MAT01A1

The Precise Definition of a Limit

Section 2.4 (Stewart Calculus)

I In the last section, we introduced the
limit laws and the Direct Substitution
Property. We also saw the useful fact
that if f (x) = g(x) for x 6= a then
lim f (x) = lim g(x) (provided that
x→a x→a
both limits exist).
I Now we explore what is called the
precise definition of a limit. This is what
is used to prove the various limit laws
(see Appendix F if you are interested in
looking at the proofs).
First we recall the definition of a limit in Section 2.2.

Intuitive Definition of a Limit: Suppose f (x)

is defined for x near* a. We write

lim f (x) = L
x→a

and say “the limit of f (x), as x approaches

a, equals L” if we can make the values of f (x)
as close to L as we like by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a (on either side of a), but
not equal to a.

*near: f (x) is defined on some open interval

including a, but possibly not at a itself.
Before, we give the precise definition, let us
think of the previous definition in a more
informal way.
Essentially, the definition of

lim f (x) = L
x→a

is saying:
“If you give me any y value close to L, I can
give you an x value such that f (x) will be
closer than your y value to L.”
The importance of absolute values
The importance of absolute values
In our first definition we said
“as close to L as we like”
and on the last slide we said
“a y value close to L”
The importance of absolute values
In our first definition we said
“as close to L as we like”
and on the last slide we said
“a y value close to L”
Q: Do we want the y value to be a little bit
below L or a little bit above L?
The importance of absolute values
In our first definition we said
“as close to L as we like”
and on the last slide we said
“a y value close to L”
Q: Do we want the y value to be a little bit
below L or a little bit above L?
A: Both!
The importance of absolute values
In our first definition we said
“as close to L as we like”
and on the last slide we said
“a y value close to L”
Q: Do we want the y value to be a little bit
below L or a little bit above L?
A: Both!
It shouldn’t matter if the y value is bigger or
smaller than L. What matters is the
distance from y to L.
Two important characters

ε “epsilon” and δ “delta”

Two important characters

ε “epsilon” and δ “delta”

These two Greek letters are often used in

mathematics to represent any small positive
real number.

By small, we usually mean “close to 0”.

Two important characters

ε “epsilon” and δ “delta”

These two Greek letters are often used in

mathematics to represent any small positive
real number.

By small, we usually mean “close to 0”.

Note: ε is slightly different to the ∈ symbol

that we use when writing p ∈ Z.
We now give the precise definition (sometimes
called the formal definition) of a limit:

Definition: Let f be a function defined on some

open interval containing a (except possibly at a
itself) and let L ∈ R. We say that the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a is L, and write

lim f (x) = L
x→a

if for every number ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0

such that

|f (x) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

Since |x − a| is the distance from x to a and
|f (x) − L| is the distance from f (x) to L, and since
ε can be arbitrarily small, the definition of a limit
can be expressed in words as follows:
Since |x − a| is the distance from x to a and
|f (x) − L| is the distance from f (x) to L, and since
ε can be arbitrarily small, the definition of a limit
can be expressed in words as follows:

lim f (x) = L means that the distance between

x→a
f (x) and L can be made arbitrarily small by
taking the distance from x to a sufficiently
small (but not 0).
Since |x − a| is the distance from x to a and
|f (x) − L| is the distance from f (x) to L, and since
ε can be arbitrarily small, the definition of a limit
can be expressed in words as follows:

lim f (x) = L means that the distance between

x→a
f (x) and L can be made arbitrarily small by
taking the distance from x to a sufficiently
small (but not 0).

Note 1: x ∈ (a − δ, a + δ) ⇐⇒ |x − a| < δ.
Since |x − a| is the distance from x to a and
|f (x) − L| is the distance from f (x) to L, and since
ε can be arbitrarily small, the definition of a limit
can be expressed in words as follows:

lim f (x) = L means that the distance between

x→a
f (x) and L can be made arbitrarily small by
taking the distance from x to a sufficiently
small (but not 0).

Note 1: x ∈ (a − δ, a + δ) ⇐⇒ |x − a| < δ.

Note 2: x 6= a since 0 < |x − a|.

 x
Example: Let f (x) = + 6. Prove that
3
lim f (x) = 7.
x→3
 x
Example: Let f (x) = + 6. Prove that
3
lim f (x) = 7.
x→3
Solution: This type of proof has two steps.
First, we must come up with a ‘guess’ for δ.
This will be a value of δ stated in terms of ε.
 x
Example: Let f (x) = + 6. Prove that
3
lim f (x) = 7.
x→3
Solution: This type of proof has two steps.
First, we must come up with a ‘guess’ for δ.
This will be a value of δ stated in terms of ε.
We will then show that if we are given an
arbitrary ε > 0, then our guess for δ will
ensure that the implication
x 
0 < |x − 3| < δ → +6 −7 <ε
3
will be true.
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
x 
+ 6 − 7 < ε.
3
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
x 
+ 6 − 7 < ε. So we start with that and work
3
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x − 3|.
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
x 
+ 6 − 7 < ε. So we start with that and work
3
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x − 3|.
x 
+6 −7 <ε
3
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
x 
+ 6 − 7 < ε. So we start with that and work
3
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x − 3|.
x 
+6 −7 <ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < + 6 − 7 < ε
3
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
x 
+ 6 − 7 < ε. So we start with that and work
3
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x − 3|.
x 
+6 −7 <ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < + 6 − 7 < ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < − 1 < ε
3
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
x 
+ 6 − 7 < ε. So we start with that and work
3
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x − 3|.
x 
+6 −7 <ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < + 6 − 7 < ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < − 1 < ε
3
⇐⇒ − 3ε < x − 3 < 3ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
x 
+ 6 − 7 < ε. So we start with that and work
3
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x − 3|.
x 
+6 −7 <ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < + 6 − 7 < ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < − 1 < ε
3
⇐⇒ − 3ε < x − 3 < 3ε
⇐⇒ |x − 3| < 3ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
x 
+ 6 − 7 < ε. So we start with that and work
3
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x − 3|.
x 
+6 −7 <ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < + 6 − 7 < ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < − 1 < ε
3
⇐⇒ − 3ε < x − 3 < 3ε
⇐⇒ |x − 3| < 3ε
Our ‘guess’ for δ will be 3ε.
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work.
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x − 3| < δ,
i.e. that |x − 3| < 3ε. Then
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x − 3| < δ,
i.e. that |x − 3| < 3ε. Then
− 3ε < x − 3 < 3ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x − 3| < δ,
i.e. that |x − 3| < 3ε. Then
− 3ε < x − 3 < 3ε
x
⇐⇒ − ε < − 1 < ε
3
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x − 3| < δ,
i.e. that |x − 3| < 3ε. Then
− 3ε < x − 3 < 3ε
x
⇐⇒ − ε < − 1 < ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < + 6 − 7 < ε
3
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x − 3| < δ,
i.e. that |x − 3| < 3ε. Then
− 3ε < x − 3 < 3ε
x
⇐⇒ − ε < − 1 < ε
3
x
⇐⇒ − ε < + 6 − 7 < ε
 x 3
⇐⇒ +6 −7 <ε
3
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x − 3| < δ,
i.e. that |x − 3| < 3ε. Then
− 3ε < x − 3 < 3ε
x
⇐⇒ −ε< −1<ε
3
x
⇐⇒ −ε< +6−7<ε
 x 3
⇐⇒ +6 −7 <ε
3
⇐⇒ |f (x) − 7| < ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x − 3| < δ,
i.e. that |x − 3| < 3ε. Then
− 3ε < x − 3 < 3ε
x
⇐⇒ −ε< −1<ε
3
x
⇐⇒ −ε< +6−7<ε
 x 3
⇐⇒ +6 −7 <ε
3
⇐⇒ |f (x) − 7| < ε
We have shown that 
x 
lim + 6 = 7.
x→3 3
We emphasized already that there are two main
steps in the proof of the limit of a linear function.
First, come up with a ‘guess’ for δ and then second,
show that this formula for δ will work for any ε > 0.

Besides these two main steps there are three smaller

things that you need to be able to do:
I Identify the f (x), a and L from the precise
definition.
I When finding your δ, you must manipulate the
inequalities to get one involving |x − a|.
I In Step 2, you must manipulate the
inequalities in reverse so that you get one
involving |f (x) − L|.
Example: Prove that lim (3x + 5) = −1.
x→−2
Example: Prove that lim (3x + 5) = −1.
x→−2
Solution: As before, we must come up with a
‘guess’ for δ. This will be a value of δ stated
in terms of ε.
Example: Prove that lim (3x + 5) = −1.
x→−2
Solution: As before, we must come up with a
‘guess’ for δ. This will be a value of δ stated
in terms of ε.
We will then show that if we are given an
arbitrary ε > 0, then our guess for δ will
ensure that the implication

0 < |x + 2| < δ → |(3x + 5) + 1| < ε

will be true.
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε.
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε. So we start with that and work
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x + 2|.
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε. So we start with that and work
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x + 2|.
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε. So we start with that and work
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x + 2|.
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 5 + 1 < ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε. So we start with that and work
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x + 2|.
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 5 + 1 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 6 < ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε. So we start with that and work
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x + 2|.
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 5 + 1 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 6 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3(x + 2) < ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε. So we start with that and work
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x + 2|.
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 5 + 1 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 6 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3(x + 2) < ε
ε ε
⇐⇒ − <x+2<
3 3
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε. So we start with that and work
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x + 2|.
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 5 + 1 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 6 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3(x + 2) < ε
ε ε
⇐⇒ − < x + 2 <
3 3
ε
⇐⇒ |x + 2| <
3
Solution continued. . .
Step 1: At the end of Step 2 we want to have
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε. So we start with that and work
backwards with the aim to finish with some
statement about |x + 2|.
|(3x + 5) + 1| < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 5 + 1 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 6 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3(x + 2) < ε
ε ε
⇐⇒ − < x + 2 <
3 3
ε
⇐⇒ |x + 2| <
3
ε
Our ‘guess’ for δ will be .
3
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work.
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x + 2| < δ,
ε
i.e. that |x + 2| < . Then
3
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x + 2| < δ,
ε
i.e. that |x + 2| < . Then
3
ε ε
− <x+2<
3 3
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x + 2| < δ,
ε
i.e. that |x + 2| < . Then
3
ε ε
− <x+2<
3 3
⇐⇒ − ε < 3(x + 2) < ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x + 2| < δ,
ε
i.e. that |x + 2| < . Then
3
ε ε
− <x+2<
3 3
⇐⇒ − ε < 3(x + 2) < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 6 < ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x + 2| < δ,
ε
i.e. that |x + 2| < . Then
3
ε ε
− <x+2<
3 3
⇐⇒ − ε < 3(x + 2) < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 6 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 5 + 1 < ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x + 2| < δ,
ε
i.e. that |x + 2| < . Then
3
ε ε
− <x+2<
3 3
⇐⇒ − ε < 3(x + 2) < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 6 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 5 + 1 < ε
⇐⇒ |(3x + 5) + 1| < ε
Solution continued. . .
Step 2: Let ε > 0. We must show that our ‘guess’
for δ does indeed work. Suppose that |x + 2| < δ,
ε
i.e. that |x + 2| < . Then
3
ε ε
− <x+2<
3 3
⇐⇒ − ε < 3(x + 2) < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 6 < ε
⇐⇒ − ε < 3x + 5 + 1 < ε
⇐⇒ |(3x + 5) + 1| < ε
We have shown that
lim (3x + 5) = −1.
x→−2
Work through Example 2 in the textbook as
well.

Note that we do not cover limit proofs for

functions like those in Example 3 and
Example 4. We only cover linear functions.
In Section 2.3 we stated eleven different
Limit Laws but we did not prove any of them.
We couldn’t prove them because we didn’t
know how. With our new formal definition of
a limit, we can prove the Limit Laws.
Proofs of the Limit Laws can be found in
Appendix F. These are not examinable in this
course, but please take a look at them if you
are keen to have a better understanding of
the ε-δ definition of a limit.
Infinite Limits
Previously we said that f (x) has an infinite
limit as x → a if we can make f (x) “as big
as we like” by taking x close to a.
Now we want to formalise this in the same
way that we formalised the definition of a
(non-infinite) limit.
Definition: Let f be a function defined
on some open interval that contains a,
except possibly at a itself. Then

lim f (x) = ∞
x→a

means that for every positive number M

there is a δ > 0 such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) > M.

 1
Example: Show that lim = ∞.
x→0 x2
 1
Example: Show that lim = ∞.
x→0 x2
Solution: Let M be a given positive number.
 1
Example: Show that lim = ∞.
x→0 x2
Solution: Let M be a given positive number. We
want to find a number δ such that
1
if 0 < |x − 0| < δ then > M.
x2
 1
Example: Show that lim = ∞.
x→0 x2
Solution: Let M be a given positive number. We
want to find a number δ such that
1
if 0 < |x − 0| < δ then > M.
x2
That is, we need δ such that:
1
if 0 < |x| < δ then > M.
x2
 1
Example: Show that lim = ∞.
x→0 x2
Solution: Let M be a given positive number. We
want to find a number δ such that
1
if 0 < |x − 0| < δ then > M.
x2
That is, we need δ such that:
1
if 0 < |x| < δ then > M.
x2
But 1 1
2
> M ⇐⇒ x <
x2 M
 1
Example: Show that lim = ∞.
x→0 x2
Solution: Let M be a given positive number. We
want to find a number δ such that
1
if 0 < |x − 0| < δ then > M.
x2
That is, we need δ such that:
1
if 0 < |x| < δ then > M.
x2
But 1 1
2
> M ⇐⇒ x <
x2 Mr
√ 1
⇐⇒ x2 <
M
 1
Example: Show that lim = ∞.
x→0 x2
Solution: Let M be a given positive number. We
want to find a number δ such that
1
if 0 < |x − 0| < δ then > M.
x2
That is, we need δ such that:
1
if 0 < |x| < δ then > M.
x2
But 1 1
2
> M ⇐⇒ x <
x2 Mr
√ 1
⇐⇒ x2 <
M
1
⇐⇒ |x| < √
M
Solution continued. . .
1
So, if we choose δ = √ and
M
1 1
0 < |x| < δ = √ , then 2 > M .
M x
Solution continued. . .
1
So, if we choose δ = √ and
M
1 1
0 < |x| < δ = √ , then 2 > M . This
M x
shows that
1
lim 2 = ∞.
x→0 x
Definition: Let f be a function defined
on some open interval that contains a,
except possibly at a itself. Then

lim f (x) = −∞
x→a

means that for every negative number N

there is a δ > 0 such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) < N.

Additional Videos

In addition to the videos that we have

produced on this topic, the following
sequence of four Khan Academy videos could
be helpful in understanding the precise
definition of a limit:

Limit intuition review

Building the idea
Formal definition
Using the definition
Prescribed tut problems
I Section 2.4
1, 2, 13, 17, 19, 20, 41