Systems Analysis and Control

Matthew M. Peet
Arizona State University

Lecture 8: Response Characteristics

Overview

In this Lecture, you will learn:

The Effects of Feedback on Dynamic Response
• Changes in Transfer Function
• Stability
• Impact of Poles on Dynamic Response

Real Poles
• Steady-State Error
• Rise Time
• Settling Time

Complex Poles
• Complex Pole Locations
• Damped/Natural Frequency
• Damping and Damping Ratio

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 2 / 26

The Effect of Feedback Control
Recall the Upper Feedback Interconnection

-
K(s) G(s)
u(s) + y(s)

Feedback:
• Controller: û(s) = K(s)(û(s) − ŷ(s))
• Plant: ŷ(s) = Ĝ(s)û(s)
The output signal is ŷ(s),

Ĝ(s)K̂(s)
ŷ(s) = û(s)
1 + Ĝ(s)K̂(s)

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 3 / 26

Controlling the Inverted Pendulum Model

Open Loop Transfer Function

1
Ĝ(s) =
Js − M2gl
2

Controller: Static Gain: K̂(s) = K

Input: Impulse: û(s) = 1.

Closed Loop: Lower Feedback Interconnection

K
Ĝ(s)K̂(s) Js2 − M2gl K
ŷ(s) = û(s) = K
= M gl
1 + Ĝ(s)K̂(s) 1 + Js2 − M gl Js2 − 2 +K
2

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 4 / 26

Effect of Feedback on the Inverted Pendulum Model
Closed Loop Impulse Response:
Impulse Response
Lower Feedback Interconnection 2.5
K 2
J
ŷ(s) = M gl K
1.5

s2 − 2J + J 1

Amplitude
0.5

Traits: 0

−0.5

• Infinite Oscillations −1

−1.5
• Oscillates about 0. −2

−2.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec)
Open Loop Impulse Response: Impulse Response
5
x 10
18

16

14
ŷ(s) 12

Amplitude
s   10

1 2J  1 1 8
= q − q 
J M gl s − M gl s + M gl
6

4
2J 2J
2

0
Unstable! 0 5
Time (sec)
10 15

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 5 / 26

Controlling the Suspension System

Open Loop Transfer Function:

Set mc = mw = g = c = K1 = K2 = 1. x1
mc

s2 + s + 1
Ĝ(s) = x2
s4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + s + 1
mw

u
Controller: Static Gain: K̂(s) = k

Closed Loop: Lower Feedback Interconnection:

Ĝ(s)K̂(s)
ŷ(s) = û(s)
1 + Ĝ(s)K̂(s)
k(s2 + s + 1)
= 4
s + 2s + (3+k)s2 + (1+k)s + (1+k)
3

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 6 / 26

 Controlling the Suspension Problem
Effect of changing the Feedback, k
Closed Loop Step Response:
ŷ(s) =
k(s2 + s + 1) 1
s4 + 2s3 + (3 + k)s2 + (1 + k)s + (1 + k) s

High k:
• Overshot the target
• Quick Response
• Closer to desired value of f
Low k:
• Slow Response
• No overshoot
• Final value is farther from 1.
Questions:
• Which Traits are important?
• How to predict the behaviour? Figure: Step Response for different k
M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 7 / 26
Stability
The most basic property is Stability:

Definition 1.
A system, G is Stable if there exists a K > 0 such that

kGukL2 ≤ KkukL2

Note: Although this is the true definition for systems defined by transfer
functions, it is rarely used.
• Bounded input means bounded output.
• Stable means y(t) → 0 when u(t) → 0.

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 8 / 26

Stability Depends on Pole Locations
Im(s)

Definition 2. CRHP

The Closed Right Half-Plane,

CRHP is the set of complex numbers
with non-negative real part. Re(s)

{s ∈ C : Real(s) ≥ 0}

Im(s) Theorem 3.
A system G is stable if and only if it’s
transfer function Ĝ has no poles in the
Closed Right Half Plane.
Re(s)
• Check stability by checking poles.
• x is a pole
• o is a zero
Figure: Unstable
M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 9 / 26
Predicting Steady-State Error

Definition 4.
Steady-State Error for a stable system is the final difference between input
and output.
ess = lim u(t) − y(t)
t→∞

yHtL
• Usually measured using the step
response.
0.7 I Since u(t) = 1,
ess = 1 − limt→∞ y(t)
0.6

0.5

0.4

t
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure: Suspension Response for k = 1

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 10 / 26

Predicting Steady-State Value Using the Residue
yHtL

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

t
5 10 15 20 25 30

Recall: For any system G, by partial fraction expansion:

1 r0 r1 rn
ŷ(s) = Ĝ(s) = + + ... +
s s s − p1 s − pn
So
y(t) = r0 1(t) + r1 ep1 t + . . . + rn epn t
which means
lim y(t) = r0
t→∞
and hence
ess = 1 − r0
M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 11 / 26
The Final Value Theorem
The steady-state error is given by r0 .
ess = 1 − r0
Recall: The residue at s = 0 is r0 and is found as

r0 = Ĝ(s)|s=0 = lim Ĝ(s)

s→0
Thus the steady-state error is
ess = 1 − lim Ĝ(s)
s→0
This can be generalized to find the limit of any signal:
Theorem 5 (Final Value Theorem).

lim y(t) = lim sŷ(s)

t→∞ s→0

• Assumes the limit exists (Stability)

• Can be used to find response to other inputs
I Ramp, impulse, etc.

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 12 / 26

The Final Value Theorem for Systems in Lower Feedback
Lower Feedback Interconnection:
G(s)K
ŷ(s) = û(s)
1 + G(s)K
Error Response for Lower Feedback Interconnection:
ê(s) = û(s) − ŷ(s)
1 + G(s)K G(s)K 1 + G(s)K − G(s)K
= û(s) − û(s) = û(s)
1 + G(s)K 1 + G(s)K 1 + G(s)K
1
= û(s)
1 + G(s)K
So the steady-state error is
s
lim e(t) = lim sê(s) = lim û(s)
t→∞ s→0 s→0 1 + G(s)K
Error in Step Response: If û(s) = 1s , then
1
lim e(t) = lim
t→∞ s→0 1 + G(s)K
Conclusion: Increasing K always reduces steady-state error to step!
M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 13 / 26
The Final Value Theorem for Systems in Upper Feedback
Upper Feedback Interconnection:

G(s)
ŷ(s) = û(s)
1 + G(s)K

Error Response for Upper Feedback Interconnection:

ê(s) = û(s) − ŷ(s)

1 + G(s)K G(s) 1 + G(s)K − G(s)
= û(s) − û(s) = û(s)
1 + G(s)K 1 + G(s)K 1 + G(s)K
1 + G(s)(K − 1)
= û(s)
1 + G(s)K

Error in Step Response: If û(s) = 1s , then

1 + G(s)(K − 1)
lim e(t) = lim
t→∞ s→0 1 + G(s)K

Conclusion: Increasing K doesn’t help with step response!

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 14 / 26
Steady-State Error
Numerical Example

k(s2 + s + 1)
Ĝ(s) =
s4 + 2s3 + (3 + k)s2 + (1 + k)s + (1 + k)
The steady-state response is
yss = lim sŷ(s) = lim Ĝ(s)
s→0 s→0
k(s2 + s + 1)
= lim
s→0 s4 + 2s3 + (3 + k)s2 + (1 + k)s + (1 + k)
k
=
1+k
The steady-state error is
k
ess = 1 − yss = 1 −
1+k
1
=
1+k
• When k = 0, ess = 1
• As k → ∞, ess = 0
M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 15 / 26
Ramp Response for Systems in Lower Feedback
Lower Feedback Interconnection: Recall the steady-state error is
s
lim e(t) = lim sê(s) = lim û(s)
t→∞ s→0 s→0 1 + G(s)K
1
Error in Ramp Response: If û(s) = s2 , then

1
lim e(t) = lim
t→∞ s→0 s(1 + G(s)K)

Conclusion: limt→∞ e(t) = ∞!

K
Preview of Integral Feedback: However, if we choose K → s

1 1
lim e(t) = lim K
= lim
t→∞ s→0 s(1 + G(s) ) s→0 s + G(s)K
s

Conclusion: Increasing K improves the ramp response!

• More on this Later....
M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 16 / 26
Dynamic Response Characteristics
Two Types of Response

From Partial Fractions Expansion, you know that motion is determined by the
poles of the Transfer Function!
n(s) k1 s + k2 r1 rn
û(s) = 2 û(s)+ û(s)+· · ·+ û(s)
(s2 + as + b)(s − p1 ) · · · (s − pn ) s + as + b s − p1 s − pn

• Simplify the response by considering response of each pole.

yHtL

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

t
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure: Real Pole Figure: Complex Pair of Poles

We start with Real Poles
M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 17 / 26
Step Response Characteristics
Real Poles

The Solution: Step response of a real pole.

r r
r r 1 p p r pt

ŷ(s) = û(s) = = − y(t) = e −1
s−p s−ps s−p s p

• Is it stable? (p < 0?)

Cases: Stability or Instability?
• If p > 0, then limt→∞ y(t) → ∞
• If p < 0, then limt→∞ y(t) → − pr

Final Value:
r
yss = −
p
Question: How quickly do we reach
the final value?

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 18 / 26

 Step Response Characteristics
Rise Time

r pt
r
y(t) = e −1 , yss = −
p p

Definition 6.
The rise time, Tr , is the time it takes to
go from .1 to .9 of the final value.

If y(t1 ) = .1yss = −.1 pr , then t1 is:

−.1 = ept1 − 1
ln(1 − .1) = pt1
ln .9 .11
t1 = = Rise time (Tr ) for a Single Pole is:
p −p
2.31 .11 2.2
Likewise if y(t2 ) = −.9 pr , then Tr = t2 − t1 = − =
−p −p −p
ln .1 2.31
t2 = =
p −p
M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 19 / 26
Step Response Characteristics
Settling Time

Definition 7.
The Settling Time, Ts , is the time it takes to reach and stay within .99 of the
final value.

yHtL

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

t
5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure: Complex Pair of Poles

LINK: Bouncing Balls

LINK: More Bouncing Balls!
LINK: Newton’s Cradle
M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 20 / 26
Step Response Characteristics
Settling Time

r pt
r
y(t) = e −1 , yss = −
p p

Definition 8.
The Settling Time, Ts , is the time it
takes to reach and stay within .99 of
the final value.
Solve y(Ts ) = pr epTs − 1 = −.99 pr

for Ts :

−.99 = epTs − 1
ln(.01) = pTs The settling time for a Single Pole is:
ln .01 4.6 4.6
Ts = =− Ts =
p p −p

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 21 / 26

Solution for Complex Poles

ωd2 + σ 2 1 σ 2 + ωd2 1 s + 2σ 1
ŷ(s) = 2 = =− +
s2 + 2σs + ωd + σ 2 s (s + σ)2 + ωd2 s (s + σ)2 + ωd2 s

The poles are at s = −σ ± ωd ı. The solution is:

 
σt σ
y(t) = 1 − e cos(ωd t) + sin(ωd t)
ωd

The result is oscillation with an

Exponential Envelope.
• Envelope decays at rate σ
• Speed of oscillation is ωd , the
Damped Frequency

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 22 / 26

Step Response Characteristics
Damping Ratio
Im(s)
Besides ωd , there is another way to measure
oscillation
ωn
Definition 9.
The Natural Frequency
p of a pole at Re(s)
p = σ + ıωd is ωn = σ 2 + ωd2 .

1 1
√
• for ŷ(s) = s2 +as+b s , ωn = b.
• Radius of the pole in complex plane.
Resonant Frequency.
• Also known as resonant frequency

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 23 / 26

Step Response Characteristics
Damping Ratio

Besides σ, there are other ways to

measure damping

Definition 10.
The Damping Ratio of a pole at
p = σ + ıω is ζ = ω|σ|n .

• for ŷ(s) = 1 1 a
s2 +as+b s , ζ= .
√
2 b
• Gives the ratio by which the
amplitude decreases per oscillation
(almost...).

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 24 / 26

Damping

We use several adjectives to describe

exponential decay:
• Undamped
I Oscillation continues forever,
σ=ζ=0
• Underdamped
I Oscillation continues for many

cycles. ζ < 1
• Critically Damped
I No oscillation or overshoot.

ζ = 1, ωd = 0
• Overdamped
I When ζ > 1, poles are real (not

complex)

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 25 / 26

Summary

What have we learned today?

Characteristics of the Response

Real Poles
• Steady-State Error
• Rise Time
• Settling Time

Complex Poles
• Complex Pole Locations
• Damped/Natural Frequency
• Damping and Damping Ratio

Continued in Next Lecture

M. Peet Lecture 8: Control Systems 26 / 26