Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark.

10: 249–261 (2005)

Published online in Wiley InterScience
([Link]). DOI: 10.1002/nvsm.29

Creativity, celebration and play at the

Bauhaus, Berlin, 1920: lessons from
history for contemporary marketers
and arts organizations
Stella Minahan* and Charmine Härtel
Deakin University, Australia

* Organizations can be seen as rigid, rewarding conformity not creativity. Managing the
creative team or individual can be challenging. This paper contributes to this special issue
of the International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing by addressing
ways to manage creativity in an organization, as well as to creatively market the
organization. It presents a case study of an organization based in Germany in the 1920s,
the Bauhaus. This art and craft organization achieved extraordinary creative output in
just over a decade of operation, during the devastation of post World War I. This paper
demonstrates how its leader managed the creativity of the staff and students and
creatively marketed the organization despite a lack of funds and the desperate shortage of
resources. The Bauhaus provides a key lesson for contemporary marketers and managers
in developing the characteristics of organizations that nurture creativity and the creative
individual.
Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Introduction to be constantly alert to threats and opportu-

nities in their environments. These organi-
The Bauhaus is the most celebrated artistic zations actively seek ways to be more
institution of our time. Little in our lives competitive and to sustain competitive advan-
has not been influenced by it, from what we tage to attract sufficient resources and credi-
read and wear to how we live (Hochman, bility in society (Meyer and Rowan, 1991). To
1997, p. 1). attain these goals, managers need to establish
organizations that are flexible, hard working
Arts and crafts organizations face a dynamic and with a capacity to be creative and
and turbulent environment that requires them responsive to change. One characteristic of
such organizations is the ability to care and
nurture ideas and to identify and develop staff
————
— with creative abilities (Amabile, 1997). Yet
*Correspondence to: Stella Minahan, Faculty of Business highly creative individuals do not always
and Law, Deakin University, Burwood Highway, Bur-
wood, Victoria, Australia 3125. survive organizational life as the characteristics
E-mail: [Link]@[Link] of conformance to the structure may be at

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
250 Stella Minahan and Charmine Härtel

odds with the characteristics of the creative sources. We focus on the management of the
individual. creative during the operational life of the
To date, little research addresses this issue Bauhaus and how the organization presented
and thus, little is known about the role of itself to the community. There is much that has
leadership in the management of creative been and is yet to be studied about the
individuals. Therefore, we propose it is valu- organization that was the Bauhaus.
able to study an organization known to have
succeeded by employing and managing highly
creative people. We chose an extreme case. An Creativity
organization that was successful in managing
Creativity is a complex construct that is defined
the creative and nurturing abilities and gaining
funds to become a successful art and craft differently, according to the level of analysis
and the field under study. Creativity refers to
organization despite the desperate shortage of
resources and funds in post World War I. The the ‘useful ideas, processes, or procedures by
an individual or by a group of individuals
Bauhaus was established in Weimar in 1919.
During the 1920s it gained significant funding working together’ (Shalley et al., 2000).
Similarly, Drazin et al. (1999), define creativity
to move to Dessau and established a custom
as a process rather than a state. The creative
built school. However, the Bauhuas was never
process can vary in its intensity from day to day,
able to gain sufficient recurrent funding to
moment to moment (Drazin et al., 1999).
survive. The Nazis finally closed it early in the
1930s. This paper looks back into history to Creativity in organizations can be studied at
the individual, group and organizational levels
demonstrate the characteristics of organiza-
tions that nurture the creative and the creative (Drazin et al., 1999). Some study of creativity of
group processes is available, but these studies
individual. It presents a case study of an
organization based in Germany in the 1920s, of group creativity are often the aggregation of
the inputs of the individuals (Drazin et al.,
the Bauhaus. This art and craft organization
had extraordinary creative output in a very 1999). There is little understanding of the
processes required to promote creativity at the
short period of time. While there were
level of the individual and at the organization
problems as encountered by any organization,
level (Amabile, 1997). Next we turn our
this paper demonstrates how its leader mana-
attention to some institutional characteristics
ged the creativity of the staff and students as
well as innovatively marketing the organization that may inhibit creativity.
to establish a remarkable legacy that is still
flourishing today (Hochman, 1997).
Creative people
In the sections that follow we explore the
relationship between creativity and organiza- Creative people are motivated, highly
tions before presenting the case study of the committed and hard working employees
Bauhaus including the work of the founder (McFadzean, 2000, pp. 51–56). They can be
(Walter Gropius), its philosophy, pedagogy characterised as curious, persistent, with a
and its relationship to creativity. We present need for variety, autonomy and recognition
vignettes of staff and students and how they (Hicks, 1991).
contributed to the creative atmosphere and However, organizations can find creative
were involved in marketing the organization. people difficult to manage. Individual creativity
The last section of the paper looks at the is positively associated with mood disorders,
importance of celebration and play in the life of manic-depression, schizophrenia (Preti, 2004).
the Bauhaus. The implications are presented Some managers find creative people to be
for contemporary marketers and managers of organizational pests as they ‘pepper their
art and craft and nonprofit organizations. This managers with intriguing but short memoranda
is a single case study based on secondary that lack details about what is at stake or how

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
Creativity, celebration and play at the Bauhaus, Berlin 1920 251

the new ideas should be implemented’ (Levitt, of novel and useful ideas: fear of failure
2002). Subsequently, some organizations may and negative judgement (Mainemelis,
weed out the creative personality due to 2001).
perceived difficulties.
Yet, having the time available to enter a
state of engrossment and the accompanying
The organization and creativity sense of timelessness could be seen as
impossible within the environment of extreme
Organizations are not typically designed to time poverty that is so evident in modern
allow for the development and fruition of society.
creativity. Institutions are characterised by The organizational boundaries that contain,
stability that tends to inertia. Inertia consists the networks that constrain, the institutions
of the forces that together create resistance to that atrophy, and the political, social and
change (Hannan and Freeman, 1989; Scott, economic consequences of getting it wrong
1998). Institutions are held stable by inertia, combined with organizational survival may
and rules internally and externally imposed. cause an organization not to take risks nor to
These rules can actively and subversively tolerate an independent creative spirit within.
suppress original thought as ‘not the way we Subsequently, highly creative people may not
do things around here’, thus hindering change survive in institutionalised environments.
and creativity. Further, the internal organiza- Maintaining creativity and creative people have
tion tends to focus on the past, to look for become complicated issues for organizational
previous successes to drive current problem theorists and practitioners. Yet, these issues
solving. This interest in the past may well continue to be overlooked in associated
contribute to inertia and conflict within the literature. We address part of this gap through
institution as it seeks to respond to changes in the in-depth examination of an organization
the environment (Berger and Luckmann, that managed to address these issues and
1967). Institutional inertia can not only be an become symbol of creativity and modern
asset in providing stability and reliability of design.
performance, but also a major liability when It is useful to look at history for lessons that
the same forces inhibit required change (Scott, can be obtained from organizations that were
1998). ‘Change’, according to Levine, ‘destroys clearly blessed with exceptionally creative
the taken-for-grantedness’ that is so important people, as well as organizations that managed
in institutions (Levine, 1999). to promote themselves creatively and success-
Creativity and creative people may be fully. The German Bauhaus is an example of
hindered within an organization due to con- such an organization exhibiting both of these
straints in the organizational context. Time, characteristics.
relaxation and incubation are important ele-
ments to creativity (McFadzean, 2000, pp. 51–
The Bauhaus, an icon of creativity
56, p. 53). Creative people often need to
become completely engrossed in their tasks Established in 1919 by Walter Gropius at
and move into a state where time has no Weimar in Germany, the Bauhaus school
meaning. This characteristic of creative people became one of the leading inspirations in
is illustrated by Mainemelis in the quote below: shaping today’s modern tastes and art educa-
tion. The Bauhaus was responsible for:
The state of engrossment facilitates creativ-
ity because it is a context of highly focused, the most radical and sustained effort yet
imaginative, and quality work. As soon as made to realize the dream cherished since
one forgets the fears and other demands of the industrial revolution not merely to
the self, one also suspends two factors that bring visual art back into closer tie with
have detrimental effects on the generation everyday life, but to make it the very

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
252 Stella Minahan and Charmine Härtel

instrument of social and cultural change tories, American silos and . . . mechanical
(Franciscono, 1971, p. 3). gadgets for daily use (Gropius, 1922 as cited
in Hochman, 1997, p. 135).
This flexibility allowed the Bauhaus to
The vision continue to grow in very difficult circum-
The founder was Walter Gropius, an architect stances, in spite of local opposition. Included
who had the zeal and vision to bring the in the Public Relations programme for the
Bauhaus to life in post war Germany. Gropius school were tours for visitors. The Bauhaus
believed that a new form of education was the was a publicly funded organization and held
way to bring a new unity between art and the tours and visitors’ days in an effort to develop
artisan. His philosophy was outlined in his and enhance community support but in this
Manifesto: instance the efforts were not successful. One
staff member recalls the antagonistic response
there is no essential difference between the when a group of printers toured the Bauhaus:
artist and the craftsman. The artist is an
exalted craftsman. In rare moments of The tours of the visitors through the studios
inspiration, moments beyond the control didn’t make me very happy. For two years it
of his will, the grace of his craft is essential went on every Sunday morning—lots of
to every artist. Therein lies a source of questions, several annoyances, even
creative imagination (Gropius, 1919 in though there were some compensations. I
Whitford, 1984) was especially impressed by a special tour
of two hundred book printers. They were
Gropius’ Manifesto was crucial to the furious when I talked of writing without
success of the early Bauhaus. The document using capital letters and the saving this
set out the values of the organization. Gropius would mean in time and labor. A minia-
took great pains to ensure that all his stake- ture rebellion! They even threatened with
holders were aware of the Manifesto. It was canes! (Brandt cited in Neumann, 1970).
distributed and published widely.
Gropius constantly marketed and promoted
the school and in 1923 he arranged a public
Embracing change exhibition designed to showcase the talent of
the Bauhaus. The focus of the exhibition was a
Gropius was committed to creativity. The first
simple steel framed house (Haus am Horn)
years of the Bauhaus were a time of great
fitted out for a family, designed to provide
creative output despite a lack of funds and the
maximum comfort and amenity for minimum
desperate shortage of resources in post WW1
cost. The house was built by the Bauhaus
Europe. As time went by the Bauhaus became
workshops. Lighting, carpets, cabinetry, cera-
more focused and its goals began to crystallize
mic containers were all made in the Bauhaus
and to a certain extent become simplified
workshops. The romantic idealism of the arts
(Franciscono, 1971, p. 5). Whilst the goals of
and crafts movement was gone, the historical
1919 remained important to Gropius; he was
associations left behind in a clear demonstra-
pragmatic enough to realize that the Bauhaus
tion of modernism in design and architecture
must adapt to changing times if it was to survive
(Franciscono, 1971; Whitford, 1964; Hoch-
and in 1922 he changed the direction of the
man, 1997). Many thousands saw the exhibi-
Bauhaus arguing to the Workshop Masters
tion and word of its success spread
that the school must:
internationally. Gropius’ promotion of the
fit into the rhythm of the competitive Bauhaus was so successful that he gained
world . . . and come to terms with . . . the significant funding to build a new school
machine . . . . Locomotives, airplanes, fac- in Dessau, Germany. Figure 1 shows the

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
Creativity, celebration and play at the Bauhaus, Berlin 1920 253

This new view of the school was a highly

creative solution to survival in difficult and
tumultuous times. Gropius’ willingness to be
flexible and to adapt to changing knowledge
and times was crucial to the survival of the
Bauhaus. Without the change of direction it
is unlikely that the organization would have
been able to grow. Gropius believed that the
Figure 1. The Bauhaus building in Dessau, Germany.
fine arts and the crafts were not to be
separated, as they were different processes
achievement that this nonprofit organization of the same activity. Gropius was looking to
had in being able to build such a new and develop a programme that fulfilled both the
modern facility at a time of economic tension in social and economic needs of its students and
Germany. build a better world. Many of the Bauhaus
staff joined with Gropius in giving life to this
mission and the new theme of the Bauhaus in
Leadership at the Bauhaus this second phase, was ‘Art and Technology:
Gropius, as the first and longest serving leader The New Unity’. Anni Albers, a student, then
of the Bauhaus, was most concerned with staff member at the Bauhaus, presented her
establishing and maintaining the external personal philosophy on the need for new
legitimacy of the Bauhaus. Gropius was ways of design for modern living. Her
determined to promote the activities of the philosophy was an important contribution
school and actively established the Bauhaus to the organizational legitimacy of the Bau-
brand. He undertook advertising and haus. Anni Albers statement incorporated the
approached editors, critics and other specialist views of the Bauhaus together with a
writers for reviews, articles and stories about feminist perspective.
the Bauhaus (Whitford, 1984, p. 138). Economy of living must be economy of
By 1922 the Bauhaus was established as an labour. Every door-handle must require a
educational organization in Weimar. Some very minimum of energy to operate it. The
talented staff had been appointed. Workshops traditional style of living is an exhausted
in weaving, glass painting, cabinet making, machine, which enslaves the woman to the
painting, metal and wood were running. house. The bad arrangement of rooms and
Gropius had originally focused on the skills of their furnishing (padded chairs, curtains)
the handmade but he began to see that the rob her of freedom, restrict her develop-
organization must change to adapt to modern ment and make her uneasy. Today the
technology. He revised his original ideas for a woman is the victim of a false style of living.
unity between art, craft and industry. He began It is obvious that a complete change is
to see the workshops as: urgently required.
essentially laboratories in which proto- New objects, (the car, aeroplane,
types suitable for mass production and telephone) are designed above all for
typical of their time are developed with ease of use and maximum efficiency. Today
care and constantly improved. In these they perform their function well. Other
laboratories the Bauhaus intend to train objects in use for centuries (the house,
an entirely new kind of collaborator for table, chair) were once good, but now
industry and the crafts who has an equal no longer fully do their job. In order to
command of technology and design (Gro- make them meet our needs we must design
pius, 1926 as cited in Whitford, 1984, p. them unencumbered by the weight of
206). history.

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
254 Stella Minahan and Charmine Härtel

It is not enough to improve old forms (such find their own language of creativity; the
as water pipes, central heating, electric workshop master would teach the student
light). That is merely an old dress, a new techniques and methods of craft. Gropius
hem. believed rules and measures would stifle
Compare our dress; it meets the demands of creativity in the individual and did not support
modern travel, hygiene and economics a standardization of approach (Whitford, 1984,
(you can’t travel by rail in a crinoline) . . . p. 33). Demand for places at the Bauhaus was
high. No more than 100 students attended at
The Bauhaus attempts to find the func- any one time and a total of less than 1300
tional form for the house, as well as for the students went through the school. Students
simplest utensil. It wants things clearly were often rejected at the end of the proba-
constructed, it wants functional materials, tionary period (Whitford, 1984, p. 69).
it wants this new beauty (Albers, 1924, in A key feature of the Bauhaus structure was a
Whitford, 1984, p. 209). common first year, the Vorkurs, a Foundation
The Bauhaus clearly defined the way it year in English. This was a probationary period,
taught and the need to develop the creativity for all students. Gropius was committed to this
and talent of its students. Its pedagogy was concept to broaden the skill base of students
radically different and so successful that it is and to give them a greater appreciation of the
still in use in art schools today. The next section elements of design and production of craft and
discusses this pedagogy and describes some of to gain an understanding of where their
the highly creative staff that Gropius employed particular skills and interests lay. The colla-
and the students enrolled. boration was to be inspired by the example of
medieval guilds (Whitford, 1984, p. 29).
Gropius encouraged diversity in his staff
The staff and pedagogy and the and encouraged them to make their own
students individual and often eccentric contributions
to the school. Johannes Itten was a staff
The Bauhaus remains the justly most member who made a contribution to this
famous experiment in art education of pedagogy. Itten took a holistic approach to
the modern era (Franciscono, 1971, p. 3) his teaching. His classes began with breathing
and relaxation and he converted many of
Gropius believed that creativity could be these students to Mazdaznan, a Persian
taught. He used problem-solving techniques religion. Every element of the life of the
to ‘teach’ creativity, believing that creativity students right down to a strict vegetarian diet
was an outcome of problem solving. He sought was established. Fellow artist Paul Klee
to transfer this thinking to his staff and described Itten’s teaching style,
students. Prior to the Bauhaus, German
education was based around the idea that Itten walks up to an easel on which there
students studied at their chosen pace. The was some paper. He grasps a piece of
Bauhaus introduced the fixed year 4-year term charcoal, his body gathers itself, as though
of study as part of a radical reform of art he was charged with energy . . . He draws
education. Additionally, Gropius introduced two energetic strokes upright and parallel
the idea that each student should be taught by a to one another . . . the students were
craftsman (Workshop Master) and by a fine instructed to do this as well. The teacher
artist (a Master of Form). checks their posture. Then he instructs them
The structure was based around workshops on the stroke, then he tells them to do the
led by ‘masters’. The students were ‘appren- same assignment for homework. It seems
tices’ and ‘journeymen’ (Whitford, 1984, p. to be a kind of bodily massage . . . . (Klee,
30). The master of form would help students 1921, in Hochman, 1971, p. 117)

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
Creativity, celebration and play at the Bauhaus, Berlin 1920 255

Itten’s influence in the first years of opera- nately passed on his knowledge to his students.
tion of the Bauhaus was significant. It was his He was known as one of the earliest abstract
idea to introduce the first common year, the painters and over the years his work took on
Vorkurs, to bring all students to a similar more geometry. However, the appointment of
standard and to expose them to a range of Wassily Kandinsky was a cause for great
media where their true talents may emerge. criticism externally. The announcement of his
This was a major contribution to art education. appointment led to press articles condemning
The common first year is followed in art the move.
schools all over the world.
Gunta Stolzl joined the Bauhaus in 1919 and One asks oneself in vain what Kandinsky,
studied under Itten and Klee until 1925, while whose orgiastic . . . . Color mysticism might
also undertaking external courses in weaving be at home in the Russian cultural chaos, is
and dyeing technology. She worked in and later doing in an academic appointment in
directed the Weaving Workshop. She was [Weimar], a place ennobled through Ger-
undoubtedly an extraordinarily talented wea- many’s classical art . . . Kandinsky is a
ver and set new standards in technical and Bolshevist, [and] that means an anarchist
colour design passing this knowledge to her in both politics and art. . . . it is a pitiful
students. Her success in her career comes in spectacle [that he has been welcomed
part from her participation and contribution to by] . . . . Downtrodden Germany (R.W.Z.E,
developing the female domain at the Bauhaus. 1922, in Hochman, 1997, p. 147)

The woman’s class offered the only area of The students

work where a woman could legitimately
aspire to a senior position. Without this Entrance to the Bauhaus was highly competi-
gender divide it would have been almost tive. Waiting lists for enrolment were common
impossible for Gunta Stolzl to advance and the selection process involved formal
her claim for a high-ranking position interviews by staff. Despite this competitive
(Baumhoff, 1999, pp. 347–353, p. 351). selection, or perhaps because of it; the students
at the Bauhaus, like art students today, were a
Gunta Stolzl left the Bauhaus in 1931 and colourful, slightly eccentric group:
moved to Switzerland where she continued her
A strange lot, these so-called Bauhaus
practice until 1967. Her work has become
people of the Weimar School. They are so
better known since the rise of feminist art
well known to the locals that no one bothers
history.
to look at these curious creatures any more.
Her carpets evoke an atmosphere of jazz They will make strangers curious, however,
and expressive dancing and provide us and would make the crowds gather if a
with just a slight taste of how lively life may gang of them were to go along the busy
once have been at the Bauhaus (Baumhoff, streets of a large town. In multi colour little
1999, pp. 347–353, p. 347). skirts, bright as a goldfinch, the boys with
hair often cut short, wearing fantastic,
The appointment of Wassily Kandinsky loosely hanging costumes which are sty-
(1866–1944) showed that creativity is facili- lised, timeless, capriciously bizarre, more
tated when an organization is willing to take or less happily selected, invented, made up.
risks and challenge the thinking and creativity Clasps in their hair, ribbons, bare feet,
of its constituents. Kandinsky published the sandals, low necked, short sleeved, bared
‘Spiritual in Art’ and leading the drawing and headed. Through the thin linen suits of
wall painting workshops at the Bauhaus until several of these disciples of art peeks some-
its closure 1933. Kandinsky was a spiritualist, a thing like bashful poverty (Banceis, 1922, in
theoretician and a great painter. He passio- Whitford and Engelhardt, 1992, p. 118).

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
256 Stella Minahan and Charmine Härtel

The students sacrificed a lot to attend the We had wonderful parties both large and
school and worked hard at a number of creative small at the Bauhaus. Whenever a particu-
activities to raise funds: larly fine piece of work was completed it
was celebrated by the Workshop concerned.
. . . to alleviate the poverty of the Bauhaus- When [the student] Ida Kerkovius finished
lers, someone had the idea of opening a her first large rug we had a party in my
‘‘dada-stall’’ on the traditional Weimar small flat under the roof of the old house on
Christmas market. Everyone began to the edge of the park . . . . The carpet was
make things. Decoration, toys, cloth ani- extremely handsome and, foursquare
mals, dolls, paper games, wooden games, metres large, almost filled the entire room.
especially pretty were the animals of briar- We surrounded it with burning candles
wood, slightly whittled and gaily painted. and squatted around it on the floor
The pottery of Dornburg contributed a lot chatting happily . . . (Schreyer, 1966, as
of ceramics, also dolls’ kitchenware, this cited in Whitford and Engelhardt, 1992,
was our first humorous appearance before p. 120)
the public. We were very successful espe-
cially with the children, to whom we gave Costume and other trappings of theatre were
our berets in the end, having nothing left critical to celebrations and provided yet
for sale, in spite of all obstacles, there were another outlet for the expression and develop-
friends in Weimar (Arndt, 1922, in Whitford ment of creativity. Ackerman (2000) reports on
and Engelhardt, 1992, p. 118). one evening in Weimar:

The students were often devoted to the aims . . . something marvelous happens; sun,
and programs of the Bauhaus. Several of them moon and stars, Chinese lanterns, large
remained with the school for many years and and small, splendid moon faces, little ghosts
progressed from student to staff members and and many lights come on that are quite
contributed to the culture of tolerance and simply magical, and quietly a gleaming
creativity (Whitford, 1984). procession forms. Where is it going? What a
question! It is May 18 and Gropius’ birth-
day. It is to call on him that the men and
Celebration and play at the women of the Bauhaus have set off with
their bobbing lights, down the Ilm and up
Bauhaus
to the Horn, to Master Klee and Helene
Celebration was a very important part of the Borner, the weaver, and then to Gropius.
every day life of the Bauhaus. Itten actively Finally the procession is joined by the
used the motto ‘play becomes party—party writer, Johannes Schlaf. The members of
becomes work—work becomes play’ in his the Bauhaus walk the whole long way
classes (Droste, 1919–1933). One would through the park with their lanterns to the
expect an active social life for an organization Ilmschlobchen, the ‘‘little castel on the Ilm’’,
consisting of so many young people and this where there is to be a party. The Bauhaus
was the case with the Bauhaus. Yet, what is Band is playing, the Bauhaus dance is
unique about the Bauhaus is the institutiona- being danced and perhaps Felix Klee’s
lization of celebrations. Gropius’ ‘Manifesto’ glove puppet will give away another
included the creation of festive activities to Bauhaus secret. The Theatre Group work-
interrupt everyday life (Droste, 1919–1933). A shop will probably contribute a splendid
major celebration was held four times a year, masquerade. Oskar Schlemmer’s students
with the change of season and a masked ball are said to have been seen in mysterious
was held every month (Ackermann, 2000). All masks and strange costumes. The Bauhaus
accomplishments in the workshops were year has reached its first high-water mark:
celebrated together: the Lantern Party. Four times a year

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
Creativity, celebration and play at the Bauhaus, Berlin 1920 257

Figure 2. Party in Bauhaus, Weimar, about 1922 (Fiedler

and Feierabend, 2000, p. 126).

Figure 3. Bauhausler At Play (Fiedler and Feierabend,

2000, p. 587).
Weimar becomes the backdrop to a pon-
derous transformation, for the Bauhaus Organizing for creativity and
has its own high days and holidays, each of managing the creative
which ushers in a new season of the year
Contemporary marketers and managers of non-
(Ackermann, 2000, p. 126).
profit organizations can learn from the Bau-
The quote illustrates that all the members of haus. The organization was in its own time
the Bauhaus participated in the celebrations, acknowledged locally and internationally as an
including staff birthdays. important institution and it managed to grow
Martin Faass writes about the role of play in and develop despite the extraordinary difficul-
artistry and genius. He discusses the play of one ties of Post World War I. And like most
of the Bauhaus staff members, the artist Paul organizations it had its difficulties, the lessons
Klee. Faass remarks, from the Bauhaus on creativity and managing
the creative are many. The topics to be addressed
One of the discoveries of the avant-garde include the understanding of time, leadership,
was the ‘genius in the child’. To a greater the expression of vision in marketing and the
degree than any other artist who held this tolerance of diversity and change. It is also
view, Klee took this world beyond adult important to acknowledge the celebration of
rationality seriously as the place where achievements and play within the organization.
creativity originated (Faass, 2000, p. 252).
For example Figures 2 and 3 demonstrate Leadership and expression of
the holistic approach taken at the Bauhaus
vision
with staff and students playing together in a
variety of creative, humorous and physically The Bauhaus leader, Walter Gropius knew the
active settings. importance of stating a clear vision to the

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
258 Stella Minahan and Charmine Härtel

various stakeholders involved in the school. New Unity of Art And Technology. He saw this
Gropius articulated his philosophy for the change as being required to ensure that the
Bauhaus in a document known as the ‘Mani- school remained relevant and could provide a
festo’. It was based on the desire to reunify the connection between art and industry that
worlds of art and craft that had been split would provide work for its students. Gropius
during the industrial revolution and to reinsti- said:
tutionalise those values in a contemporary way.
Gropius believed that a new form of education We are all clear that the old idea of l’art
was the way to achieve this goal. He wished to: pour l’art is out of date and that all those
things which concern us today do not exist
create a guild of craftsmen without the in isolation (Gropius, 1922, in Whitford,
class distinctions, which raise an arrogant 1984, p. 154).
barrier between craftsman and artist This flexibility of leadership and vision is of
(Gropius, 1919 as cited in Lucie-Smith, major importance to leaders of nonprofit
1981). organizations who may be reluctant to change
direction for fear of upsetting the status quo.
His Manifesto clearly set out his philosophies
and goals for the school. It was a very important Creative time
document that allowed him to gain support
from staff, students, funders and the commu- Non-profit organizations can consider how the
nities. His clarity of vision was integral to the Bauhaus viewed study and learning. Time is
establishment of the school. Despite the clearly important in German education. The pedagogy
announced vision Gropius confronted many was based around the idea that students
barriers to success. The local community were studied at their chosen pace and presented
at times very hostile towards the Bauhuas as for examinations when they were fully pre-
demonstrated earlier with the aggression pared rather than when the timetable
shown by the local printers. Some of the demanded. Further creativity is rarely sponta-
community saw it as having taken resources neous and time is required for people to
and status from the older institution, the Grand immerse themselves in the task at hand. This
Ducal School of Arts. The community in process is not necessarily all consuming but
Weimar became alienated from the school can take time out away from routine tasks.
with its eccentrics, radical staff and students. Organizations need to invest in staff by allow-
Mothers would warn unruly children that if ing them time to be creative, time to think and
their behaviour failed to improve they would to problem solve in ways as demonstrated by
be packed off to the Bauhuas (Whitford, 1984, Gropius and the staff at the Bauhaus.
p. 151). So despite the express communication
of the vision and the publication of the
Tolerance and diversity
Manifesto, the Bauhaus became an organiza-
tion used for derision and to frighten children. There is a need to encourage creative people
Gropius made the Bauhaus a success despite and give them the skills to enhance their
the hostility of the locals. He held his vision and creativity: to broaden the skill base of stu-
when the Weimar community cut funding to dents . . . and to gain an understanding of where
the school he sought and gained significant their particular skills and interests lay. Gropius
funding from the Dessau community; he was inclusive and encouraged diversity and
designed and built specialist facilities for the kept rules to a minimum. Rules lead to inertia
school in the new location. and thus care was needed in their construction
At Dessau, Gropius changed the direction of and use: rules and measures stifled creativity in
the school to take account an interest in new the individual and did not support a standardi-
technology. He set an agenda that called for a zation of approach (Whitford, 1984, p. 33).

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
Creativity, celebration and play at the Bauhaus, Berlin 1920 259

This was demonstrated in his recruitment brated however small or large. All members of
practices with the employment of talented the Bauhaus participated in the celebrations
and highly eccentric staff such as the mystic together. The development of an inclusive and
Itten. Yet this tolerance brought challenges for rewarding culture that acknowledges achieve-
Gropius as the local community made com- ments is a lesson for all nonprofit organizations.
plaints about the students: Gropius understood the need to promote the
work of the Bauhaus to the public and
We have received, via the Interior Ministry, mounted major exhibitions that displayed and
the following complaint from the Director celebrated the creative achievements of the
of the Second Administrative Area: school and demonstrated its relevance to
Bauhaus students living in Dornburg are modern society. The ‘Haus und Horn’ exhibi-
bathing in the River Saale—males and tion of 1923 was very successful with thou-
females together—without any bathing cos- sands of visitors attending.
tumes whatsoever and in places accessible
to everyone. People walking past have taken
Play
objection and this infringement of decency
has ceased public annoyance and represents Another lesson from the Bauhaus is the
a danger to morals, especially for young importance of play. The students and staff of
people. The director of the school might be the Bauhaus would play as part of their normal
advised to attempt to have the male and routines. Whether exercising, creating plays
female student take heed of the duty to and theatrical entertainments, cooking, dan-
observe general standards of decency. cing, kite flying and holding parades, the
Bauhaus was a playful environment. Modern
(Rudolph [civil servant] 1920, in Whitford
organizations participate in structured play in a
and Engelhardt, 1992, p. 115).
variety of ways from social gatherings and
Gropius had a difficult task to manage the activities such as celebrating birthdays with
standards of the community and the enthu- morning tea and football tipping to cake clubs
siasm and free spirit of the young students. He and fancy dress. All activities designed to bring
stood firm and would not expel students who people together in a way that allows for
were different and held differing views to him freedom of expression and fun.
or to the community at large. This tolerance The Bauhaus is an example of an organiza-
often caused difficulties but held the ideals of tion that managed to both be creative and
the school true, both through his support of the manage the creative well. The organization
students and his recruitment of controversial grew and thrived in the extraordinarily difficult
staff such as the mystic Itten and the Bolshevist times. While the Bauhaus faced its share of
Wassily Kandinsky. Individual eccentricity was issues and controversy, Gropius’ leadership,
accepted and allowed within the organization. passion, commitment and drive contributed to
its overall success. Yet Gropius was pragmatic
enough to change direction rapidly when
Celebration
required. His flexibility was crucial to the
One of the key characteristics of the Bauhaus development of the organization. He changed
was its dedication to celebrating achievements. from wanting a unity between arts and crafts to
The completion of major works was cele- a marriage between design and machine
brated, the changing of the seasons and birth- production. Gropius was also very tolerant of
days were celebrated. Gropius built an diversity as evidenced of his acceptance of the
organizational culture that brought everyone mystic Itten as a valued teacher and his support
together to feel like a family: from cooking and of his students’ political protests and youthful
exercising together to making dolls and hats at exuberance. The Bauhaus at Dessau was very
the dada-stall. Accomplishments were cele- different to the Weimar school, yet still led to

Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005
260 Stella Minahan and Charmine Härtel

the creation of extraordinary designs and Charmine Härtel is the Professor and the
prototypes. Based on Gropius’ leadership Director of the Centre for Business Research at
strength, the Bauhaus organizational culture Deakin University. Her current research and
provided an environment that encouraged consulting activities focus on emotions and
diversity, applauded success and broke down patterns of relating at work; development of
traditional barriers between staff and students. emotional intelligence, diversity and cross-
Life at the Bauhaus was rarely stable as it cultural management; leadership, and team
constantly addressed the many challenges it effectiveness. She is author of three books and
faced during its short life. Yet it did face those over 40 refereed journal articles, which have
challenges whilst simultaneously setting the appeared in journals such as the Academy of
agenda for art, craft and design in the twentieth Management Review, the Journal of Manage-
century. The leadership, pedagogy, staff and ment, and the Journal of Applied Psychology.
students all contributed to the creative atmo-
sphere of the Bauhaus. Celebration and play as
a community was a major part of life at the References
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Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., November 2005