CHAPTER 1

BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

1.1 REISITOR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are
used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements,
and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can
dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in
power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.
Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a
lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common

commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance,
indicated on the component.

Fig: 1.1.1 Resistor Symbol

1.1.1 STANDED RESISTOR VALUES AND COLORS

Components and wires are coded with colors to identify their value and function.   

Fig: 1.1.1 Resistor color coding

The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance codes on 5-
band resistors only. All 5-band resistors use a colored tolerance band. The blank (20%)
“band” is only used with the “4-band” code (3 colored bands + a blank “band”).

1.2 CAPACITOR

Capacitor is an electronic component that stores electric charge. The capacitor is

made of 2 close conductors (usually plates) that are separated by a dielectric material.
The plates accumulate electric charge when connected to power source. One plate
accumulates positive charge and the other plate accumulates negative charge.
The capacitance is the amount of electric charge that is stored in the capacitor at
voltage of 1 Volt.
The capacitance is measured in units of Farad (F).
 The capacitor disconnects current in direct current (DC) circuits and short circuit
in alternating current (AC) circuits.

Fig: 1.2.1 Capacitor symbol

1.3 INDUCTOR

An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-

terminal electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric
current flows through it. An inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into
a coil around a core.

When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic
field induces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) (voltage) in the conductor, described
by Faraday's law of induction. According to Lenz's law, the induced voltage has a
polarity (direction) which opposes the change in current that created it. As a result,
inductors oppose any changes in current through them.

An inductor is characterized by its inductance, which is the ratio of the voltage to

the rate of change of current. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of
inductance is the henry (H) named for 19th century American scientist Joseph Henry. In
the measurement of magnetic circuits, it is equivalent to weber/ampere. Inductors have
values that typically range from 1 µH (10−6 H) to 20 H. Many inductors have a magnetic
core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic field
and thus the inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of the
three passive linear circuit elements that make up electronic circuits. Inductors are widely
used in alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in radio equipment.
 They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this
purpose are called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of
different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to
tune radio and TV receivers.

Fig: 1.3.1 Inductor Symbol

1.4 DIODE

A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only

conducts current in one direction (so long as it is operated within a specified voltage
level). An ideal diode will have zero resistance in one direction, and infinite resistance in
the reverse direction.

Although in the real world, diodes can not achieve zero or infinite resistance.
Instead, a diode will have negligible resistance in one direction (to allow current flow),
and a very high resistance in the reverse direction (to prevent current flow). A diode is
effectively like a valve for an electrical circuit.
Semiconductor diodes are the most common type of diode. These diodes begin
conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage is present in the forward
direction (i.e. the “low resistance” direction). The diode is said to be “forward biased”
when conducting current in this direction. When connected within a circuit in the reverse
direction (i.e. the “high resistance” direction), the diode is said to be “reverse biased”.
A diode only blocks current in the reverse direction (i.e. when it is reverse biased)
while the reverse voltage is within a specified range. Above this range, the reverse barrier
breaks. The voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called the “reverse breakdown
voltage”. When the voltage of the circuit is higher than the reverse breakdown voltage,
the diode is able to conduct electricity in the reverse direction (i.e. the “high resistance”
direction). This is why in practice we say diodes have a high resistance in the reverse
direction – not an infinite resistance.

A PN junction is the simplest form of the semiconductor diode. In ideal

conditions, this PN junction behaves as a short circuit when it is forward biased, and as
an open circuit when it is in the reverse biased. The name diode is derived from “di–ode”
which means a device that has two electrodes. Diodes are commonly used in many
electronics projects and are included in many of the best Arduino starter kits.

Fig: 1.4.1 Diode symbol

1.5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light

when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron
holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light (corresponding to
the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross
the band gap of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by using multiple
semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted

low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as
those used with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were
of low intensity and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with high light output.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small incandescent
bulbs, and in seven-segment displays. Recent developments have produced high-output
white light LEDs suitable for room and outdoor area lighting. LEDs have led to new
displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced
communications technology.

Fig: 1.5 Led’s (light emitting diode)

 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION TO ARDUINO

2.1 WHAT IS AN ARDUINO?

Arduino is an open-source hardware and software company, project and user

community that designs and manufactures single-board
microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for building digital devices. Its products are
licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) or the GNU General
Public License (GPL) permitting the manufacture of Arduino boards and software
distribution by anyone. Arduino boards are available commercially in preassembled form
or as do-it-yourself (DIY) kits.

Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The

boards are equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be
interfaced to various expansion boards ('shields') or breadboards (For prototyping) and
other circuits. The boards feature serial communications interfaces, including Universal
Serial Bus (USB) on some models, which are also used for loading programs from
personal computers. The microcontrollers can be programmed using C and C++
programming languages. In addition to using traditional compiler toolchains, the Arduino
project provides an integrated development environment (IDE) based on
the Processing language project.

The Arduino project started in 2005 as a program for students at the Interaction

Design Institute Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for
novices and professionals to create devices that interact with their environment
using sensors and [Link] examples of such devices intended for beginner
hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats and motion detectors.
 Fig: 2.1 ATMEGA328P Microcontroller

2.2Pin Description of ATMEGA328P

Pin Category Pin Name Details

Power Vin, 3.3V, 5V, Vin: Input voltage to Arduino when using an
GND external power source.

5V: Regulated power supply used to power

microcontroller and other components on the board.

3.3V: 3.3V supply generated by on-board voltage

regulator. Maximum current draw is 50mA.

GND: ground pins.

Reset Reset Resets the microcontroller.

Analog Pins A0 – A5 Used to provide analog input in the range of 0-5V

Input/Output Digital Pins 0 – Can be used as input or output pins.

Pins 13

Serial 0(Rx), 1(Tx) Used to receive and transmit TTL serial data.

External 2, 3 To trigger an interrupt.

Interrupts
 PWM 3, 5, 6, 9, 11 Provides 8-bit PWM output.

SPI 10 (SS), 11 Used for SPI communication.

(MOSI), 12
(MISO) and 13
(SCK)

Inbuilt LED 13 To turn on the inbuilt LED.

TWI A4 (SDA), A5 Used for TWI communication.

(SCA)

AREF AREF To provide reference voltage for input voltage.

Fig: 2.2.1 Pin description of ATMEGA328P

2.3 Applications

 Prototyping of Electronics Products and Systems

 Multiple DIY Projects.
  Easy to use for beginner level DIYers and makers.
 Projects requiring Multiple I/O interfaces and communications.

2.4 EXAMPLE PROGRAM ON ARDUINO

1. Simple LED Glow program using arduino :

int led = 13;

void setup()
{
pinMode(led, OUTPUT);
}
void loop()
{
digitalWrite(led, HIGH);
}
2. TO Blink 1The LED Program:
int led=13;
void setup()
{
PinMode(13,OUTPUT);
}
Void loop()2
{
digitalWrite(13,HIGH);
delay(1000);
digitalWrite(13,LOW();
delay(10000);
}

CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION TO LCD (IQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)
3.1 WHAT IS LCD?

Fig: 3.1.1 Liquid crystal display

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically
modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid
crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using
a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome. 
LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display)
or fixed images with low information content, which can be displayed or hidden, such as
preset words, digits, and seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock.
They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from
a matrix of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements.
LCDs can either be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer
arrangement.
For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black
lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character negative LCD
will have a black background with the letters being of the same color as the backlight.

3.2 SPECIFICATIONS
 Resolution 
  Spatial performance
 Temporal performance
 Color performance
 Brightness and contrast ratio
3.3 PIN OUT DIAGRAM

Fig: 3.3.1 Pin out diagram

3.4 Pin Configuration

Pin Pin Name: Description

No:

1 Vss (Ground) Ground pin connected to system ground

2 Vdd (+5 Volt) Powers the LCD with +5V (4.7V – 5.3V)

3 VE (Contrast Decides the contrast level of display. Grounded to get maximum

V) contrast.

4 Register Connected to Microcontroller to shift between command/data

Select register

5 Read/Write Used to read or write data. Normally grounded to write data to

LCD
6 Enable Connected to Microcontroller Pin and toggled between 1 and 0 for
data acknowledgement

7 Data Pin 0  

Data pins 0 to 7 forms a 8-bit data line. They can be connected to

Microcontroller to send 8-bit data.

These LCD’s can also operate on 4-bit mode in such case Data pin
4,5,6 and 7 will be left free.

8 Data Pin 1

9 Data Pin 2

10 Data Pin 3 8Data pins

11 Data Pin 4

12 Data Pin 5

13 Data Pin 6

14 Data Pin 7

15 LED Positive Backlight LED pin positive terminal

16 LED Negative Backlight LED pin negative terminal

 Table: 3.4.1 Pin configuration of LCD

3.5 Features of 16×2 LCD module

 Operating Voltage is 4.7V to 5.3V

 Current consumption is 1mA without backlight
 Alphanumeric LCD display module, meaning can display alphabets and numbers
 Consists of two rows and each row can print 16 characters.
 Each character is build by a 5×8 pixel box
 Can work on both 8-bit and 4-bit mode
 It can also display any custom generated characters
 Available in Green and Blue Backlight

3.6 example programs on LCD

1. Lcd program by using ardunio

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>

int rs=6,en=7,d4=2,d5=3,d6=4,d7=5;

LiquidCrystal lcd(rs,en,d4,d5,d6,d7);

void setup()

[Link](16,2);

pinMode(13,OUTPUT);

[Link](3,0);

[Link]("WELCOME TO");

[Link](0,1);
[Link]("PHYSITECH ELECTRONICS");

delay(1000);

[Link]();

void loop()

digitalWrite(13,HIGH);

[Link]("WEL");

delay(1000);[Link]();

digitalWrite(13,LOW);

[Link]("HEL");

delay(1000);[Link]();

2. LED With LCD program using arduino

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>

int rs=6,en=7,d4=2,d5=3,d6=4,d7=5;

LiquidCrystal lcd(rs,en,d4,d5,d6,d7);

void setup()

[Link](16,2);

void loop()

{
digitalWrite(13,HIGH);

[Link](0,0);

[Link](“LED ON”);

CHAPTER 4

TYPES OF SENSORS USED IN ARDUINO

4.1.1 GAS SENSOR

 Fig: [Link] Gas sensor module

A gas sensor is a device which detects the presence or concentration of gases in the
atmosphere. Based on the concentration of the gas the sensor produces a corresponding
potential difference by changing the resistance of the material inside the sensor, which
can be measured as output voltage. Based on this voltage value the type and
concentration of the gas can be estimated.

The type of gas the sensor could detect depends on the sensing material present inside the
sensor. Normally these sensors are available as modules with comparators as shown
above. These comparators can be set for a particular threshold value of gas concentration.
When the concentration of the gas exceeds this threshold the digital pin goes high. The
analog pin can be used to measure the concentration of the gas.

4.1.2 Applications of Gas Sensors

 Used in industries to monitor the concentration of the toxic gases.

 Used in households to detect an emergency incidents.
 Used at oil rig locations to monitor the concentration of the gases those are
released.
 Used at hotels to avoid customers from smoking.
 Used in air quality check at offices.
 Used in air conditioners to monitor the CO2 levels.
 Used in detecting fire.
 Used to check concentration of gases in mines.
  Breath analyzer.

4.1.3 ARDUINO PROGRAM ON GAS SENSER

Fig:[Link] Gas sensor with arduino

void setup()

[Link](9600);

pinMode(A0,INPUT);

pinMode(12,OUTPUT);

pinMode(13,OUTPUT);

void loop()

int value=analogRead(A0);

[Link]("value:");

delay(500);

if(value>=34)

{
 digitalWrite(12,HIGH);

[Link]("LED ON");

else

digitalWrite(12,LOW);

digitalWrite(13,LOW);

4.2 SOIL MOISTURE SENSOR

Fig: 4.2.1 soil sensor

Soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content in soil. Since the

direct gravimetric measurement of free soil moisture requires removing, drying, and
weighing of a sample, soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content
indirectly by using some other property of the soil, such as electrical resistance, dielectric
constant, or interaction with neutrons, as a proxy for the moisture content.

The relation between the measured property and soil moisture must be calibrated
and may vary depending on environmental factors such as soil type, temperature,
or electric conductivity. Reflected microwave radiation is affected by the soil moisture
and is used for remote sensing in hydrology and agriculture. Portable probe instruments
can be used by farmers or gardeners.

Soil moisture sensors typically refer to sensors that estimate volumetric water
content. Another class of sensors measure another property of moisture in soils
called water potential; these sensors are usually referred to as soil water potential sensors
and include tensiometers and gypsum blocks.

4.2.2 Specifications

 The specification of this sensor includes the followjing.

 The required voltage for working is 5V
 The required current for working is <20mA
 Type of interface is analog
 The required working temperature of this sensor is 10°C~30°C

4.2.3 ARDUINO PROGRAM ON SOIL MOISTURE SENSER

Fig: [Link] Soil sensor with arduino

void setup()
{
pinMode(A0,INPUT);
pinMode(13,OUTPUT);
pinMode(12,OUTPUT);
[Link](9600);
}
void loop()
{
int Soilmoisture=analogRead(A0);
[Link]("Soilmoisture ");
[Link](Soilmoisture);
delay(500);
if(value>=300)
digitalWrite(13,HIGH);
digitalWrite(12,HIGH);
delay(500);
digitalWrite(13,LOW);
digitalWrite(12,LOW);
}

4.3 BLUETOOTH SENSOR (HC-05)

Fig: 4.3.1 Bluetooth sensor (HC-05)

 It is used for many applications like wireless headset, game controllers, wireless
mouse, wireless keyboard and many more consumer applications.
 It has range up to <100m which depends upon transmitter and receiver,
atmosphere, geographic & urban conditions. 
  It is IEEE 802.15.1 standardized protocol, through which one can build wireless
Personal Area Network (PAN). It uses frequency-hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS) radio technology to send data over air.
 It uses serial communication to communicate with devices. It communicates with
microcontroller using serial port (USART).

4.3.2 ARDUINO PROGRAM ON BLUTOOTH SENSOR

Fig:[Link] Bluetooth sensor with an arduino

#include<SoftwareSerial.h>
SoftwareSerial bt(10,11);
void setup()
{
[Link](9600);
[Link](9600);
}
void loop()
{
if([Link]())
{
[Link]([Link]());
}
if([Link]())
{
[Link]([Link]());
}
}

4.4 .1 ULTRASONIC SENSOR (HC-SR04)

Fig: [Link] Ultrasonic Sensor (Hc-Sr04)

  An ultrasonic sensor is an instrument that measures the distance to an object

using ultrasonic sound waves.

An ultrasonic sensor uses a transducer to send and receive ultrasonic pulses

that relay back information about an object’s proximity.  

,High-frequency sound waves reflect from boundaries to produce distinct

echo patterns .

4.4.2 Ultrasonic Uses:

 Anti-Collision Detection
 People Detection
 Contouring or Profiling
 Presence Detection
 Box Sorting using a Multi-Transducer System
 Easy Control of Trash Collection Vehicles
 Pallet Detection with Forklifts
 Bottle Counting on Drink Filling Machines
 Fig: [Link] Ultrasonic sensor

4.4.3 ARDUINO PROGRAM ON ULTRASONIC SENSER

Fig: [Link] Ultrasonic sensor

Const int trigPin = 11;

Const int echoPin = 12;

long duration,
long distance;
void setup()
{
pinMode(trigPin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(echoPin, INPUT);
[Link] (9600);
}
void loop()
{
digitalWrite (trigPin, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(5);
digitalWrite (trigPin, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(10);
digitalWrite (trigPin, LOW);
duration = pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH);
distance=(duration*.09343)/2;
[Link]("Distance");
[Link] ln(distance);
delay(2000);
}
4.4.4 BASIC PROGRAM USING LCD IN SERIAL
COMMUNICATION BLUETOOTH AND LED
#include <software serial.h>
Software [Link](10,11)
Void loop()
{
Serial begin(9600);
PinMode(LEDPIN,OUTPUT) ;
PinMode(13,OUTPUT);
}
Voidloop()
{
If (Bt [Link])0
(c=bt [Link]());
[Link] ln(c);
If(C==1)
{
digitalWrite(LED PIN,HIGH);
}
If(C==2)
{
digitalWrite(LED PIN,LOW);
}
If(C==4)
{
digitalWrite(13,LOW);
}
If(C==3)
{
digitalWrite(13,HIGH);
}
}
}

Fig: Bluetooth sensor with arduino

FPGA (FIELD PROGRAMMABLE GATE ARRAY):

Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are semiconductor devices that are based
around a matrix of configurable logic blocks (CLBs) connected via programmable
interconnects. FPGAs can be reprogrammed to desired application or functionality
requirements after manufacturing. This feature distinguishes FPGAs from Application
Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), which are custom manufactured for specific design
tasks. Although one-time programmable (OTP) FPGAs are available, the dominant types
are SRAM based which can be reprogrammed as the design evolves
FPGAs are often found associated with:
 Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
 Software Defined Radio (SDR)
 parallel processing
 ASIC prototyping
 Multi-Sensor Data Fusion
 Small-quantity product development
 Cryptography
 Antenna beamformers for wireless communication and radar
 Industrial control systems are another application
 Any high-performance computing that does not lend itself well to x86 or other
traditional processing
FPGA Advantages

 Better Performance. A general CPU is unable to perform parallel processing,

giving FPGAs the upper hand as they can perform processing and calculation in
parallel at a faster rate. ...

 Cost Efficiency

 Parallel Task Performance

 Prototyping

 Faster Time to Market

 Simpler Design Cycles

 Adaptability

 Real Time Application

RCWL (MICROWAVE RADAR SENSOR WITH SWITCH
MODULE) PROGRAM CODE BY USING ARDUINO

#define sensor 2

void setup()

pinMode(sensor,INPUT);

[Link](9600);

void loop() {

bool detection=digitalRead(sensor);

if(detection==HIGH)

[Link]("Motion detected !!");

if(detection==LOW)

[Link]("Motion not detected !!");

}
RCWL WITH LED PROGRAM CODE BY USING ARDUINO

#define sensor 2

#define LED 3

void setup()

pinMode(sensor,INPUT);

pinMode(LED,OUTPUT);

[Link](9600);

}
void loop() {

bool detection=digitalRead(sensor);

if(detection==HIGH)

[Link]("Motion detected !!");

digitalWrite(LED,HIGH);

if(detection==LOW)

[Link]("Motion not detected !!");

digital Write(LED,LOW);
}
RFID (radio frequency identification) is a form of wireless communication that
incorporates the use of electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the radio frequency
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to uniquely identify an object, animal or person.
Use cases for RFID technology include healthcare, manufacturing, inventory
management, shipping, retail sales and home use.

RFID and barcode technology are used in similar ways to track inventory, but three
important differences make each one a better choice in certain situations:

 RFID tags do not require a direct line of sight to be read.

 Data stored in an RFID tag can be updated in real-time. In contrast, bar code data
is read-only and cannot be changed.

 RFID tags require a power source. In contrast, bar codes only require the
technology reading the bar code to have a power source.

RFID Used in Real World Applications

 Logistics & Supply Chain Visibility. Photo courtesy of Walmart.

 Item Level Inventory Tracking.

 Race Timing.
  Attendee Tracking.

 Materials Management.

 Access Control.

 IT Asset Tracking.

 Tool Tracking.

CHAPTER 6
XILINX ISE 14.7
6.1 INSTALLATION PROCEDURE OF XILINX ISE 14.7
Step-1: Double click on the setup file we will see the following window on screen

 Click next
 Step-2: click on accept and agree terms and condition
 Click on i also accept and agree to the following terms and conditions
 Click next

Step-3: select accept and agree to the terms and conditions above click next
Step-4: select ISE web pack. Click next
Step-5: click next
Step-6: click next
Step-7: click install
Step-8: wait for install completed click finish
Step-9: Xilinx license configuration. Manager window opens go to manage license select
load license box. The select lice file from directory and close the window now ready to
use

6.2 PROJECT CREATION IN XILINX 14.7

Click the Xilinx 14.7 icon on the desktop
Step-1: main window open
Step-2: click on new project box, new project wizard window open
In first textbook: enter project name
In second textbox: enter path of project
Select in top level source type as HDL Click next
Step-3: project setting window opens to select device and desingn flow make setting has
below
Family: SPARTAN6
Device: XC6SLX4
Package: TOG144
Speed: 3
Synthesis stool: XST (VHDL/VERILOG)
Simulator: 1SIM (VHDL/VERILOG)
Preferred language: VHDL
Click next& FINISH.
Step-4: newsource. Wizard. Window opens.
Here select source type give file name.
Step-5: new source wizard window opens
Here select source type and give file name
Step-6: new source. Wizard .window opens
Here enter input and output port name either single bit or bus with direction of port
name:enter the input and output names
Direction: select in or out or. In/out
 (Depending upon the application)
MSB: select the number of bit
LSB: select the number of bit
Step-6: enter the program follow below steps to simulate the program

 Simulation by double clicking on synthesis in process window (if any errors,

remove and do synthesis again)
 Run on I/O pin planning presynthesis(sub division of user on TRAINTS) and
window will appear. Click on yes to ok
 Create &add UCF FILE to project automatically, plan head 14.7 window
 Opens in that assign PIN NUMBER corresponding to signal in location text box
click on save and close the plan head 14.7 window
 Run the implement design in process window.
 Run the generate programming. file click on configure device impact ,small
window opens
 Click on ok ISE impact window opens.
 NOTE: follow below steps to generate MSC file
 Double click on create PROM file in impact flow window.
 Click for arrow mark and select device (bits).
 Xcfocus (4m) and click on add storage device and did for next arrow mark
 Enter output file name &output file location click on ok
 Click ok in add device ,window select bit file click open
 Click on to add another device ,click ok
 Double click on add generate file MSC file generate

6.3 DOWNLOADING PROCEDURE FOR XILINX FPGA

After generating but file and MSC file follow below step to down load bit and MCS file
to FPGA -04
NOTE: we can download either through Xilinx 14.7 or directly through ISE impact
Connect one end of a 10 pin FRC cable to the MFC 68 CN6 and other end of ITAG
parallel adapter /platform cable USB. Which connect to the pc parallel port/USB port
In the process view of XILIX 14.7 click on configure device (impact) click ok.
Select boundary scan mode and right click and select initialize chain select the MSC file
Select bin file, click on.
Select the xcfo45 right click on device &click program check for program selected

CHAPTER 7

PCD DESIGIN AND FABRICATION

7.1 PCB (PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD) DESIGING

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically

connects electrical or electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto and/or between
sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate. Components are generally soldered onto the
PCB to both electrically connect and mechanically fasten them to it.

Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. They are
also used in some electrical products, such as passive switch boxes.
 Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, both
once popular but now rarely used. PCBs require additional design effort to lay out the
circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Specialized CAD software is
available to do much of the work of layout. Mass-producing circuits with PCBs is
cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods, as components are mounted and wired
in one operation. Large numbers of PCBs can be fabricated at the same time, and the
layout only has to be done once. PCBs can also be made manually in small quantities,
with reduced benefits.

PCBs can be single-sided (one copper layer), double-sided (two copper layers on
both sides of one substrate layer), or multi-layer (outer and inner layers of copper,
alternating with layers of substrate). Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component
density, because circuit traces on the inner layers would otherwise take up surface space
between components. The rise in popularity of multilayer PCBs with more than two, and
especially with more than four, copper planes was concurrent with the adoption
of surface mount technology. However, multilayer PCBs make repair, analysis, and field
modification of circuits much more difficult and usually impractical.

7.2 Different Types of Printed Circuit Boards

PCBs have copper tracks to connect the holes where the various components are
located they are specially designed for each and every circuit and build construction very
easy. Though, making the PCB necessitates special tools. The different types of printed
circuit boards mainly include the following

 Single-Sided PCBs
 Double-Sided PCBs
 Multilayer PCBs
 Rigid PCBs
 Flex PCBs
 Rigid-Flex PCBs.
7.3 PCB DESIGING USING EAGLE SOFTWARE

Click on File and select New Project. Rename the Project to an appropriate name
(I will be designing the PCB for Fire Alarm Project). Right click on the project and create
new schematic. 

7.4 Designing Schematic for PCB

A new schematic window will open with a blank work space. This is called the
Schematic Editor, where you can draw schematics of your design. Save the schematic file
with extension .sch.

After this, we have to add the necessary components which we are going to use in
our schematic. But, before that, we need to adjust the grid size of the schematic. Select
the Grid option and set the size to 1mm. Also set the alternate grid to a smaller value.
You can turn on the grid by selecting display on option.

NOTE: Setting Grid is optional and set the values you are comfortable with.
 Now, we have to add components to our schematic. For this, select Add Option
from the side tool bar. A new window opens with a list of all the components available in
the libraries.

The first component is the Op – Amp, which is an 8 – pin DIP. So, instead of
adding the IC directly, we will add an 8 – pin DIP Socket. So, go to the library ic-
package and select DIL8 component. Alternatively, you can use the search option at the
bottom, if you know the name of the component.
 After selecting the component, in our case an 8 – pin DIP Socket, click on OK
and then you can place the component on the schematic sheet. Click on the sheet once to
place the component and if you want to rotate the component, right click. After placing
the component on the schematic, press Esc to return to the component selection window.

Similarly, add the rest of the components required to complete the circuit. The
components are: a square type POT, quarter watt resistor, small buzzer, a thermistor and
a two pin screw terminal. Additionally, add the +5V and GND symbols from the supply
library. After placing all the components, rename the components to something
understandable. Also, mention the values like 10KΩ Resistor etc.

Connecting Components in Schematic+

Next step is to connect these components. You have to use the net option from the
side tool bar and start making the connections.
 After making all the connections, the final schematic will look something like the
circuit in the following image. Save the schematic file.

7.5 PCB Layout Design

After completing the schematic, we have to proceed with the design of the PCB
layout. Select the switch to board option from the top tool bar. You can create the board
fie from the schematic.

A new window opens which is the PCB layout editor. The black space is the
board area and all the components are at the outside bottom left of the board area. Now,
we need to place the components in to the editor. You can adjust the grid size of the PCB
Layout editor, if you want.

 Now, using the group option from the side tool bar, select all the components and using
move option move all the components and populate the board area.

Using the move option, place the components on the board as per the position you
want the component to be on the board. You can see thin yellow wires running between
the components. These wires are called air wires and are representation of connections
between components.

When we route the path between components, these air wires will disappear as an
indication of successful connection.
  Now, it is time to make the connections or traces for the Printed Circuit Board.
For this, we are going to use the Route tool from the side tool bar. Also set the width of
the trace to be routed as your requirement. Here, I’ve set the trace width to approximately
1mm. Then, select the signal layer i.e. bottom layer, as our PCB is a single sided board.

  Start routing the traces from pin to pin. As you progress with routing, the air wires
will start disappearing. 
  Complete all the connections and make sure that one trace do not interact with
other (as this is considered as a short circuit).

Adjust the size of the board as per the required dimensions and save the file. The
board file will be save with .brd extension. Before proceeding with how to make your
own PCB at home, I’ll show you one more important step: the Ground Pour.

 Select the polygon option from the side tool bar and start drawing the polygon
along the edges of the board. Make sure that the signal layer is bottom. The starting and
ending points of the polygon must meet.

You will get a dotted line along the edges of the board. Select name option and
rename the polygon to GND. Hit ratsnest option from the side tool bar to see the ground
pour.

  The layout for the PCB is ready. The next step is to check for errors and generate
the necessary gerber files for sending them to PCB Manufacturers. 
 7.6 PCB Manufacturing Process

Printed circuit boards are typically made with copper. Depending on the
requirements, the copper is plated to a substrate and carved away to expose the design of
the board. Since there are multiple layers, they must be lined up and bonded together for
a secure fit.

Step 1 – The Design

Before you begin manufacturing the PCB, you need to have a design of the board.
These blueprints will be what you base the process off of. The design process is generally
completed through computer software. Using a trace width calculator will help with a
majority of the details needed for inner and external layers.

Step 2 – Printing the Design

A special printer called a plotted printer is used to print the design of the PCB. It
produces a film that shows the details and layers of the board. When printed, there will be
two ink colors used on the inside layer of the board:

 Clear Ink to show the non-conductive areas; and

 Black Ink to show the conductive copper traces and circuits.
The same colors are used for the outer layers, but the meaning of them is reversed.

Step 3 – Creating the Substrate

Now is when the PCB will start to form. The substrate, which is the insulating
material (epoxy resin and glass fiber) that holds the components on the structure, begins
forming by passing the materials through an oven to be semicured. Copp3er is pre-
bonded to both sides of the layer and then etched away to show the design from the
printed films.

Step 4 – Printing the Inner Layers

The design is printed to a laminate, the body of the structure. A photo-sensitive

film made from photo-reactive chemicals that will harden when exposed to ultraviolet
light (the resist) covers the structure.. This will help align the blueprints and the actual
print of the board. Holes are drilled into the PCB to help with the alignment process.

Step 5 – Ultraviolet Light

Once aligned, the resist and laminate go under ultraviolet lights to harden the
photo resist. The light reveals the pathways of copper. The black ink from before
prevents hardening in areas that will be removed later on. The board is then washed in an
alkaline solution to remove the excess photoresist.

Step 6 – Removing Unwanted Copper

Now, it is time to remove any unwanted copper that remained on the board. A
chemical solution, similar to the alkaline solution, eats away at the unwanted copper. The
hardened photoresist remains intact.

Step 7 – Inspection

The newly-cleaned layers will need to be inspected for alignment. The holes
drilled earlier help align the inner and outer layers. An optical punch machine drills a pin
through the holes to keep the layers lined up. After the optical punch, another machine
will inspect the board to ensure there are no defects. From here on out, you will not be
able to correct any missed errors.
Step 8 – Laminating the Layers

Now, you will see the board take shape as the layers are fused together. Metal
clamps hold the layers together as the laminating process begins. A prepreg (epoxy resin)
layer goes on the alignment basin. Then, a layer of substrate goes over the prepreg
followed by a copper foil layer and more prepreg resin. Lastly, there is on more copper
layer applied, which is the press plate.

Step 9 – Pressing the Layers

A mechanical press is then used to press the layers together. Pins are punch
through the layers to keep them properly aligned and secured, these pins can be removed
depending on the technology. If correct, the PCB will go to the laminating press, which
applies heat and pressure to the layers. The epoxy melts inside of the prepreg that, along
with the pressure, fuses the layers together.

Step 10 – Drilling

Holes are drilled into the layers by a computer-guided drill to expose the substrate
and inner panels. Any remaining copper after this step is removed.

Step 11 – Plating

The board is now ready to be plated. A chemical solution fuses all of the layers
together. The board is then thoroughly cleaned by another series of chemicals. These
chemicals also coat the panel with a thin copper layer, which will seep into the drilled
holes.
Step 12 – Outer Layer Imaging

Next, a layer of photoresist, similar to Step 3, is applied to the outside layer before
being sent for imaging. Ultraviolet light hardens the photoresist. Any undesired
photoresist is removed.

Step 13 – Plating

Just like in Step 11, the panel is plated with a thin copper layer. After this, a thin
tin guard is layered to the board. The tin is there to protect the copper of the outside layer
from being etched off.

Step 14 – Etching

The same chemical solution from before removes any unwanted copper under the
resist layer. The tin guard layer protects the needed copper. This step established the
PCB’s connections.

Step 15 – Solder Mask Application

All of the panels should be cleaned before the solder mask is applied. An epoxy is
applied with the solder mask film. The solder mask applies the green color you typically
see on a PCB. Any unwanted solder mask is removed with ultraviolet light, while the
wanted solder mask is baked on to the board.

Step 16 – Silk screening

Silk screening is a vital step since this process is what prints critical information
onto the board. Once applied, the PCB passes through one last coating and curing
process.
Step 17 – Surface Finish

The PCB is plated with either a solderable finish, depending on the requirements,
which will increase the quality/bond of the solder.

Step 18 – Testing

Before the PCB is considered complete, a technician will perform an electrical

test on the board. This will confirm the PCB functions and follows the original blueprint
designs.
 CHAPTER 8

8.1 SOLDERING

Soldering is a process in which two or more items are joined together by melting
and putting a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting
point than the adjoining metal. Unlike welding, soldering does not involve melting the
work pieces. In brazing, the work piece metal also does not melt, but the filler metal is
one that melts at a higher temperature than in soldering. In the past, nearly all solders
contained lead, but environmental and health concerns have increasingly dictated use
of lead-free alloys for electronics and plumbing

8.2 SOLDERING PROCESS

Step 1: Collecting Materials for Soldering

Soldering Irons

Here are the basic parts that make up a soldering iron.

Tips - No iron is complete without an iron tip. The tip is the part of the iron that heats up
and allows solder to flow around the two components being joined. Although solder will
stick to the tip when applied, a common misconception is that the tip transfers the solder.
The tip actually transfers heat, raising the temperature of the metal components to the
melting point of the solder, and the solder melts accordingly. Most irons give you the
option to change your tip, should you need to replace an old tip or if you need to switch
to a different style of tip. Tips come in a variety of sizes and shapes to accommodate any
component.

Wand - The wand is the part of the iron that holds the tip. This is also the part that is
handled by the user. Wands are usually made of a variety of insulating materials (such as
rubber) to prevent the heat of the tip from transferring to the outside of the wand, but they
also house wires and metal contacts that transfer heat from the base or outlet to the tip.
This dual role of heating and preventing burns makes a high quality wand much
appreciated.

Solder Wick - is the eraser to soldering pencil. When dealing with issues such as jumpers
or the removal of parts (desoldering), solder wick comes in very handy. Solder wick –
aka desoldering braid – is comprised of thin copper wire braided together. Solder is
soaked (wicked) up by the copper allowing you to “erase” extra globs of solder.

Solder Vacuum (Solder Sucker) - is a great tool for removing solder left behind in
through-holes when desoldering components.

Step 2: Preparing to Solder

Tinning The Soldering Tip:

Before use, a new soldering tip, or one that is very dirty, must be tinned. "Tinning" is the
process of coating a soldering tip with a thin coat of solder. This aids in heat transfer
between the tip and the component you are soldering, and also gives the solder a base
from which to flow from.
Step 1: Warm Up The Iron:

Warm up the soldering iron or gun thoroughly. Make sure that it has fully come to
temperature because you are about to melt a lot of solder on it. This is especially
important if the iron is new because it may have been packed with some kind of coating
to prevent corrosion.

Step 2: Prepare A Little Space:

While the soldering iron is warming up, prepare a little space to work. Moisten a little
sponge and place it in the base of your soldering iron stand or in a dish close by. Lay
down a piece of cardboard in case you drip solder (you probably will) and make sure you
have room to work comfortably.

Step 3: Thoroughly Coat The Tip In Solder:

Thoroughly coat the soldering tip in solder. It is very important to cover the entire tip.
You will use a considerable amount of solder during this process and it will drip, so be
ready. If you leave any part of the tip uncovered it will tend to collect flux residue and
will not conduct heat very well, so run the solder up and down the tip and completely
around it to totally cover it in molten solder.

Step 4: Clean The Soldering Tip:

After you are certain that the tip is totally coated in solder, wipe the tip off on the wet
sponge to remove all the flux residue. Do this immediately so there is no time for the flux
to dry out and solidify.

Step 5: You're Done:

You have just tinned your soldering tip. This must be done anytime you replace the tip or
clean it so that the iron maintains good hea-t transfer.

Fig: Soldering process