Cognitive

Development
in Infancy and
Toddlerhood
(refer to Laura E. Berk Chapter No. 5)

Presentation made by Dr. Anjali

Maurya, Assistant Professor,
NMIMS, Navi Mumbai
Agenda
01 Introduction

02 Piaget’s idea about Cognitive

Change

03 Evaluation of the Sensorimotor

stage

04 Information Processing Model

01Introduction Click icon to add picture

Classroom Activity

Sensorimotor stage
A-not-B Search
A-B Search
Circular reaction (Imitation)

3
Fun video: Babies dropping thin
gs
 Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Sensorimotor Substage Typical Adaptive Behaviors
1. Reflexive schemes New born reflexes
(birth–1 month)
2. Primary circular Simple motor habits centered around the infant’s own body; limited
reactions (1–4 months) anticipation of events
3. Secondary circular Actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding world;
reactions (4–8 months) imitation of familiar behaviors
4. Coordination of Intentional, or goal-directed, behavior; ability to find a hidden object in
secondary circular the first location in which it is hidden (object permanence); improved
reactions anticipation of events; imitation of behaviors slightly different from
(8–12 months) those the infant usually performs
5. Tertiary circular Exploration of the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways;
reactions (12–18 months) imitation of novel behaviors; ability to search in several locations for a
hidden object (accurate A–B search)
6. Mental representation Internal depictions of objects and events, as indicated by sudden
(18 months–2 years) solutions to problems; ability to find an object that has been moved
while out of sight (invisible displacement); deferred imitation; and
make‑believe play
02 Piaget’s Ideas About Cognitive Change
02 Piaget’s Ideas
About Change

• Schemes are specific psychological structures – organized ways of

making sense of experience.

• Two processes account for changes in schemes – Adaptation &

Organization

• Adaptation involves building schemes through direct interaction with

the environment.

• Two complementary processes: Assimilation and

Accommodation
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02 Piaget’s Ideas
About Change
• Assimilation is using current schemes to interpret the
external world
• Accommodation is creating new schemes or adjust old
ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not
capture the environment completely.
• Equilibrium and Disequilibrium
• Organization is a process that occurs internally, apart from
direct contact with the environment. Once children form new
schemes, they rearrange them, linking them with other
schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive
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Introduction to Sensorimotor Stage
Introduction to
• Spans birth to ~2 years
Sensorimotor
Stage • Piaget studied using his three
children

• Infants learn through direct

sensory and motor interaction

• Circular reaction: repeating

chance behaviors, gradually
forming new schemes
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 Introduction to Substage 1 (0-1 month): Reflexes
Sensorimotor - Sucking, grasping, looking
Stage
- Reflexes are building blocks of

New Motor intelligence

activity

Substage 2 (1-4 months): Primary Circular

Reactions
Scheme
being
formed
Interest - Repetition of chance behaviors centered
on own body

- Example: thumb-sucking
Repetition
- Beginning anticipation of events
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 Introduction to Substage 3 (4-8 months): Secondary
Sensorimotor circular reactions
Stage - Repetition of interesting effects in the
environment
New Motor
activity - Improved control over their own
behaviours

Scheme - Example: knocking a toy to make it swing

being Interest
formed
- Early imitation but not flexible yet

Repetition

12
Introduction to
Sensorimotor Substage 4 (8-12 months):
Stage
Intentional Behaviours
- Intentional/goal-directed behavior
emerges

- Means–end action sequences

- Beginning object permanence

- A-not-B search error (searching in old

hiding place)

- Early imitation of novel actions

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Introduction to
Sensorimotor Substage 5 (12-18 months)
Stage - - Tertiary circular reactions

- Repetition with variation; active

experimentation

- Better problem-solving (e.g., using tools)

- Advanced understanding of object

permanence (A-B Search)

- More flexible imitation

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Introduction to
Sensorimotor Substage 6 (18-24
Stage
months)- - Mental representations
develop

- Images (mental pictures) and concepts

(categories)

- Deferred imitation and make-believe play

- Advanced object permanence (invisible

displacement)

- Symbolic understanding begins (words,

15
pictures)
Follow-Up • Infants show understanding earlier
than Piaget suggested

researches Learning through operant conditioning:

Research Study

• Violation-of-expectation method shows

object permanence in first months

• Infants can track hidden objects earlier

14 month olds
’ can recall after a delay of more than
a day

• Deferred imitation seen as early as 6

Follow-Up • Evidence of problem-solving

researches and symbolic use before 2

years
Development of Problem Sol
ving in Young Children

Infants symbolic use of Lang

uage
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03 Evaluation of the Sensorimotor Stage
Based on Further Researches

19
03
Evaluation of the Sensorimotor Stage

• Infants anticipate events, actively search for hidden objects, master the
A–B object search, flexibly vary their sensorimotor schemes, engage in
make-believe play, and treat pictures and video images symbolically
within Piaget’s time frame.

• Some abilities emerges earlier than Piaget proposed (secondary circular

reactions, understanding of object properties, first signs of object
permanence, deferred imitation, problem solving by analogy, and
displaced reference of words.

• Development is not as stepwise and uniform as Piaget assumed. 20

 Researches show consistency with
Role of Piaget’s ideas that sensorimotor
Sensorimotor action helps infants construct some
Action forms of knowledge. Example:
Crawling – depth perception, ability
to find hidden objects; Manipulation
– awareness of object properties
On the other hand, infants
comprehend more before motor
skills than Piaget thought.
 Piaget: infants construct all
Alternative mental representations from
Explanations sensorimotor activity.

Modern researchers: infants may

Click icon to add picture

have built-in cognitive equipment
for making sense of experience.

Debate exists on the extent of

initial understanding.
 Much evidence comes from the

Alternative violation-of-expectation method.

Explanations Critics argue babies’ cognition is

limited at birth.

Infants may start life with:

Click icon to add picture
• Biases to attend to certain information.

• General-purpose learning abilities (e.g.,

analyzing perceptual info).

These help construct a wide range of

schemes.
 Core Knowledge Perspective
Alternative Infants are born with innate
Explanations knowledge systems (core
domains).

Click icon to add picture Domains: physical knowledge,

language, and psychological
knowledge.

This prewired foundation supports

rapid learning and adaptation.
 Evidence for Core Knowledge

Alternative Physical knowledge: object permanence,

solidity, gravity.
Explanations Numerical knowledge:

Wynn (1992): 5-month-olds detect unexpected

outcomes in simple addition.

Infants can discriminate small sets (up to 3)

and even large sets when differences are big
(e.g., 8 vs. 16).

Psychological knowledge: early sensitivity

to people’s intentions, emotions, desires,
beliefs.
 Criticisms of Core Knowledge

Alternative Violation-of-expectation results are

Explanations controversial.

Alternative explanations (object displays,

not number sense).
Click icon to add picture
Evidence for numerical ability at birth is
inconsistent.

Toddlers under 16 months struggle with

numerical comparisons.

Preschoolers reliably add/subtract small

 Inspired vast research; even

Piaget’s challenges to his theory stem from

his framework.
Legacy
His insights remain practically
valuable for teachers & caregivers.
Click icon to add picture Modern view: 1. Gradual,
continuous changes, not abrupt
stages. 2. Uneven development
across cognitive domains.

Piaget’s general approach still

holds relevance today.
04
Information Processing Model
 Information-Processing Approach

• Children are active, inquiring beings (same as Piaget).

• Focus on specific processes: attention, memory,

categorization, problem solving.

• Uses computer-like flowcharts to model cognition.

• Seeks explicit, precise explanations for the cognitive

processes beyond Piaget’s assimilation &
accommodation.
A General Model of Information Processing
 General Model of Information Processing
• Information processes in three parts:
1. Sensory Register – brief storage of sights & sounds (It has fleeting
impressions unless attended to)

2. Short-term/Working Memory – Mental “workspace” for active

processing (It has limited capacity i.e., 2-5 items, improves with age).
Automatic processes free up working memory for complex tasks.

3. Long-term Memory – permanent, unlimited knowledge base

(organized like a digital library)

• Central Executive: directs attention, selects strategies,

Cognitive Development
in Information Processing
Key improvements with age:

1. Working memory capacity.

2. Processing speed.

3. Executive function (planning,

attention control, problem
solving).
Fig: A simplified depiction (adapted from the
Governed by the prefrontal cortex. multicomponent working memory model by
Baddeley, 2010) as implicated in the brain, in
Predicts later academic which the central executive assumes the role to
exert control and oversee the manipulation of
achievement & social outcomes. incoming information for intended execution.
ACC, Anterior cingulate cortex
 Attention Development
• 2–3 months: shift from single features to patterns.

• 4 months: improved ability to shift attention.

• First year: novelty preference.

• Second year: sustained attention during goal-directed activities.

 Memory Development
• Short-term memory: improves from 1 item (6 mo) → 4 items (12
mo).

• Operant conditioning studies:

• 2–6 mo: recall lasts days to weeks.

• 18 mo: recall up to 13 weeks later.

• Recall: evident by 6 months, improves into toddlerhood.

• Deferred imitation: recall modeled behavior for months.

 Categorization
• Infants categorize by shape, size, features (early months).

• By 6 months: can use two correlated features.

• By 1 year: broader categories (food, animals, vehicles, people).

• Toddler years:
• Use conceptual categories (function, behavior).

• Vocabulary & adult labeling boost categorization.

• By 2 years: flexible categorization, analogical problem solving

• Cultural variations exist in development of categorization because of

 Evaluation of Information-Processing Findings
• Strengths:

• Highlights continuity from infancy to adulthood.

• Shows infants’ ability to recall & categorize = mental representation.

• Weaknesses:

• Breaks cognition into components but struggles to integrate into a broad

theory.

• Recent approaches:

• Integration with Piaget’s theory.

• Dynamic Systems View → cognition = interaction of prior skills + current