2.

COMPONENT DETAILS

2.1. DIODE:
A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes

called the anode and the cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor

materials such as silicon, germanium, or selenium.

Some diodes are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber

evacuated or filled with a pure elemental gas at low pressure. Diodes can be

used as rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage regulators, switches, signal

modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulators, and oscillators.

The fundamental property of a diode is its tendency to conduct

electric current in only one direction. When the cathode is negatively charged

relative to the anode at a voltage greater than a certain minimum called forward

break over, then current flows through the diode.

If the cathode is positive with respect to the anode, is at the same

voltage as the anode, or is negative by an amount less than the forward break

over voltage, then the diode does not conduct current. This is a simplistic view,

but is true for diodes operating as rectifiers, switches, and limiters.

 The forward break over voltage is approximately six tenths of a volt

(0.6 V) for silicon devices, 0.3 V for germanium devices, and 1 V for selenium

devices. The diode symbol as shown in fig.4.1.

Fig 2.1.

2.2. CAPACITOR:

Capacitor is an electronic component that stores electric charge. The

capacitor is made of 2 close conductors (usually plates) that are separated by a

dielectric material. The plates accumulate electric charge when connected to

power source. One plate accumulates positive charge and the other plate

accumulates negative charge.

 The capacitance is the amount of electric charge that is

stored in the capacitor at voltage of 1 Volt.

The capacitance is measured in units of Farad (F).

The capacitor disconnects current in direct current (DC)

circuits and short circuit in alternating current (AC) circuits.

The capacitance (C) of the capacitor is equal to the

electric charge (Q) divided by the voltage (V):

The capacitor symbols are shown in fig.2.2.

Fig 2.2.
2.3. LED:

All the semiconductors listed above can be used. An N-type epitaxial

layer is grown upon a substrate, and the P-region is produced by diffusion. The

P-region that includes the recombination of charge carriers is shown is the top.

Thus the P-region becomes the device surface.

In order to allow more surface area for the light to be emitted the

metal anode connections are made at the outer edges of the P-layer.

Fig 2.3.

For the light to be reflected as much as possible towards the surface

of the device, a gold film is applied to the surface bottom. This setting also

enables to provide a cathode connection.

 Infrared light is produced by using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) as

semiconductor. Red or yellow light is produced by using Gallium-Arsenide-

Phosphorus (GaAsP) as semiconductor. Red or green light is produced by using

Gallium-Phosphorus (GaP) as semiconductor.

The circuit symbol of LED consists of two arrow marks which

indicate the radiation emitted by the diode as shown in fig.2.3.

2.4. RESISTOR:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce

current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits.

In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit current flow, to

adjust signal levels, bias active elements, terminate lines among other uses.

High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of

electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power

distribution systems, or as test loads for generators.

Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with

temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust

circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing

devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

 The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship

specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is

proportional to the current (I), where the constant of proportionality is the

resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the

terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows

through that resistor.

The capacitor symbols are shown in fig.2.4.

(a) Resistor (b) rheostat (c) potentiometer

(variable resistor)
Fig.2.4.

2.5. LINEAR VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family

of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits pin diagram as

shown in fig.4.26. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits

requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost.

For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits,

indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5-volt output, while

the 7812 produces 12 volts).

Fig 2.5.

The 78xx line is positive voltage regulators: they produce a

voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of

79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and

79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide positive and negative supply

voltages in the same circuit.

78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the

TO-220 form factor, although they are available in surface-mount, TO-92, and
TO-3 packages. These devices support an input voltage anywhere from around

2.5 volts over the intended output voltage up to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts

depending on the model, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current

(though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating).

The regulator symbol as shown in fig.2.5.

2.6. TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is an electrical device that changes (transforms)

and alternating potential difference (voltage) from one value to another value be

it smaller or greater using the principle of electromagnetic induction.

A transformer consists of a soft iron coil with two coils wound

around it which are not connected to one another. These coils can be wound

either on separate limbs of the iron core or be arranged on top of each other.

The coil to which the alternating voltage is supplied is called the

primary coil or primary winding. When an alternating potential difference is

supplied the resulting alternating current in the primary coil produces a

changing magnetic field around it.

This changing field induces an alternating current in the

secondary coil. The size of the induced voltage resulting from the induced

current in the secondary coil depends on the number of turns in the secondary

coil. The winding diagram as shown in fig.2.6.

 Fig 2.6.

2.7. TOGGLE-BUTTON:

A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a

simple switch mechanism for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process.

Buttons are typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. The

push button as shown in fig.2.7.

The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human

finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most

often biased switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their

physical nature) require a spring to return to their un-pushed state. Different

people use different terms for the "pushing" of the button, such

as press, depress, mash, and punch.

Fig 4.7.

The "push-button" has been utilized in calculators, push-button

telephones, kitchen appliances, and various other mechanical and electronic

devices, home and commercial.

In industrial and commercial applications, push buttons can be

connected together by a mechanical linkage so that the act of pushing one

button causes the other button to be released. In this way, a stop button can

"force" a start button to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple

manual operations in which the machine or process have no electrical

circuits for control.

Pushbuttons are often color-coded to associate them with their

function so that the operator will not push the wrong button in error. Commonly

used colors are red for stopping the machine or process and green for starting

the machine or process.

2.8 RELAY:

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an

electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles

are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to

control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation

between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be

controlled by one signal.

Fig 2.8.

The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as

amplifiers. They repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-

transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone

exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. The relay as

shown in fig.2.8.
 A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly

control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays

control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor

device to perform switching.

Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes

multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or

faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by

digital instruments still called "protective relays".

HISTORY:

The American scientist Joseph Henry is often claimed to have

invented a relay in 1835 in order to improve his version of the electrical

telegraph, developed earlier in 1831. However, there is little in the way of

official documentation to suggest he had made the discovery prior to 1837.

It is claimed that the English inventor Edward Davy "certainly

invented the electric relay" in his electric telegraph c.1835. A simple device,

which we now call a relay, was included in the original 1840 telegraph patent of

Samuel Morse. The mechanism described acted as a digital amplifier, repeating

the telegraph signal, and thus allowing signals to be propagated as far as

desired. This overcame the problem of limited range of earlier telegraphy

schemes.
The following designations are commonly encountered:

 SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can

be connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has

four terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the pole is normally open

or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes

used to resolve the ambiguity.

 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to

either of two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five

terminals in total.

 DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals.

Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil.

Including two for the coil, such a relay has six terminals in total. The

poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).

 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-

over terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a

single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil.

TYPES:

The type of relay as shown in fig as shown fig 2.9.

 Fig 2.9.

2.9 TRANSISTOR:

A transistor is a semiconductor device used

to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed

of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an

external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's

terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals.

Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the

controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some

transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded

in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic

devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its

development in 1947 by American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain,

and William Shockley, the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and

paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers,
among other things. The transistor is on the list of IEEE milestones in

electronics, and the inventors were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in

Physics for their achievement.

2.10 TRANSISTOR RELAY SWITCH CIRCUIT:

Fig 2.10.

The advantage of relays is that it takes a relatively small amount of

power to operate the relay coil, but the relay itself can be used to control

motors, heaters, lamps or AC circuits which themselves can draw a lot more

electrical power. The transister symbol as shown in fig.2.10.

The electro-mechanical relay is an output device (actuator) which

come in a whole host of shapes, sizes and designs, and have many uses and
applications in electronic circuits. But while electrical relays can be used to

allow low power electronic or computer type circuits to switch relatively high

currents or voltages both “ON” or “OFF”, some form of relay switch circuit is

required to control it. The relay switch circuit as shown in fig.2.11.

Fig 2.11.

Note that the relay coil is not only an electromagnet but it is also an

inductor. When power is applied to the coil due to the switching action of the

transistor, a maximum current will flow as a result of the DC resistance of the

coil as defined by Ohms Law, (I = V/R). Some of this electrical energy is stored

within the relay coil’s magnetic field.

When the transistor switches “OFF”, the current flowing through the

relay coil decreases and the magnetic field collapses. However the stored energy

within the magnetic field has to go some where and a reverse voltage is
developed across the coil as it tries to maintain the current in the relay coil. This

action produces a high voltage spike across the relays coil that can damage the

switching NPN transistor if allowed to build up.

So in order to prevent damage to the semiconductor transistor, a

“flywheel diode”, also known as a freewheeling diode, is connected across the

relay coil. This flywheel diode clamps the reverse voltage across the coil to

about 0.7V dissipating the stored energy and protecting the switching transistor.

Flywheel diodes are only applicable when the supply is a polarized DC voltage.

An AC coil requires a different protection method, and for this an RC snubber

circuit is used.

2.11 WIRE:

A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal.

Wires are used to bear mechanical loads or electricity and telecommunications

signals. Wire is commonly formed by drawing the metal through a hole in a die

or draw plate. Wire gauges come in various standard sizes, as expressed in

terms of a gauge number.

The term wire is also used more loosely to refer to a bundle of such

strands, as in "multistranded wire", which is more correctly termed a wire rope

in mechanics, or a cable in electricity. The multistranded wire as shown in

fig.2.12.
 Fig 2.12.

Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms. Although

usually circular in cross-section, wire can be made in square, hexagonal,

flattened rectangular, or other cross-sections, either for decorative purposes, or

for technical purposes such as high-efficiency voice coils in loudspeakers.

Edge-wound coil springs, such as the Slinky toy, are made of special flattened

wire.

2.12 BANANA CONNECTOR:

A banana connector (commonly banana plug for the male, banana

socket or banana jack for the female) is a single-wire (one conductor) electrical

connector used for joining wires to equipment. The term 4 mm connector is also

used, especially in Europe, although not all banana connectors will mate with

4 mm parts. The plug is typically a four-leafed spring tip that fits snugly into the
jack. The plugs are frequently used to terminate patch cords for electronic test

equipment. The banana connector as shown in fig.2.13.

Fig 2.13.

Quality banana plugs and cables are typically rated for 30 V at 15 A.

Cheap versions can have worse isolation, and might not withstand 15 A at all.

Banana connectors are not usually rated for mains voltage.

One reason why banana connectors are not rated for mains usage is

that an exposed banana plug or socket can present a shock hazard if connected

to an energized source. A plug that is only partially inserted into a jack can also

present a risk of accidental contact, because the conductive surface of the plug

will not be completely covered.

 This can especially happen if a 20 mm long plug is inserted into a

socket that is only intended for 15 mm long plugs. Further, some banana plugs

have the screw used to fix the wire to the plug exposed.

Also, when connecting plugs using transverse holes in the plug, large

parts of the pin of the second plug are exposed. Another reason why banana

connectors are not rated for mains usage is the lack of double isolation of wires

and connectors. The hazards include electric shock, electrocution, burns from

accidental short circuits, and damage to the attached equipment.

[Link]

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-

to-use hardware and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on

a sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter message - and turn it into an output -

activating a motor, turning on an LED, publishing something online. The

arduino uno as shown in fig.2.7.

 Fig 2.7.

You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of

instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino

programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE),

based on Processing.

WHAT IS ARDUINO:

Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of

projects, from everyday objects to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide

community of makers - students, hobbyists, artists, programmers, and

professionals - has gathered around this open-source platform, their

contributions have added up to an incredible amount of accessible knowledge

that can be of great help to novices and experts alike.

 Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an

easy tool for fast prototyping, aimed at students without a background in

electronics and programming. As soon as it reached a wider community, the

Arduino board started changing to adapt to new needs and challenges,

differentiating its offer from simple 8-bit boards to products for IoT

applications, wearable, 3D printing, and embedded environments.

All Arduino boards are completely open-source, empowering

users to build them independently and eventually adapt them to their particular

needs. The software, too, is open-source, and it is growing through the

contributions of users worldwide.

WHY ARDUINO:

Thanks to its simple and accessible user experience, Arduino

has been used in thousands of different projects and applications. The Arduino

software is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users. It

runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux. Teachers and students use it to build low

cost scientific instruments, to prove chemistry and physics principles, or to get

started with programming and robotics. The arduino nano as shown in fig.2.8.
 Fig 2.8.

Designers and architects build interactive prototypes, musicians

and artists use it for installations and to experiment with new musical

instruments. Makers, of course, use it to build many of the projects exhibited at

the Maker Faire, for example. Arduino is a key tool to learn new things.

Anyone - children, hobbyists, artists, programmers - can start

tinkering just following the step by step instructions of a kit, or sharing ideas

online with other members of the Arduino community.

There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller

platforms available for physical computing. Parallax Basic Stamp, Netmedia's

BX-24, Phidgets, MIT's Handyboard, and many others offer similar

functionality.
 All of these tools take the messy details of microcontroller

programming and wrap it up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino also simplifies

the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some advantage for

teachers, students, and interested amateurs over other systems.

TYPES OF ARDUINO BOARDS:

1. THE ARDUINO UNO:

The Uno is the most common board and the one labeled as the

classic Arduino. This board comes with everything new users need to learn

about the electronics and programming required to start this hobby. It is

compatible with most available Arduino shields.

2. THE ARDUINO DUE:

The Arduino Due is the second iteration of the classic Arduino

and offers more features for advanced users. The Due's processor is faster, has

more memory, and more I/O ports. It does not support many shields. Because of

the faster CPU, the Arduino Due runs on a lower voltage: 3.3V over the Uno's

5V. This means it cannot always support the same devices.

3. THE ARDUINO MEGA

The Arduino Mega comes in two types, the Mega 2560 and the

MEGA ADK. The ADK is similar to the 2560; however, it also has a

programmable USB host chip installed. It uses the same 5V power supply as the
Uno, so many of the Arduino shields are also compatible with the Mega;

however, because of the placement of some of the pins, not all of them are

usable.

4. THE ARDUINO LEONARDO:

FEATURES ARDUINO ARDUINO DUE ARDUINO ARDUINO

UNO MEGA LEONARDO
Processor 16Mhz 84MHz 16MHz 16MHz
ATmega328 AT91SAM3X8E ATmega2560 ATmega32u4
Memory 2KB SRAM, 96KB SRAM, 8KB SRAM, 2.5KB SRAM,
32KB flash 512KB flash 256KB flash 32KB flash
Digital I/O 14 54 54 20

Analogue 6 input, 12 input, 16 input, 12 input,

I/O 0 output 2 output 0 output 0 output

Table2.9.

The Leonardo is not a common board, but has similar features to

the Uno, including the 5V power supply and the processing power. It is a good

board for those who need more input and output ports than the Arduino Uno,

but do not need the horsepower or size of the Due. It uses a micro-USB adapter

instead of the Uno's full-size USB port. Specification of arduino board as shown

in table 2.9.
2.14. POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

Voltage transformers (VT) or potential transformers (PT) are

another type of instrument transformer, used for metering and protection in

high-voltage circuits. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply

being measured and to have a precise voltage ratio to accurately step down high

voltages so that metering and protective relay equipment can be operated at a

lower potential. Typically the secondary of a voltage transformer is rated for 69

V or 120 V at rated primary voltage, to match the input ratings of protection

relays.

The transformer winding high-voltage connection points are typically labeled as

H1, H2 (sometimes H0 if it is internally grounded) and X 1, X2 and sometimes an

X3 tap may be present. Sometimes a second isolated winding (Y 1, Y2, Y3) may

also be available on the same voltage transformer. The high side (primary) may
be connected phase to ground or phase to phase. The low side (secondary) is

usually phase to ground.

The terminal identifications (H1, X1, Y1, etc.) are often referred to as

polarity. This applies to current transformers as well. At any instant terminals

with the same suffix numeral have the same polarity and phase. Correct

identification of terminals and wiring is essential for proper operation of

metering and protection relays.

Some meters operate directly on the secondary service voltages at or

below 600 V. VTs are typically used for higher voltages (for example, 765 kV

for power transmission) , or where isolation is desired between the meter and

the measured circuit.

[Link] TRANSFORMER

Current transformers used in metering equipment for three-phase 400

ampere electricity supply A current transformer (CT) is a measurement device

designed to provide a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current

flowing in its primary.

 Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective

relaying in the electrical power industry where they facilitate the safe

measurement of large currents, often in the presence of high voltages. The

current transformer safely isolates measurement and control circuitry from the

high voltages typically present on the circuit being measured.

Current transformers are often constructed by passing a single

primary turn (either an insulated cable or an insulated bus bar) through a well-

insulated steroidal core wrapped with many turns of wire. The CT is typically

described by its current ratio from primary to secondary.

For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of

5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding

can be single ratio or have several tap points to provide a range of ratios. Care

must be taken that the secondary winding is not disconnected from its load

while current flows in the primary, as this will produce a dangerously high

voltage across the open secondary and may permanently affect the accuracy of

the transformer.

Specially constructed wideband CTs are also used, usually with an oscilloscope,

to measure high frequency waveforms or pulsed currents within pulsed power

systems. One type provides a voltage output that is proportional to the measured

current; another, called a Rogowski coil, requires an external integrator in order

to provide a proportional output.

ZERO CROSS DETECTOR

Zero crossing is a commonly used term in electronics, mathematics,

and image processing. In mathematical terms, "zero crossing" basically means

the changing of sign (e.g. from positive to negative), that is represented with a

crossing of the axis (zero-value) in a graph of a particular function.

In alternating current, the zero crossing is the instantaneous point at

which there is no voltage present. In a sine wave or other simple waveform, this

normally occurs twice during each cycle.

The zero crossing is important for systems which send digital data

over AC circuits, such as X10 home automation control systems, and Digital

Command Control type systems for Lionel and other AC model trains.

Counting zero crossings is also a method used in speech processing to

estimate frequencies and formants of speech.

In a system where an amplifier with digitally-controlled gain is

applied to an input signal, signal artefacts will occur when the gain of the

amplifier abruptly switches between its discrete gains settings while outputting

a non-zero current.

At audio frequencies, such as in modern consumer electronics like

digital audio players, these effects are clearly audible, resulting in a 'zipping'
sound when rapidly ramping the gain, or a soft 'click' when a single gain change

is made.

Artefacts are disconcerting and clearly not desirable. If changes are

made at a zero crossing of the signal, the input is zero, so no matter how the

amplifier gain setting changes, the output will also remain at zero.

The zero crossing of the mains voltage is the key to determining the

proper switching time (phase angle) in both leading edge and trailing edge

dimmers.

[Link] OF POWER FACTOR

A power factor of one or "unity power factor" is the goal of any

electric utility company since if the power factor is less than one, they have to
supply more current to the user for a given amount of power use. In so doing,
they incur more line losses.

They also must have larger capacity equipment in place than would
be otherwise necessary. As a result, an industrial facility will be charged a
penalty if its power factor is much different from 1.

Industrial facilities tend to have a "lagging power factor", where the current lags
the voltage (like an inductor). This is primarily the result of having a lot of
electric induction motors - the windings of motors act as inductors as seen by
the power supply.

Capacitors have the opposite effect and can compensate for the
inductive motor windings. Some industrial sites will have large banks of
capacitors strictly for the purpose of correcting the power factor back toward
one to save on utility company charges.

Resistor AC Response

Impedance
Examine

Capacitor

Inductor
Calculate

Contribution to
Phasor diagram
complex impedance

For ordinary currents and frequencies the behavior of a resistor is that

of a dissipative element which converts electrical energy into heat. It is
independent of the direction of current flow and independent of the frequency.

So we say that the AC impedance of a resistor is the same as its DC

resistance. That assumes, however, that you are using the rms or effective
values for the current and voltage in the AC case.
Inductor AC Response

Impedance
Examine

Capacitor

Resistor
Calculate

Contribution to
Phasor diagram
complex impedance

You know that the voltage across an inductor leads the current because the
Lenz' law behavior resists the buildup of the current, and it takes a finite time
for an imposed voltage to force the buildup of current to its maximum.

Capacitor AC Response

Impedance
Examine

Inductor

Resistor
Calculate
 Contribution to
Phasor diagram
complex impedance

You know that the voltage across a capacitor lags the current because the
current must flow to build up the charge, and the voltage is proportional to that
charge which is built up on the capacitor plates.

HOW TO CALCULATE THE SUITABLE CAPACITOR SIZE IN

FARADS & KVAR FOR POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
Hi there! With a very important tutorial.. I hope you will find it very

useful because I have already spent two days to prepare this article. I think all of

those who have sent messages and mails about the topic will never ask again if

they follow these simple methods to calculate the proper Size of Capacitor bank

in kVAR and micro-farads for power factor correction and improvement in both

single phase and three phase circuits. I think it’s too much..

Now let’s begin…

Consider the following Examples.

Example: 1

A 3 Phase, 5 kW Induction Motor has a P.F (Power factor) of 0.75 lagging.

What size of Capacitor in kVAR is required to improve the P.F (Power Factor)

to 0.90?

Solution #1 (By Simple Table Method)

Motor Input = 5kW

From Table, Multiplier to improve PF from 0.75 to 0.90 is .398

Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.75 to 0.90

Required Capacitor kVAR = kW x Table 1 Multiplier of 0.75 and 0.90

= 5kW x .398

= 1.99 kVAR

And Rating of Capacitors connected in each Phase

1.99/3 = 0.663 kVAR

Solution # 2 (Classical Calculation Method)

Motor input = P = 5 kW

Original P.F = Cosθ1 = 0.75

Final P.F = Cosθ2 = 0.90

θ1 = Cos-1 = (0.75) = 41°.41; Tan θ1 = Tan (41°.41) = 0.8819

θ2 = Cos-1 = (0.90) = 25°.84; Tan θ2 = Tan (25°.50) = 0.4843

Required Capacitor kVAR to improve P.F from 0.75 to 0.90

Required Capacitor kVAR = P (Tan θ1 – Tan θ2)

= 5kW (0.8819 – 0.4843)

= 1.99 kVAR

And Rating of Capacitors connected in each Phase

1.99/3 = 0.663 kVAR

Tables (Capacitor sizing in kVAr and Farads for PF correction)

The following tables have been prepared to simplify kVAR calculation

for power factor improvement. The size of capacitor in kVAR is the kW

multiplied by factor in table to improve from existing power factor to proposed

power factor. Check the others Examples below.

Power in Watts

kW = kVA x Cosθ

kW = HP x 0.746 or (HP x 0.746) / Efficiency … (HP = Motor Power)

kW = √ ( kVA2– kVAR2)

kW = P = VI Cosθ … (Single Phase)

kW = P =√3x V x I Cosθ … (Three Phase)

Apparent Power in VA

kVA= √(kW2+ kVAR2)

kVA = kW/ Cosθ

Reactive Power in VA
kVAR= √(kVA2– kW2)

kVAR = C x (2 π f V2)

Power factor (from 0.1 to 1)

Power Factor = Cosθ = P / V I … (Single Phase)

Power Factor = Cosθ = P / (√3x V x I) … (Three Phase)

Power Factor = Cosθ = kW / kVA … (Both Single Phase & Three Phase)

Power Factor = Cosθ = R/Z … (Resistance / Impedance)

XC = 1/ (2 π f C) … (XC = Capacitive reactance)

IC = V/ XC … (I = V / R)

Required Capacity of Capacitor in Farads/Microfarads

C = kVAR / (2 π f V2) in microfarad

Required Capacity of Capacitor in kVAR

kVAR = C x (2 π f V2)