WOOD

Wood's structure includes the pith, heartwood,

sapwood, cambium, and bark. Types of wood are
broadly classified as hardwood and softwood, based
on the tree's classification. A tree basically consists of
three parts namely,trunk,crown and roots. The
function of the trunk is to support the crown and to
supply water and nutrients from the roots to the
leaves through branches and from the leaves back to
the roots. The roots are meant to implant the trees in
the soil ,to absorb moisture and the mineral
substances it contains and to supply them to the trunk
(1) Pith: The innermost central portion of the
core of the tree is called the pith or medulla. It
varies in size and shape and for different
types of trees. It consist entirely of cellular
tissues and it nourishes it’s plant at its young
age. when the plant becomes old, the pith
dies up and decays and the sap is then
transmitted by the woody fibres deposited
round the pith.
(2) Heartwood: The inner annular rings
surrounding the pith constitute the heart
wood. It is usually dark in colour as a matter
of fact ,it indicates the dead portion of tree
and as such, it does not take active part in the
growth of the tree. But it imparts rigidity to
the tree hence it provides strong and durable
timber for various engineering purposes.
(3) Sapwood: The outer annular rings
between heartwood and cambium layer is
known as sapwood. It is usually light in colour
and weight. It indicates recent growth and it
contains sap. It takes active part in the
growth of the tree and the sap moves in
upward direction through it. The sapwood is
also known as the alburnum.
(4) Cambium layer: The thin layer of sap
between sapwood and inner bark is known as
the cambium layer. It indicates sap which has
not yet been converted into sap wood. If the
bark is removed for any reason ,the cambium
layer gets exposed and the cells cease to be
active resulting in the death of the fibre.
(5) Inner bark: The inner skin or layer covering
the cambium layer is known as the inner bark. It
gives protection to the cambium layer from any
injury.
(6) Outer bark: The outer skin or cover of the
tree is known as the outer bark. It is the
outermost protective layer and it sometimes
contain cracks and fissures. It consists of cells
and wood fibre and is also known as the cortex.
(7) Medullary rays: The thin radial fibres
extending from pith to cambium layer are known
as the medullary rays. The function of these rays
is to hold together the annular rings of
heartwood and sapwood. These rays are
sometimes broken and in some varieties of trees,
they are not very prominent
 TIMBER
Defects in timber: Occur at various stages,
principally during growth period, during conversion
& seasoning process.
Defects effect the quality of useful wood, reduce
strength, spoil the appearance and favour decay.
The following are the defects found in wood:
[Link]: Are longitudinal cracks normal to the
annular rings. They affect the durability of wood.
[Link]: Are longitudinal separation of
wood. It reduce the shear strength. The
separation make the wood undesirable .
a) Heart Shake: Occur due to shrinkage
of heart wood when tree is over
matured. Cracks occur from pith and
run toward sap wood. They are wider at
center and diminish outwards.
b) Cup Shake: Appear as curve shape
which split annular rings either wholly
or partly
C) Star Shake: Appear as the wood dries
below the fiber saturation point. These
cracks are wider at circumference and
diminish towards center.
3) RIND GALLS: characterized by swelling
caused by growth of layers of sapwood over
wound after the branch has been cut off in an
irregular manner. Decay starts from this point.
4)KNOTS: are bases of twigs buried by cambial
activity of mother branch. The root of the branch is
embedded in the stem, with formation of annular rings
at right angles to the stem. It results in reduction in
strength and affect the appearance of wood. A dead
knot can be separated from the body of wood but
aliveknotcannot.

5)TWISTED FIBERS: are caused by wind

constantly turning the trunk of a young tree in one
direction. Wood with twisted fiber is known as
reaction wood. It is difficult to work with twisted
fiber wood. More over wood undergo more
shrinkage on drying.
6)UPSETS: are caused due to crushing of
fibers running transversely during the growth of
tree due to strong winds and unskilled felling
consequently resulting in discontinuity of fibers.
Preservation of Timber:
Defects in timber occur dueto various types of
insects.
Such as:
(1) beetles
(2)marine borers
(3)termites
Un protected wood can easily decay by swelling ( when it
is wet),fungi, insects, fire etc. it effects the durability,
strength, quality and quantity of useful wood.
i)Application of some chemical substances (called the
preservatives) on the surface of the timber.
ii) Hot coal tar is applied to timber with brush. The coating
of tar protects the timber from the attack of fungi and
insects. It is a cheapest way of protecting timber.
iii) Two to three coats of oil paints are applied on clean
surface of wood. The paint protects the timber from
moisture.
iv) solignum paint is a special paint which protects the
 Physical Properties:
Specific Gravity (SG): Generally, specific gravity
(SG) and the major strength properties of wood are
directly related. SG for the major , usually used
structural species ranges from roughly 0.30 to 0.90.
Higher allowable design values are assigned to those
pieces having narrower growth rings (more rings per
inch) or more dense latewood per growth ring and,
hence, higher SG.
Thermal Properties/Temperature Effects:
Although wood is an excellent heat insulator, its
strength and other properties are affected adversely
by exposure for extended periods to temperatures
above about 100°F.
Strong and lightweight: Timber is strong, light and
reliable making timber construction simpler and safer
than steel or concrete construction.
 Chemical Properties
Though, wood is chemically inert as compared to other
materials but is affected by some acids and bases
DRY ROT: The turning of timber tissues to almost dry
powder by fungi is called dry rot. The fungus feed upon
the wood and eats the wood tissue, thus penetrating
the wood fibres from all direction.
Prevention:
[Link] seasoned timber should be used.
[Link] should be used where there is free circulation
and access of air.
Remedy:
1. the timber should be painted with a solution of
copper sulphate
2. [Link] high temperature of seasoning of kiln helps in
killing the Fungi..
WET ROT :The disintegration of tissue of
timber due to alternate wetting and drying is
called wet rot. The attacks take place
through the wounds in bark by the access of
water.
Prevention: All timber for exterior or
underground work should be first properly
seasoned and then coated with tar to keep
out the dampness.
Remedy: The best remedy for treating wet
rot is by using a suitable preservative.
 SEASONING OF
TIMBER
Seasoning of timber is the process of reducing the
moisture content of freshly cut timber.
Reduction of moisture content along with
improving some qualities before the use of woods
is called seasoning of timber. By seasoning,
generally, the moisture is reduced to about 15%
whereas new-cut woods bear about 50%.
A number of factors need to be considered when
seasoning timber, including the type of wood, the
thickness of the timber, and the desired moisture
content. Seasoning timber is an essential step in
the woodworking process, and it is important to
understand how to do it properly in order to get
the best results.
There are mainly two methods of seasoning of
timber. These are:
Natural Seasoning
Artificial Seasoning
Natural Seasoning
Seasoning of wood or timbers using natural
elements is called natural seasoning. eg. water
and air seasoning.
a. Water seasoning
Removal of wood sap immersing logs into water
flow is called water seasoning. It is carried out
on the banks of the river while thicker ends are
kept towards upstream. After that, the logs are
allowed to dry. Disadvantage: It is time-
consuming such as 2 to 4 weeks generally.
.
b. Air seasoning
Exposing the woods to air for seasoning. At first, a
platform is required that is built on the ground at 300mm
height above the ground.
Secondly, the arrangement of wood in layers. Air
circulation is maintained between logs because it helps
to reduce moisture which is important for seasoning. A
clean, shady, dry, cool place is preferred. Sometimes logs
are coated by an impermeable substance to reduce
extreme moisture. To improve the quality of oil coating,
thick paint coating is maintained. To prevent fungal
infection logs are treated with petrol or gasoline.
Advantage:
Good quality seasoned wood.
A large amount is convenient in this process.
Well-seasoned timber is formed.
Disadvantage:
It’s a slow process
 Artificial Seasoning
a. Seasoning by Boiling
Seasoning by boiling wood logs in hot water
is called seasoning by boiling. Drying is done
after proper boiling. For a large amount of
wood, it is done in an enclosed place where
hot steam is passed.
Advantages
•It takes a short amount of time. Generally, 3-
4 hours is good enough.
•Develops strength and elasticity.
Disadvantages
•It is serviceable for a small quantity of wood,
but not convenient for a large amount.
•The cost is high.
b. Chemical seasoning
The reduction of moisture using a salt
solution is called chemical seasoning. After
the absorption of water by the solution, logs
are let to dry.
Advantage
•It increases the strength of the timber.
•It is less time-consuming.
Disadvantage
•Chemical reagents can sometimes reduce
strength.
•It can cause a problem in gluing or finishing
or corrosion while using.
c. Kiln seasoning
Seasoning of wood by using a large chamber or
oven where there is an exemplary process for the
circulation of hot air.
Advantage
Most effective and economical seasoning.
Kiln seasoning can be done by 2 processes such
as:-
Progressive kiln Seasoning: Wood log is
entered through the kiln and the temperature and
humidity differentials are maintained through the
length of the kiln to maintain proper drying.
Compartmental Seasoning: It's maintained by
enclosed containers or buildings.
Advantage: It accelerates the process because
external energy is used.
d. Electrical seasoning
Dry wood is a non-conductor of electricity while
green timber is a conductor, so, can pass
alternating current. Thus in this method alternating
current is used for drying the wood cells by creating
heat. As electricity is used, it’s called electrical
seasoning.
Advantage:
•Using this method quick drying is obtained.
Electrical seasoning method is used to season
overnight.
Disadvantages:
•The equipment required is very costly.
•It is an uneconomic process as a high rate of
electricity is consumed.
•During heating the cells of wood or timber lose
their strength and become weak.
OBJECTIVES OF SEASONING
TIMBER:

i)Increases strength, durability and

workability.

ii) Reduces shrinkage & wrapping after placing

in structure.

iii)Easy to apply paint.

iv)Reduces it’s weight.

v) Reduces its tendency to split & decay

ALTERNATE MATERIALS FOR
TIMBER
INDUSTRIAL TIMBER
Many wood based products with desired shape, size,
appearance, durability have been developed to economize
on the usage of wood.
The raw material for these wood products is the waste wood
which is bonded under pressure & glued.
Some of the industrial timber are:

1) VENEERS: The thin sheets(t=0.4mm-0.6mm) of wood are

known as veneers. Based cutting process, they are classified
as rotary veneers and sliced veneers. These are used in
manufacturing of Ply wood or other laminated boards.
2)Ply Wood: A wood panel glued under
pressure from an odd no. (3-13) layers of
veneers is known as ply wood.
The outer most veneer is called face , the inner
plies which have grain direction parallel to faces
are termed as Core/ centre plies & the plies
perpendicular to faces are termed as cross
bands.
If alternate plies are oriented in 30 /60 deg, it is
called STAR PLY and if the faces are arranged at
45 deg. , it is called DIAGONAL PLY.
3)Laminated Boards: These have core strips
of 7mm thickness (max) glued together to
form a slab which in turn is glued between 2
or more outer veneers.

4) Batten Boards: These have core wood of

80mm wide wood pieces forming a slab, glued
b/w at least 2 surface veneers.
 Natural and Renewable Materials
Bamboo:
A fast-growing, renewable grass with high
strength and versatility, suitable for flooring,
furniture, and decking.
Cork:
A natural, renewable material known for its
insulation and water-resistant properties.
Coir Ply:
Made from coconut husk fibers and phenolic
resins, this product can reduce wood
consumption.
Engineered & Composite Materials
Wood Composites:
Materials like engineered wood, fiberboard, and
particle board, which use wood waste and offer
Wood-Plastic Composites (WPCs):
Durable, moisture-resistant, and pest-resistant
materials made from a blend of wood fibers
and plastics.
Fiber Cement:
A durable, low-maintenance, and fire-resistant
material made from cement, sand, and
cellulose fibers, ideal for siding and decking.