CS231: Computer Architecture I
Mara J. Garzarn
Spring 2008
Course Organization
Course website:
[Link]
Office hours, policies, schedule, etc. posted
A tentative set of lecture notes will be posted
Modifications may take place right up to, or during lecture.
Therefore you should download the class notes after a lecture
Instructor:
Maria J. Garzaran
Office: 4308
Email: garzaran at [Link]
Office Hours: Wednesdays 11:00 am to noon
Web page: [Link]
TAs:
Office: 0212 SC
Email: ta231@[Link]
Josh Smith (Office hours: TBA)
Rajhans Samdani (Office hours: TBA)
Jin Tae Kwak
Introduction to CS231
Course Objectives
After taking this course, you will:
Learn how to design digital (i.e. boolean) circuits
Have a high-level understanding of how to design a general-purpose
computer:
Its hardware components
What they are built from
How to design them
Also, how to design digital circuits other than computers
Understand some of the important ideas for designing more
complex computers.
Introduction to CS231
Course Organization
Lectures Monday and Wednesday 10:00 to 10:50 am.
Review Session Friday 10:00 to 10:50 am
Textbook
Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals, 4rd Edition
by M. Morris Mano and Charles R. Kime.
Published by Prentice-Hall, 2008.
ISBN: 0-13-600158-0
We will mark which section in the book corresponds to the material covered
in each lecture
Lecture notes are enough to do the homeworks and the exams, but reading
the book is highly recommended
Introduction to CS231
Course Organization
Daily Quizzes:
There will be a quizz after every lecture. You can try each quiz multiple
times until the due date.
The quizz will be due:
10 am Wed for the quizz on Monday class
10 am Friday for the quizz on Wed class
There is a quizz 0 after this class. It is a fake quizz, just to test that
things will work fine for the real quizzes.
Introduction to CS231
Course Organization
Weekly Homeworks:
Will be posted on Mondays and due the following Monday.
Homeworks will be accepted up to two days late, with a 10% penalty for
each late day.
You may make only one submission per problem set (i.e., you may not
turn in most of the problems on time and then a few more the next
day).
To submit the homeworks:
- Hand it to the TA
- Slide it under the TA office door (0212) when no one is there -- DO
NOT place in the bins outside the door
Introduction to CS231
Course Organization
Exams:
There will be two midterms and a final.
Midterms will cover the material since the previous midterm.
However, the final exam will cover the material from the beginning, with special
emphasis on the material covered after the second midterm.
No calculators, books or notes will be allowed in the exams.
Evaluation:
Daily quizzes: 5%
Homeworks: 30%
Midterms: 38%
Finals: 27%
The distribution of final grades will be approximately 30% As, 35% Bs, 30% Cs,
5% other.
Percentage are subject to change.
Introduction to CS231
Course Organization
Cheating
You can discuss the homeworks with other members of the class,
myself, or the TA. However, do not look at or copy anyone else's
solutions.
I am not concerned with how you come to understand the problem and
how to solve it, but once you have the background necessary to solve it,
you must provide your own solution.
The penalty for cheating ranges from a failing grade for an assignment
to dismissal from the university. You can read the gory details of the
University's cheating policy in Rule 33 of the Code of Policies and
Regulations Applying to All Students.
Introduction to CS231
Questions?
For questions regarding homeworks, clarification of the material, etc, you should
use the newsgroup class.cs231 on the departments server.
You need to SET UP the newsgroup
Check if your question has already been asked before posting
A message to the newsgroup is the preferred method because:
It is faster
Other students can see the answer
You can also send an email to ta231@[Link]
Introduction to CS231
Todays lecture
A grand overview
How have we been able to make a Machine that can do complex things
Add and multiply really fast
Weather forecast, design of medicinal drugs
Speech recognition, Robotics, Artificial Intelligence..
Web browsers, internet communication protocols
Starting at (almost) the lowest level
Gates to Gates
Introduction to CS231
The Modest Switch
All these capabilities are built from an extremely simple component:
A controllable switch
The usual Electrical switch we use every day
The electric switch we use turns current on and off
But we need to turn it on and off by hand
The result of turning the switch on?
The top end in the figure becomes
raised to a high voltage
Which makes the current flow through the bulb
The Controllable Switch
No hands
Voltage controls if the switch is on or off
High voltage at input: switch on
Otherwise it is off
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Using the switch
Input
Output is high (voltage) if and only if
the input is high
Output
Now we can make one circuit control
another switch
Neat!
This is getting
boring..
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Lets use them creatively
Output is high if both the inputs
input1 AND input2 are high
Input1
Output
If either of the inputs is low, the
output is low.
This is called an AND gate
Input2
Now, can you make an OR gate with
switches?
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OR Gate
Input1
Output
Input2
Output is low iff both inputs are low
I.e. Output is high if either of the inputs (or both) are
high (input1 OR input2)
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Basic Gates
There are three basic kinds of logic gates
Operation:
AND
of two inputs
OR of two
inputs
NOT
(complement)
on one input
Logic gate:
Two Questions:
How can we implement such switches?
What can we build with Gates? And How?
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How to make switches?
Use mechanical power
Use hydrolic pressure
Use electromechanical switches (electromagnet turns the switch on)
Current technology:
Semiconductor transistors
A transitor can be made to conduct electricity depending on the
input on the 3rd input
CMOS gates (actually, switches)
We can now manufacture millions of transistors on a single silicon chip!
So, switches and Gates are no magic.
We believe they can be built
Two properties of Switches and Gates:
Size
Switching and Propagation delay
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A little bit about technology
Two properties of Switches and Gates:
Size
Switching and propagation delay
Smaller the size, smaller the propagation delay (typically)!
Smaller the size, cheaper the processor!
Silicon is sand anyway
But you can put more logic on a single chip
This nice positive feedback cycle has
Made processors faster and cheaper
Over the last 30 years! (1972: Intel 4004)
Before that: A processor was built with MANY chips
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What can we do with Gates?
What do you want to do?
Let us say we want to add numbers automatically
What are numbers? How are they represented
Roman XVII
Decimal: 17
How to add them, depends on how they are represented
One representation may be better than other for adding
Try adding two long roman numbers
Decimal is better but
We have only two values, high and low, in our gates
So,
Let us think about why decimal is better
And can we design a representation that allows us to use the
binary (hi/low) gates that we have.
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Decimal review
Numbers consist of a bunch of digits, each with a weight
1
100
2
1
3
1/10
7
1/100
5
Digits
1/1000 Weights
These weights are all powers of the base, which is 10. We can rewrite
this:
1
102
6
10
6
101
2
100
3
10-1
7
10-2
5
10-3
Digits
Weights
To find the decimal value of a number, multiply each digit by its weight
and sum the products.
(1 x 102) + (6 x 101) + (2 x 100) + (3 x 10-1) + (7 x 10-2) + (5 x 10-3) = 162.375
Now we can see why addition is easier with decimal system than
the roman system. The idea of positional weights and carry!
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Nothing special about 10!
Decimal system (and the idea of 0) was invented in India around 100500AD
Why did they use 10? Anything special about it?
Not really.
Probably the fact that we have 10 fingers influenced this
Will a base other than 10 work?
Sure: 345 in base 9 = 5 +9*4 + 92 *3 = 284 in base 10
Base 9 has only 9 symbols: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 0
What about base 2? (1 and 0)
1101 in base 2: 1 + 2*0 + 4*1 + 8*1 = 13
Base 2 system will work for our gates!
Base 2 Addition:
1
0
0
1
1
Compare this with decimal addition
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Converting binary to decimal
We can use the same trick to convert binary, or base 2, numbers to
decimal. This time, the weights are powers of 2.
Example: 1101.01 in binary
1
23
1
22
0
21
1
20
0
2-1
1
2-2
Binary digits, or bits
Weights (in base 10)
The decimal value is:
(1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20) + (0 x 2-1) + (1 x 2-2) =
8
+
4
+
0
+
1
+
0
+ 0.25 = 13.25
Powers of 2:
20 = 1
24 = 16
21 = 2
25 = 32
22 = 4
26 = 64
23 = 8
27 = 128
28 = 256
29 = 512
210 = 1024
Introduction to CS231
Useful abbreviations:
K = 210 = 1,024
M = 220 = 1,048,576
G = 230 = 1,073,741,824
20
Binary addition example worked out
Some terms are given here
Exercise: what are these numbers equivalent to in decimal?
The initial carry
in is implicitly 0
1
+
1
1
1
1
most significant
bit (MSB)
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
(Carries)
(Augend)
(Addend)
(Sum)
least significant
bit (LSB)
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Doing addition with gates
Lets do simple stuff first:
Can we add two numbers each with just 1 bit?
Bit: binary digit
0+0 = 0, 0+1 = 1 , 1+0 = 1, and 1+1 = ???
2. But 2 is not a symbol.
10 (just as 5 + 5 is 10 in decimal)
Result is 0 with 1 carried over to the next bit..
Whats 1 and 0? High and low voltage respectively.
Half adder
Result
Carry
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Half adder: result
Result
Output is 1 iff
exactly one of the 2
inputs is 1
This circuit is so common,
that it has a name an
symbol as a gate by
itself: Exclusive OR
Exclusive OR
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Adding two bits
A half adder is used to add two bits.
The result consists of two bits: a sum (the right bit) and a carry out
(the left bit)
Here is the circuit and its block symbol
0
0
1
1
+
+
+
+
0
1
0
1
= 00
= 01
= 01
= 10
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Adding three bits
But what we really need to do is add three bits: the augend and addend,
and the carry in from the right.
1
+
1
1
1
1
Cin
Cout
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
+0
+0
+1
+1
+0
+0
+1
+1
+0
+1
+0
+1
+0
+1
+0
+1
Introduction to CS231
= 00
= 01
= 01
= 10
= 01
= 10
= 10
= 11
25
Full adder circuit
Why are these things called half adders and full adders?
You can build a full adder by putting together two half adders.
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A 4-bit adder
Four full adders together can make a 4-bit adder
There are nine total inputs to the 4-bit adder:
two 4-bit numbers, A3 A2 A1 A0 and B3 B2 B1 B0
an initial carry in, CI
The five outputs are:
a 4-bit sum, S3 S2 S1 S0
a carry out, CO
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An example of 4-bit addition
Lets put our initial example into this circuit: A=1011, B=1110
1
1
1
1
0
Step 1: Fill in all the inputs, including CI=0
Step 2: The circuit produces C1 and S0 (1 + 0 + 0 = 01)
Step 3: Use C1 to find C2 and S1 (1 + 1 + 0 = 10)
Step 4: Use C2 to compute C3 and S2 (0 + 1 + 1 = 10)
Step 5: Use C3 to compute CO and S3 (1 + 1 + 1 = 11)
The final answer is 11001
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Now that we can add, how about some memory?
We want to save results computed before, and recall them in a later
calculation, for example
Gates help us build memory
How can a circuit remember anything on its own?
After all, the values on the wires are always changing, as outputs
are generated in response to inputs.
The basic idea is feedback: we make a loop in the circuit, so the
circuit outputs are inputs as well
When S and R are 0, Q
is stable: whatever it
was, it stays in that
state. Ergo : memory.
When S is 1 and R is 0, Q becomes 1
Set and Reset inputs
When R is 1 and S is 0, Q becomes 0
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So, we have built a calculator
It is not a computer yet
We have to type each step into a calculator
Wed like to program standard steps
E.g. Add 57 numbers sitting in memory in specific places
Also, support other operations (subtract..)
Two new ideas and components are needed for this:
Addressable memory
Stored Program
Addressable memory
Memory organized in a bunch of locations, such that contents of specified
location can be brought back to the adder when needed.
Each memory location has an address (binary, of course)
Stored Program:
The instructions for which numbers to operate on, what operation to do
(add/subtract, ..) and where to store the result
The instructions themselves can be represented in binary and stored in the
memory!
The processor must have circuits to decode and interpret these instructions
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Components of a basic computer
Data
ALU
(Arithmetic/Logic Unit:
Basic operations
Memory
Program
Control and Decoding
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Summary
Controllable Switches are easy to make
These switches can be used to put together Logic Gates
Logic Gates can be put together to make half adder, full adders and
multi-bit adders
So we can see they can be used for other such circuits as well
Logic Gates can be used to make circuits that remember or store data
A Computer includes, at its heart :
An ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Instruction Decoding and associated circuits
Memory
Stored Program
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