Introduction to

Civil
Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

Mar Athanasius College of Engineering
 Building Materials
Concrete is the most consumed material on earth, second
only to water
Why has concrete been so
popular ?

• Can be fabricated practically anywhere.

• Can be moulded and cast into a wide range of shapes and

geometries.

• Is relatively cheap.
Concrete and mortar

Cement Fine aggregate/sand Coarse aggregate

Mortar- Cement + water + sand Concrete- Cement + water + sand+ coarse aggregate
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Cement

Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can
bind other materials together.

• L. J. Vicat: Prepared artificial hydraulic lime by calcining an intimate mixture of

limestone (chalk) and clay – principal forerunner to Portland Cement

• 1824 – Joseph Aspdin, while obtaining a patent for his hydraulic cement,
termed it as Portland cement, upon Portland stone (limestone from Dorset,
UK), which had a high quality and durability and a similar appearance – ‘Proto’
Portland cement
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Raw Materials for Cement

• Calcareous material – Containing CaCO3 (primary source

– limestone); impurities such as iron and alumina are
sometimes present

• Argillaceous material – Containing clayey matter, source

of SiO2, Al2O3

• Gypsum – Added in the final stages of manufacture

as a set regulator

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Cement Production

6
Cement Production

ROTARY KILN 7
Cement Composition
• Bough's chemical composition: The raw materials used for the
manufacture of cement consist of lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide.
These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at high temperature
to form more complex compounds

• C3S-leads to early strength

• C2S-hydrates slowly and contribute to progressive strength
• C3A-responsible for initial setting and early hardening thus contribute
to early strength within 24hrs
• C4AF-combines with C3A and water to produce hydrated products

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 Physical properties of cement

Physical
1. The color of OPC should be uniform.
2. Cement should be free from lumps
3. Cement should be cool when felt with hand
4. If a small quantity of cement is thrown in to a bucket of water, it should sink
5. Average compressive strength of cement mortar cube should not be less
than 11.5 N/mm2 at the age of 3 days and 25 N/mm2 at the age of 7 days
6. Initial setting time of cement should not be less than 30 minutes and final
setting time should not be more than 10 hrs (600 minutes)
7. The fineness of cement should be less than 10 percent in sieve test

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Types of Cement
i) Rapid Hardening Cement
• It develops strength more rapidly and hence the name.
• The increased rate of gain of strength is due to more fineness, higher percentage of C3S and lower
percentage of C2S compared with ordinary Portland cement.
• Rapid hardening cement is best suited in situations where early attainment of strength is desirable like
repairs to bridge decks, roads and manufacture of precast products.

ii) Low heat Portland Cement

• The considerable amount of heat liberated during hydration of cement may lead to harmful effects like
serious cracking in the case of mass concreting such as dams, bridge abutments and retaining walls.
• For this reason it is necessary to limit the rate of heat evolution of the cement used in such structures. The
same can be achieved by reducing C3A and C3S and increase in the C2S content in the cement.
• The rate of increase in compressive strength is slow and hence not used for structures where early
removal of shuttering is needed.
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 Types of Cement
iii) Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
• Pozzolana means a siliceous material (powdered brick or roof tile ), which is cementitious.
• The pozzolana content varies from 20 to 25% by weight of cement.
• It is produced by grinding together Portland cement clinker and Pozzolana .
• Portland Pozzolana cement produces less heat of hydration and offers better resistance to chemical
attack.
• PPC being finer than OPC and due to be pozzolanic action, it improves the pore size distribution and
thus reduces the mirocracks.
• The long term strength of PPC is higher than that of OPC if enough moisture is available for contained
pozzolanic action. But the setting time is normally.
• It is particularly useful in marine constructions and mass concreting. Production cost of pozzolana
cement is less than opc.
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Types of Cement
iv) Portland Slag Cement
• Slag is a waste product of steel industry.
• This cement is produced by grinding cement clinkers and granulated blast furnace slag (not
more than 65%) with gypsum.
• The Strength gain is slow and requires longer period of curing .It generates less heat of
hydration & has better resistance to attack, by alkalis and sulphates.
• It is suitable for mass concrete work and constructions in marine environment.
v) Quick Setting Cement
• Quick setting is achieved by reducing gypsum during the manufacture of ordinary Portland cement.
• As it sets quickly, it is ideal for underwater construction and grouting.

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Types of Cement
vi) Colored cement
• Cement of desired color may be obtained by adding pigments with ordinary cement.
• The quantity of pigments varies from 5% to 10 %.
• The colored cement are widely used for finishing floors, external surfaces, artificial
marble

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 Role of Aggregates in Concrete

60-80% of the volume of concrete is occupied by aggregates.

Main significance:
• Cost
• Dimensional stability
• Strength and stiffness
• Abrasion resistance
Classification of Aggregates

Grain size ranges:

• Fine aggregate: 60 μm – 4.75 mm
• Coarse aggregate: > 4.75 mm

Roundness:
• Well-rounded improve workability

Crushing strength and Modulus of elasticity:

• Higher the better; should be considerably higher than the values
expected in concrete
 Sand or fine aggregate
Sand is a fine aggregate which is used in mortars and concrete

• (a) Natural sand: The fine aggregates formed by natural disintegrate of

rocks and deposited in the beds of steams, rivers and glaciers are called
natural sand

• (b) Crushed stone sand: The fine aggregates made by crushing natural
gravels are called crushed stone sand

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CONCRETE

• Concrete may be defined as a building material obtained by mixing cement,

aggregates and water in suitable proportions which when allowed to cure,
becomes hard like a stone
• The proportion of the ingredients varies with the nature of work for which the
concrete is to used.
• It can be readily moulded into durable structural items of various sizes and
shapes.
• It is possible to make economical concrete mix by using locally available raw
materials.
• Careful supervision is required for getting the expected quality.
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TYPES OF CONCRETE
Plain Cement Concrete
• Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) Concrete formed by using
cement, coarse and fine aggregates and water is called plain
cement concrete.
• It is used, in structural members subjected to pure
compression and for floorings, foundations etc.

Reinforced cement concrete

• Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) Concrete is weak in
tension, but steel is strong in tension.
• Hence steel road are introduced in the cement concrete
members in the places where tensile stresses are developed.
• Concrete thus prepared with steel reinforcement is called
RCC
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Properties of Concrete

• The properties of fresh/green concrete include:

Workability, Segregation and Bleeding

• The properties of hardened concrete are:

Strength, Resistance to wear, Durability, and

Impermeability.
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 Workability

The ease with which concrete can be mixed, placed and compacted

Depends on
• Water cement ratio
• Aggregate properties
• Time after mixing
• Admixtures

Slump test
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Grades of Concrete

• Indian Standard (IS 456:2000) specifics grades of concrete designated

as given in Table 4 1.
• In the designation of concrete mix, M refers to the mix and the
number refers to 28 days compressive strength of 150 mm size cube
expressed in N/mm2
• M 10 and M 15 grades are used for plain concrete.
• M 20 and M 25 for reinforced concrete structures and higher grades
for prestressed concrete structures.

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Application of Concrete

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BRICKS

• Brick is the commonly used building material

in India.
• It is light, easily available, uniform shape and
size , and relatively cheaper
• Bricks are easily moulded from plastic clays,
also known as brick clay or brick earth.

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Classification of Bricks
• Bricks are broadly classified as unburnt (or) sun-dried bricks
and burnt bricks.
• Unburnt bricks are dried with the help of heat received from
sun after moulding, can be used only for temporary and
cheap construction. These are also called sun-dried bricks.
• The bricks used in construction works are burnt bricks and
they are classified into the following four categories.

First class bricks: These bricks are table moulded and edges
are sharp, square, smooth and straight. These bricks are used
for superior works.
Second class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded. The
surfaces are not smooth, and edges are not regular. These
bricks are used at places where bricks is to be provided with a
coat of plaster.
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Size and Weight of Bricks
• 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm. (Standard size)
• With mortar thickness, 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm brick becomes
200mm x 100mm x 100mm and is known as the nominal size of the
modular brick.
• The average weight of a brick is about 3 to 3.5kg.

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 Qualities of Good Bricks
• The bricks should be table moulded, and well burnt in kilns.
• Bricks should be copper coloured with sharp and square edges.
• Bricks should be of standard size and shape.
• Brick should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each
other.
• The bricks, when broken should show a bright homogeneous and
compact structure.
• Water absorption after 24 hours immersion should not exceed 20% by
weight for first class bricks and 22% by weight for second class bricks .

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 Qualities of Good Bricks
• The bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard
ground from a height of about 1 m.

• The bricks should have low thermal conductivity.

• Crushing strength of brick should not be below 10.5 N/mm2.

• Bricks when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of
salts when allowed to dry in shade.
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 STONES

Building stones
• Building stones are mainly obtained from rocks in the
nature.
• The basic classifications of rocks with examples are given
below

 Igneous rocks: Granite, Basalt & Trap

Sedimentary rocks: Laterite, Sandstone, Limestone & Shale
Metamorphic rocks: Slate, Quartzite, Marble & Schist

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Chemical classification

• Siliceous rocks: In these rocks, silica is the predominant matter. These

rocks are hard and durable. They are not easily affected by weathering
agencies. Silica, however, in combination with weaker minerals may
disintegrate easily. Rocks with maximum amount of free silica make them
hard and durable. Granites, quartzite, etc are examples of siliceous rocks
• Argillaceous rocks: In these rocks, clay predominates than other
components. Such rocks are dense and compact or they may be soft.
Slate, laterites, etc are examples of siliceous rocks.
• Calcareous rocks: In these rocks, calcium predominant matter. The
durability of these rocks depends upon the constituents present in the
surrounding atmosphere. Limestone, marbles, etc are examples of
calcareous rocks.
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Common Building stones

• Granite: Granite is an igneous rock and is hard and durable. Most

of these rocks possess excellent building properties, like high
strength, very low abrasion value, good resistance to frost and
other weathering agencies, and are available in different
appealing colours.
• Uses: It is used for facing work, walls, bridge piers, columns,
steps etc. It is used where weight and durability are essential

• Laterite: Laterite is a sedimentary rock found in hot and wet

tropical areas which is enriched in iron and aluminum and
developed by intensive and long lasting weathering of the
underlying parent rock. Laterite stones are mainly used for
masonry works. Many of the masonry bonds which are possible
with bricks are also done with laterite stones.

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Common Building stones

• Limestone: They are sedimentary rocks composed

mainly of calcium. They are rarely useful as building
stones.
• Uses: They can be used as road aggregate for
construction floors, steps, walls. etc.
• Sandstone: These are sedimentary rocks and consist
mainly of quartz. Sandstone occurs in many colours.
The most suitable and durable type is that which is
light coloured, having silica and a homogeneous
compact texture.
• Uses: It can be used for steps, flooring, columns,
etc
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Common Building stones

• Marble: These are metamorphic rocks and have been

formed from limestone under high temperatures.
Marbles vary greatly in colour, structure and texture.
• Uses: Marble is used both as an ornamental stone
and as a constructional material. As these stones
can take brilliant polish, are used extensively for
flooring.
• Basalt and Trap: These are igneous rocks and
generally heavier and darker than granites and also
stronger, but may contain cavities and pores within
them.
• Uses: They are extensively used for rubble
masonry, foundation works and road construction.
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 TIMBER

• Wood is a naturally occurring, biological material. It is

probably the world’s oldest structural material.
• Since it is easy to produce and handle, it is a widely
used construction material.
• The annual production of wood is about 1 billion metric
tons.
• Wood has good structural properties, is aesthetically
appealing and relatively cheap. Though it is vulnerable
to fire and decay through biological attack, it can last
for a long time if properly maintained.

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Wood Species
Trees are divided into two broad classes:
• Hardwoods: Tropical, broad-leaved, deciduous (shed leaves annually),
porous (contain vessel elements). Examples: Teak, Sal, Oak.
• Softwoods: Conifers, have needle- or scale-like evergreen leaves, non-
porous. Examples: Fir, Pine, Cedar.

Some Common Indian species:

• Teak: Good dimensional stability and natural durability. Heartwood varies from yellow-brown to dark
golden-brown.
• Padauk: Medium density hardwood. Deep red/orange in colour.
• Rubberwood: Light hardwood. Seasons to light brown.
• Sal: Strong and hard wood. Dark brown in colour.
• Deodar: Light and durable. Light brown in colour.
• Rosewood: Heavy wood with high strength. Heartwood varies in colour from golden brown to dark
purplish brown with blackish streaks.
 Seasoning of timber
• The fresh timber contains about 50% or more of
its own dry weight as water.

• The water is to be removed before it used for any

engineering purposes.

• The process of drying/ reducing the moisture

content of timber is known as seasoning of
timber. The moisture content should be reduced
under controlled conditions, at a uniform rate
from all parts of the timber.
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Seasoning methods

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Objects of seasoning

• To impart hardness, stiffness, strength and better electrical resistance to timber.

• To increase the resisting power of timber.
• To maintain the shape and size of the components of the timber article which are
expected to remain, unchanged in form.
• To decrease weight of timber and thereby to reduce the cost of transportation
and handling.
• To make timber easily workable and to facilitate operations during conversions.
• To make timber suitable for receiving treatment of paints, preservatives.
varnishes, etc.
• To make timber safe from the act of fungi and insects.
• To reduce the tendency of timber to crack, shrink and warp.

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Wood-Based Composites
Glued-Laminated Timber (Glulam)
• Timber manufactured by gluing together a large number of relatively
short pieces of timber.

Young et al., USDA

 Wood-Based Composites

Plywood

Panels or sheets made from wood by gluing

together thin veneers in layers. The layers are
placed such that the grains of the successive plies
are at right angles to each other.

Particle Board
•Chips are soaked in water, dried, mixed with resin and
pressed together to form boards.
•Typical particle boards have three layers: the faces
consist of fine particles and the inner layer consists of
coarser material.
Steel

Based on carbon content steel is classified as :

1. Mild steel : carbon content varies from 0.15% to

0.3 %
2. Medium carbon steel : carbon content varies
from 0.3% to 0.8 %
3. High carbon steel : carbon content varies from
0.8% to 1.5 %
• content

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 Steel
Depending on use mild steel is classified as :
• Reinforcing steel
• Structural steel

Reinforcing steel
• Concrete is week in tension and strong in compression
• Steel bars are commonly embedded in concrete subjected
to tension these bars are known as reinforcing bars .
• Mild steel is commonly used as reinforcing bars as the
coefficient of thermal expansion of both steel and concrete
are nearly the same.
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Steel
The commonly used steels are
i) Mild steel conforming to IS 432
ii) High Yield Strength Deformed bars
iii) Thermomechanically Treated (TMT) bars

Mild steel conforming to IS 432

• It has definite yield point and plastic strain.
• The yield strength is 250 N/mm2 and the steel is called Fe 250 grade steel which is
popularly known as plain bars.
• These bars have circular cross section, plain surface, and the bond strength is low.
• It is available from 6 mm to 32 mm diameter

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Steel
ii)High Yield Strength Deformed bars (HYSD) conforming to IS: 1139 &
IS :1786.
High yield strength deformed steel bars have lugs, ribs or deformations
on the surface, hence bond strength is more when compared with plain
bars.
There are two types of HYSD bars available :
a) Fe-415 grade steel (TOR 40)
b) Fe-500 grade steel (TOR 50)

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Thermo-mechanically Treated (TMT)
or Quenched and Tempered (Q&T) Bars
• After hot rolling to the desired size
and shape, the low carbon steel
bars are quenched with water and
then cooled.
• Quenching converts the surface
layer to (hard) martensite while
the core remains as austenite.
• As the bar cools, heat flows from
Grades Fe - 415, Fe- 500 & Fe- 550 the core to the surface layer
turning it to tempered martensite.
The core transforms to ductile
ferrite-pearlite.
Process
Market forms of steel

i) Rolled steel bar section

(a) Indian Standard Round bars (ISRO)

• This type of bar is usually designated by ISRO
10 (Round bar having 10mm diameter).
Round bars are available in various diameters
like 6mm,8mm, 10mm, 12mm,
16mm,20mm,22mm, 25mm etc., in the
market.

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b) Indian Standard Square Bars (ISSQ)

• ISSQ 10 (square bars of size 10 mm) designates this

bar. Bar sections are used as reinforcement, grill for
windows, hand rails of stair cases, gates etc. it)

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Rolled Steel Plate Section (ISPL)

• Rolled steel plate sections are used for the

construction of water tanks, and other storage
structures (silos, bunkers etc), built up beams,
columns, walls, floor panels, base plate
foundation etc.
• Plate sections are usually designated by ISPL
500 x 5 (500mm width and 5mm thickness).

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Indian Standard Sheet Sections (ISSH)

• Plates having thickness less than 5mm are called sheet., Sheets arc
generally designated by ISSH 1800 x 600 x 4 (sheet section of length
1800mm , breadth 600mm and thickness 4mm).These are widely used
for the construction of boxes and vehicle bodies.

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Indian Standard Strips (ISST)

• They are designated as ISST 100 x 2 (steel strip with a width of 100
mm and thickness of 2 mm)

Indian Standard Flats (ISF)

• Commonly used for the fabrication of steel windows, grills, etc. They
are designated by ISF 10 x 3( flats of width 10 mm and thickness 3
mm).

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Rolled Steel Tubes

• Rolled steel tubes are efficient structural

sections for form work and steel trusses.
Inner diameter of tube varies from 15 to
150 mm and wall thickness varies from 2
to 5.4 mm

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Rolled Steel Angle Section (ISA)

• Three series of angle sections are available in the market.

a) Equal Angles (ISA)
b) Unequal Angles (ISA)
c) Bulb Angles (ISBA)
• Since equal and unequal angles are designated by the same series ISA, the
width and height of legs are mentioned along with the series. Hence equal
angles are designated as ISA 50 x 50 x 5mm (height D is 50 mm, width B is 50
mm and thickness t is 5mm) and unequal angles as ISA 60x50 x 5mm (height D
is 60mm, width B is 50 mm and thickness t is 5mm),.
• Angle sections are extensively used in structural steel works like roof trusses
and as connecting member for different structures.

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Rolled steel Tee sections
• Each Tee sections is designated by the series to which it
belongs, followed by its depth in mm, and weight per meter
• Indian Standard Normal Tee (ISNT)
• Indian Standard Heavy Tee (ISHT)
• Indian Standard Short Tee (ISST)
• Indian Standard Junior Tee (ISJT)
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Rolled Steel Channel Sections

• Four series of channel sections are mentioned in the Indian Standard Hand
Book. Each Channel sections is designated by the series to which it
belongs, followed by its depth in mm. Various channel sections available
are
• Indian Standard Junior Channels (IS JC)
• Indian Standard Light Channels (ISLC)
• Indian Standard Medium Channels (ISMC)
• Indian Standard Special Channels(ISSC)

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Rolled steel I sections
• Five series of beam sections are available in the market as
a) Indian Standard Junior Beams (IS JB)
b) Indian Standard Light Beams (ISLB)
c) Indian Standard Medium Beams (ISMB)
d) Indian Standard Wide Flange Beams (IS WB)
e) Indian Standard Heavy Beams (ISHB)
• Each beam section is designated by the series to which it belongs followed by the
depth in mm of the section.
• IS JB 150 refers to Indian Standard Junior Beam of depth 150 mm. Other properties
of the sections can be had from the hand book or steel table.
• I-sections are the strongest and most economical sections for beams of various
types.
• These can also be used as columns, purlins in roof truss and for grillage foundation. 55
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Built up sections
A built up section is one which is composed of a combination of
available basic sections like plates, angles, channels etc.

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 Advantages of Steel as Structural Material

The main ad vantages of steel as structural material are

• high strength.
• gas and water tight due to high density,
• long service life.
• can be used in prefabricated members because of the ease of
handling, fabrication and erection.
• readily dismantled and replaced.

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Disadvantages of Steel as Structural Material

• Costly
• Low fire resistance
• Susceptible to corrosion

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