mt =Instantaneous
modulating signal
(Cosine term preferred for simplicity
otherwise we can use sine term also)
• The maximum deviation for this particular signal will occur, when
cos mt =  1 fi.e.
=fmaximum.
c (1  K Em)  (4)
 Equation (2.26)
f =fc becomes,
K Emfc  (5)
So that maximum deviation  will be given by,
 = K Emfc  (6)
The instantaneous amplitude of FM signal is given by,
= A sin [f(c, m)]
eFM
= A sin   (7)
where,
f(c, m)= Some
function of carrier and modulating
frequencies
Let us write equation (2.26) in terms of  as,
 = c (1 + K Em
cos mt)
To find ,  must be =  dt
 integrated with respect to time.
Thus, = c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
 =c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
=  c (t+ KEm sin mt)
m
=ct + KEmc sin mt
m

=ct + KEmfc sin mt

fm
=ct +  sinmt  = K Em fc]
[...
fm

Substitute value of  in equation (7)
Thus,
eFM = A sin (ct +  sinmt
)---(8)
fm
eFM = A sin (ct +mf sinmt

)---(9)

This is the equation of FM.

 Frequency Spectrum of FM
Frequency spectrum is a graph of amplitude versus
frequency. The frequency spectrum of FM wave tells us about
number of sideband present in the FM wave and their amplitudes.
The expression for FM wave is not simple. It is complex because it
is sine of sine function.
Only solution is to use ‘Bessels Function’.
Equation (2.32) may be expanded as,
eFM = {A J0 (mf) sin ct
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + m) t − sin (c − m) t]
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + 2m) t + sin (c − 2m) t]
+ J3 (mf) [sin (c + 3m) t − sin (c − 3m) t]
+ J4 (mf) [sin (c + 4m) t + sin (c − 4m) t]
+ }  (2.33)
From this equation it is seen that the FM wave consists of:
(i)Carrier (First term in equation).
(ii)Infinite number of sidebands (All terms except
first term are
sidebands).
The amplitudes of carrier and sidebands depend on ‘J’
coefficient.
 = 2f ,  = 2f
Fig. : Ideal Frequency Spectrum of
FM
Bandwidth of FM
From frequency spectrum of FM wave shown in Fig.
2.26, we can say that the bandwidth of FM wave is
infinite.
But practically, it is calculated based on how many
sidebands have significant amplitudes.
(i) The Simple Method to calculate the bandwidth is −

BW=2fmx Number of significant sidebands --(1)

With increase in modulation index, the number of

significant sidebands increases. So that bandwidth also
increases.
(ii) The second method to calculate bandwidth is by
Carson’s rule.
Carson’s rule states that, the bandwidth of FM wave is
twice the sum of deviation and highest modulating frequency.
BW=2( +fmmax)
(2)

Highest order side band = To be found from table 2.1 after

the
calculation of modulation Index m where, m = /fm

e.g. If m= 20KHZ/5KHZ

From table, for modulation index 4, highest order side band is 7th.
Therefore, the bandwidth is
B.W. = 2 fm  Highest order side band
=2  5 kHz  7
=70 kHz
Types of Frequency Modulation

FM (Frequency Modulation)

Narrowband Wideband FM
FM (NBFM) (WBFM)
[When [When modulation index is
modulation index large]
is small]
Comparison between Narrowband
and Wideband FM
Sr. Parameter NBFM WBFM
No.
1. Modulation Less than or slightly Greater than 1
index greater than 1
2. Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz
deviation
3. Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4. Maximum Slightly greater than 1 5 to 2500
modulation
index
5. Bandwidth Small approximately Large about 15 times
same as that of AM greater than that of
BW = 2fm NBFM.
BW = 2(+fmmax)
6. Applications FM mobile communication Entertainment
like police wireless, broadcasting (can be used
ambulance, short range for high quality music
ship to shore transmission)
communication etc.
Representation of FM
FM can be represented by two ways:
1. Time domain.
2. Frequency domain.
[Link] in Time Domain
Time domain representation means continuous variation of voltage with respect
to time as shown in Fig. .

Fig. 1 FM in Time Domain

[Link] in Frequency Domain
• Frequency domain is also known as frequency spectrum.
• FM in frequency domain means graph or plot of amplitude versus frequency as
shown in Fig. 2.29.

Fig. 2: FM in Frequency Domain

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
• Pre and de-emphasis circuits are used only in frequency modulation.
• Pre-emphasis is used at transmitter and de-emphasis at receiver.
1. Pre-emphasis
• In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
• This effect can be reduced by increasing the value of modulation index (mf), for
higher modulating frequencies.
• This can be done by increasing the deviation ‘’ and ‘’ can be
increased by
increasing the amplitude of modulating signal at higher frequencies.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher audio modulating frequencies
in
accordance with prearranged response curve is called pre-emphasis.
• Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter as shown in Fig.
As shown in Fig. 1, AF is passed through a high-pass filter, before
applying to FM modulator.
• As modulating frequency (fm) increases,
capacitive reactance decreases and modulating voltage
goes on increasing. fm  Voltage of modulating signal
applied to FM modulat Boosting is done according to pre-arranged
curve as shown
in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: P re-emphasis
Curve
•

The time constant of pre-emphasis is at 50 s in all CCIR standards.

• In systems employing American FM and TV standards, networks having
time constant of 75 sec are used.
• The pre-emphasis is used at FM transmitter as shown in Fig.

Fig. FM Transmitter with Pre-emphasis

De-emphasis
• De-emphasis circuit is used at FM receiver.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies in
the
process of pre-emphasis is nullified at receiver by process called
de-emphasis.
• De-emphasis circuit is a low pass filter shown in Fig.

Fig. De-emphasis Circuit

 Fig. De-emphasis Curve

As shown in Fig.5, de-modulated FM is applied to the de-emphasis

circuit (low pass filter) where with increase in fm, capacitive reactance Xc
decreases. So that output of de-emphasis circuit also reduces •
Fig. 5 shows the de-emphasis curve corresponding to a time
constant
50 s. A 50 s de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency response curve
that is 3 dB down at frequency given by,
f = 1/ 2πRC
= 1/ 2π x 50x 1000
= 3180 Hz
Comparison between Pre-emphasis
and De-emphasis
Parameter Pre-emphasis De-emphasis

1. Circuit used High pass filter. Low pass filter.

2. Circuit diagram

Fig. 2.36
Fig. 2.37
3. Response curve
Fig. 2.38 Fig. 2.39

4. Time constant T = RC = 50 s T = RC = 50 s

5. Definition Boosting of higher Removal of higher

frequencies frequencies

6. Used at FM transmitter FM receiver.

Comparison between AM and FM
Parameter AM FM

1. Definition Amplitude of carrier is Frequency of carrier is

varied in accordance with varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating the amplitude of
signal keeping frequency modulating signal keeping
and phase constant. amplitude and phase
constant.
2. Constant Frequency and phase. Amplitude and phase.
parameters

3. Modulated signal

4. Modulation Index
m=Em/Ec m = / fm

5. Number of Only two Infinite and depends on mf.

sidebands
6. Bandwidth BW = 2fm BW = 2 ( + fm (max))

7. Application MW, SW band broadcasting, Broadcasting FM, audio

video transmission in TV. transmission in TV.
FM GENERATION

There are two methods for generation of FM wave.

Generation of FM

Direct Method
Indirect Method

[Link] Method
1. Reactance Modulator
2. Varactor Diode
Reactance Method

Fig. : Transistorized Reactance

Varactor Diode Modulator

Fig. : Varactor Diode Frequency

Modulator
Limitations of Direct Method of FM Generation
1. In this method, it is very difficult to get high order
stability in carrier frequency because in this method the
basic oscillator is not a stable oscillator, as it is controlled by
the modulating signal.

[Link] in this method we get distorted FM, due

to non-linearity of the varactor diode.
FM Transmitter (Armstrong Method)
FM Generation using IC 566

Fig. : Basic Frequency Modulator using NE566

VCO
Advantages/ Disadvantages/Applications of FM
Advantages of FM
1. Transmitted power remains constant.
2. FM receivers are immune to noise.
3. Good capture effect.
4. No mixing of signals.

Disadvantages of FM
The greatest disadvantages of FM are:
1. It uses too much spectrum space.
2. The bandwidth is wider.
3. The modulation index can be kept low to minimize
the
bandwidth used.
4. But reduction in M.I. reduces the noise immunity.
5. Used only at very high frequencies.

Applications of FM
5. FM radio broadcasting.
6. Sound transmission in TV.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Two steps involved in FM demodulation

• Conversion of FM signal into AM signal,
Tank or parallel resonance circuit converts FM
into AM signal.
•An envelope detector is used to extract
modulating signal from modulated signal.
Slope Demodulator:
Demodulation of FM Signal
• The input signal is a frequency modulated signal.
It is applied to the tuned transformer (T1, C1, C2
combination) which converts the incoming FM signal into
AM.
•This AM signal is applied to a simple diode
detector
circuit, D1. Here the diode provides the rectification, while
C3 removes any unwanted high frequency components,
and R1 provides a load.
Advantages:
Simple and low cost
Enables FM to be detected without any additional circuitry.
Disadvantages:
Nonlinear operation
Both frequency and amplitude variations are demodulated
Demodulation of FM Signal

Foster Seeley Demodulator or detector:

Demodulation of FM Signal

• Foster seeley demodulator contains two

tuning circuits and two envelope detectors.

• One section of tuning circuit and

envelope detector works for incoming frequency
is greater than carrier frequency and vice versa for
incoming frequency less than carrier frequency.

• Tuning circuit converts FM signal to AM signal

and Envelope detector extracts message signal from
AM signal.
Demodulation of FM Signal
Ratio Demodulator:

• Ratio detector is similar to Foster

seeley demodulator except of Diode of D2 is
reversed potential divider circuit.
• Potential divider circuit suppress the noise
and this advantage of ratio detector.
Demodulation of FM Signal
PLL Demodulator or detector:
• Phase Locked Loop is closed loop system
which contains Phase detector, VCO and loop filter
or LPF as shown in figure.

• It continuously finds the phase difference

between incoming FM signal and locally generated
carrier.
• And based on Phase
difference it generates Modulating signal.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Zero Crossing Demodulator or detector:

Demodulation of FM Signal

• Zero crossing detector contains hard limiter, Zero crossing

detector, Multi vibrator, and Averaging Circuit.

• Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper which

converts continuous FM signal into Digital.

• Zero crossing detector is differentiator which generates

spikes when signal crosses zero and no. of zero crossings is
proportional to modulating signal amplitude.

• Mono stable multivibrator is generates pulses with

constant amplitude and width for each spike.

• Averaging is LPF circuit which integrates pulses and

generates modulating signal.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver

Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal

into electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
Tuning circuit designed to select 100 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 20MHz or20 000 KHzband width.
RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image
signal rejection and noise reduction.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver
Mixer: It is combination of frequency mixer and
Band Pass Filter (BPF).
Frequency generates sum and difference frequency
of incoming signal and locally generated signal.
BPF selects difference frequency at the
output whose center frequency is equal to =
10.7MHz.

Local Oscillator:
It isgenerates carrier
either Colpits or frequency
Hartley oscillator. than
[Link]
incoming carrier frequency to produce
constant frequency. the or
fixed
IF Amplifier:
It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency
amplifier which provides amplification for 20 MHz
band width at center frequency of 10.7 MHz.
Super Heterodyne FM Receiver
Limiter:
It is combination of hard limiter and BPF.
Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper removes
the noise spikes.
Detector or Demodulator or Discriminator:
It is frequency translatorcircuit which extracts
modulating signal from FM signal.

De-emphasis:
It is LPF which attenuates frequencies of Audio signal
from
2 KHz to 20 KHz to get the original modulating signal.
Audio Amplifier:
It is low frequency amplifier which provides
amplification at (20- 20K) Hz.

Loud Speaker:
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Allocation of different frequency bands or carrier
frequency to different channel is called “Frequency
Division Multiplexing”. And it is used to transmit
Radio & TV signals.
Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM Multiplexing:
• Different carrier frequencies are used for
different stations or channels.
• Modulator is used in the
transmitter Band width of FDM
system,
BWFDM = N. BWCH+ (N-1) BWG
Where N = No. of channels or
, stations BWCH= Bandwidth of
each channel BWG=
Bandwidth of guard band
Guard band is frequency gap between two
channels
Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM De-Multiplexing:

• BPF filter is used select channels or

stations
• Demodulator is used in the receiver.