Power system analysis I

lecture -8

Power System Stability

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INTRODUCTION:

The stability problem is concerned with the behavior of the synchronous machines after
disturbance. Stability problem is divided into two major categories: steady state and transient
stability:

 Steady state stability: refers to ability of the power system to regain synchronism after small
and slow disturbances. An extension of steady state stability is known as the dynamic stability.
The dynamic stability is concerned with small disturbance lasting for a long time with the
inclusion of automatic controls devices such as speed governor and voltage regulator.

 Transient stability studies: deals with the effect of large and sudden disturbances such as the
occurrence of a fault, a sudden outage of a line or a removal of loads.
THE SWING EQUATION:

Under normal operating condition, the relative position of the rotor axis and the resultant magnetic field axis is
fixed. The angle between the two is known as the power angle or torque angle. During disturbance, rotor will
decelerate or accelerate with respect to the synchronously rotating air gap mmf, and a relative motion begins.
The equation describing this motion is known as the swing equation.

From the figure, the angle δr is the angle between the rotor mmf Fr and
the resultant air gap mmf Fsr , also it’s between the no load generated
emf E and the resultant stator voltage E s . If the resistance and the
leakage flux are neglected, the angle between the E and the terminal
voltage V, denoted as δ, is called the power angle.

Consider a synchronous generator developing an electromagnetic torque

Te and running at synchronous speed ωsm. If Tm is the driving mechanical
torque. Then under steady state operation with losses neglected:
Te = T m
Any disturbance result in acceleration (T m › Te) or
deceleration (Tm ‹ Te)
Ta = T m – Te
If J is the combine moment of inertia of the prime mover and generator, neglecting frictional and
damping torques from law of motion we have:

Where ϴm is the angular displacement of the rotor with respect to the stationary reference axis on
the stator.

Where δm is the rotor position before disturbance at time t = 0 measured from the synchronously rotating
reference frame

And rotor acceleration

Multiplying by ωm

Since angular velocity times torque is equal to power

Since J. ωm = M, the kinetic energy of a rotating mass W k :

The swing equation:

Since:
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS FOR STABILITY STUDY:

Consider a generator connected to major substation of a very large system

through a transmission line
The substation bus voltage and frequency is assumed to be constant
(infinite bus). Converting Y- connection to ∆ connection.

The equivalent circuit with internal voltage at node 1 and an infinite bus bar at
node 2
 Where Y11 = y10 +y12, and Y22 = y20 + y12 , Y12 = Y21 = - y12
The real power at node 1 is:

If all resistances are neglected: ϴ11 = ϴ12 = 90⁰ and Y12 = B12 = 1/ X12

The maximum power when δ = 90⁰ is also known as the steady state stability
limit

During fault:
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS INCLUDING SALIENCY:

the equivalent circuit of a salient pole under steady state.

The power angle equation is:
During transient period:
Example 1: the single line diagram of a power system is shown below. the machine is delivering 1 per unit power
and both terminal voltage and the infinite bus bar voltage are 1 per unit. The transient reactance of the generator is
0.2 per unit. Determine the power angle equation and the swing equation for (a) the given operating condition, (b) a
three phase fault occurs at point P Take H= 5 MJ/MVA. (c) The fault on the system is cleared by opening of the
circuit breakers at each end of the effected line.
(a) The series reactance between the generator and the infinite bus is
 The swing equation:

(b) The reactance diagram:

Ybus can be calculated by using figure (c)

Bus 3 has no external source connection so it will be removed by node elimination:

Since E\1 = 1.05 ∟28.44⁰ and the transfer admittance is 0.769

The power angle equation is

The swing equation

(c) The transfer reactance

The post fault power angle equation

The swing equation

Example 2: Consider a synchronous machine characterized by the following parameters:

And negligible armature resistance. The machine is connected directly to an infinite bus of voltage 1.0 per unit. The generator is
delivering a real power of 0.5 per unit at 0.8 power factor lagging. Determine the voltage behind transient reactance and the
transient power-angle equation for the following cases:
(a) Neglecting the saliency effect.
(b) Including the effect of saliency.
STEADY STATE STABILITY –SMALL DISTURBANCE:

The steady state stability is the ability of the power system to remain in synchronism when subjected to small disturbance. The
motion of the system is free and the system is stabile if it returns to its original state. The automatic control such as speed
governor and voltage regulator, are not active.
Consider the behavior of one machine connected to infinite bus bar, then
the swing equation is:

For a small disturbance

 Then

The value Pmax. cos δo is the slope of the power angle curve at δ o. it is known as synchronous coefficient P s and is given
by :

Then

The solution of the above equation is:

When:
 Ps is negative: we have one root in the right half S –plane and the response is
exponentially increasing and stability is lost.
 Ps positive: we have two j-ω axis, and the motion is oscillatory and
undamped. The system is marginally stable with natural frequency of
oscillation of:

From the figure it is very clear that the range of P s (dp / dδ) positive lies between 0 and 90 o with
a maximum value at no load (δo = 0).
 If there is a difference in the angular velocity between the rotor and the rotating resultant air gap field, induction motor
action will take place between them, and a torque will take place up on the rotor tending to reduce the difference between
the two velocities. This is called the damping torque. The damping power is proportional to the speed deviation.

The damping coefficient D can be

determined from design data or from test.
When Ps is positive, because of the damping power oscillation will damp out, and the operation at the equilibrium angle
will be restored.

Then:

If ωn if the natural frequency of oscillation and ζ is the damping ratio

 Where ωd is the damping frequency of oscillation

It is very clear that for positive damping, roots of the characteristic equation have a negative real part if synchronizing power
coefficient Ps is positive. The response is bounded and the system is stable.
For a multiple system, to find the homogeneous equation

If the state variable x1 and x2 are the despaired response, then the out put y(t) :
Take Laplas transform:

After a small disturbance ∆δo, xo (0) = ∆δo and x1 (0) = ∆ωo =0 then

Inverse laplas:

Where ϴ is

The response time constant is And the settling time is

Example : A 60- Hz synchronous generator having inertia constant H= 9.94 MJ/MVA and transient reactance X /d = 0.3 P.U
connected to an infinite bus bar through reactive circuit as shown in the figure. Resistances are remarked on the figure on a common
system base. The generator is delivering power of 0.6 p.u at 0.8 power factor lagging to the infinite bus at a voltage of V=1 p.u.
assume the per unit damping coefficient D = 0.138. consider a small disturbance of ∆δ = 10 o = 0.1745 radians. Obtain an equations
describing the motion of the rotor angle and the frequency od the generator.

Then the initial operating power angle is 16.79⁰ = 0.2931

TRANSIENT STABILITY (EQUAL AREA CRITERION):

The transient stability studies involve the determination of whether or not synchronism is maintained after the machine has been
subjected to severe disturbance (loss of large load, loss of generation, or a fault on the system). In most disturbances, oscillations
are such large that linearization is not possible and the nonlinear swing equation swing equation must be solved.
A method known as the equal- area criterion can be used for a quick predictions of stability. The method is only applicable to a
one – machine system connected to an infinite bus or a two –machine system.

Multiplying both sides by 2dδ/dt

Integrating both sides:

The above equation gives the relative speed of the machine with respect to a revolving reference. For stability this speed
must become zero at some time after disturbance, therefore, the stability criteria is

Consider the machine is operating at δ o and Pmo= Peo. As shown in the figure
Now consider a sudden step increase in input power P m1. Since Pm1 › Peo, the
acceleration power on the rotor is positive and the angle δ increases. The
excess energy stored in the rotor during initial acceleration is

With increasing δ, the electrical power increases, when δ = δ 1 and Pmo = Pm1. Even though the acceleration power is zero at this
point, the rotor is running above the synchronous speed, hence δ and P e will continue to increase. Now P m‹ Pe causing the rotor
to decelerate towered synchronous speed until δ = δ m. The energy given up by the rotor as it decelerate to the synchronous
speed is

The result is that the rotor swings to point d and the angle δ m at which
 APPLICATION OD SUDDEN INCREASE IN POWER INPUT:

The equal-area criterion is used to determine the maximum additional power P m which can be applied for stability to be
maintained. With a sudden change in the power input, the stability is maintained only if A 1 = A2. If A2 is less than A1, the
accelerating momentum can never overcome. The limit of stability occurs when δ max is the intersection of line P m and the power
angle curve for 90⁰‹ δ ‹ 180⁰ as show in the figure which represents the equal area criterion- maximum power limit

By integrating the equation

δmax can be calculated using iteration technique then

Where
 APPLICATION TO THREE-PHASE FAULT:

Consider the system is operating steadily. A sudden three phase fault

occurs at the sending end of one of the line at bus 1.
So no power is transmitted to the infinite bus. Then P e = 0
The machine accelerate with the total input power as accelerating power, thereby
increasing its speed, storing added energy and increasing the angle δ.
• When the fault is cleared both lines are assumed to connect. The fault is
cleared at δ1, which shift the operation to the original power-angle curve at
point e.
• the net power is now decelerating, and the previously kinetic energy will be
reduced to zero at point f when shaded area (defg), shown by A 2 equals
(abcd) shown by A1.
• Since Pe is still greater than Pm. the rotor continues to decelerate and the path
is reduced along the power angle curve passing through point e and a. the
rotor angle would then oscillate back and front around δ o at its natural free
frequency.
The critical clearing angle is reached when any further increase in δ 1causes the
area A2 (representing decelerating energy) to become less than the area
representing the accelerating energy. This occurs when δ max, or point f, is at the
intersection of line Pm and curve Pe, as shown in the figure.
 Integrating both sides

Solving for δc

To find the critical clearing time. We must solve the swing equation, with P e equal zero during the fault:

Integrating both sides:

Integrating again

If the δ in the above equation represents δ c ,

then the critical clearing time is
Now if the fault occur F at some distance away from the bus bar as shown in the figure

• Assume the input power Pm is constant and the machine is operating

steadily. The power angle cure which represent the prefault condition of
the system is curve A.
• During the fault at this case, the equivalent transfer reactance between the
bus bars is increased, lowering the power transfer capacity. The power
angle curve for the faulted system is represented by curve B.
• Finally, curve C represents the post fault power angle curve assuming the
removal of the line.
The critical clearing angle occurs when decelerating energy
A2 is less than acceleration energy A1, or δ max or point f is
at the intersection of Pm and curve C as shown

Applying equal area criterion

Integrating both sides

Example : A 60 Hz, synchronous generator having inertia constant o H= 5 MJ/MVA and a direct axis transient reactance X //d = 0.3
per unit is connected to infinite bus bar through purely reactive circuit as shown in the figure. The generator is delivering real
power PE = 0.8 per unit and Q = 0.074 per unit to the infinite bus at a voltage of V =1 per unit. (a)A temporary three- phase fault is
occurs at the sending end of the line at point F. when the fault is cleared, both lines are intact. Determine the critical clearing angle
and the critical clearing time. (b) A three –phase fault occurs at the middle of the lines, the fault is cleared and the faulted line is
isolated. Determine the critical clearing angle.
(a) since both line is intact after the fault, the power angle equation before and after the fault is

The initial operating angle is

Then

Since the fault is at the beginning of the transmission line, then the transfer power is zero.
(b) The power angle curve before fault is

The power angle curve during the fault is

The post fault transfer reactance

The post fault curve is