Waste Management 29 (2009) 2369–2377

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Properties of concrete blocks prepared with low grade recycled aggregates

Chi-Sun Poon a,*, Shi-cong Kou a, Hui-wen Wan a, Miren Etxeberria b
a
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong
b
Department of Construction Engineering, Polytechnic University of Catalonia, 08034 Barcelona, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Low grade recycled aggregates obtained from a construction waste sorting facility were tested to assess
Accepted 26 February 2009 the feasibility of using these in the production of concrete blocks. The characteristics of the sorted con-
Available online 26 April 2009 struction waste are significantly different from that of crushed concrete rubbles that are mostly derived
from demolition waste streams. This is due to the presence of higher percentages of non-concrete com-
ponents (e.g. >10% soil, brick, tiles etc.) in the sorted construction waste.
In the study reported in this paper, three series of concrete block mixtures were prepared by using the
low grade recycled aggregates to replace (i) natural coarse granite (10 mm), and (ii) 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%
replacement levels of crushed stone fine (crushed natural granite <5 mm) in the concrete blocks. Test
results on properties such as density, compressive strength, transverse strength and drying shrinkage
as well as strength reduction after exposure to 800 °C are presented below. The results show that the soil
content in the recycled fine aggregate was an important factor in affecting the properties of the blocks
produced and the mechanical strength deceased with increasing low grade recycled fine aggregate con-
tent. But the higher soil content in the recycled aggregates reduced the reduction of compressive strength
of the blocks after exposure to high temperature due probably to the formation of a new crystalline
phase. The results show that the low grade recycled aggregates obtained from the construction waste
sorting facility has potential to be used as aggregates for making non-structural pre-cast concrete blocks.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction It should be noted that the characteristics of the sorted con-

struction waste is significantly different from that of crushed con-
In Hong Kong, a huge quantity of construction wastes is pro- crete rubbles derived from demolition waste streams. The latter,
duced every day representing a large fraction of the total solid after appropriate crushing and sieving, can be reused as recycled
waste stream. Construction wastes are normally composed of con- aggregates in various forms of construction. The sorted construc-
crete rubble, brick, tile, sand, dust, timber, plastic, cardboard, pa- tion waste, however, can at best be regarded as a low-grade recy-
per, and metals. The disposal of the waste has become a severe cled aggregate. This is due to the presence of higher percentages of
social and environmental problem in the territory. Government non-concrete components (e.g. soil, brick, tiles etc.) in the sorted
sources have indicated that there is an acute shortage of landfill construction waste. In the past, this ‘‘inert” portion of the construc-
space in Hong Kong as Hong Kong’s landfills are expected to be full tion waste was reused for reclamation projects. But the recent pub-
within 6–10 years (CEDD, 2006). To tackle this problem, the Gov- lic objections to public filling have greatly reduced this disposal
ernment has introduced a construction waste charging scheme to outlet. The possibility of recycling such waste in the construction
encourage waste producers to minimize wastage and recycle reus- industry is thus of increasing importance. In addition to the envi-
able materials from the waste stream. Under the scheme, Govern- ronmental benefits in reducing the demand on land required for
ment has set up sorting facilities to separate the inert portion of disposing the waste, the recycling of construction wastes can also
the construction waste (rock, rubble concrete, asphalts, sand, brick, help to conserve natural materials.
tile etc.) from the non-inert portion (i.e. paper, timber, bamboo, The feasible use of C&D waste as aggregates for concrete and
plastic, metals). Besides the non-inert components, the sorting concrete masonry blocks production has attracted much research
facility separates the inert part of the construction and demolition interest in recent years (Hansen, 1996; Limbachiya and Roberts,
(C&D) waste into four main fractions according to sizes: (a) bigger 2004; Poon et al., 2002; Poon et al., 2004; Poon and Kou, 2004;
than 250 mm, (b) between 250 and 150 mm, (c) between 150 and Poon and Chan, 2006; Poon and Chan, 2007; Xiao et al., 2005; Yang
50 mm and (d) smaller than 50 mm (Fig. 1). et al., 2008). Poon et al. (2006) reported that small percentages of
substitution of coarse and fine natural aggregates by recycled
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2766 6024; fax: +852 2334 6389. aggregates had minor effects on the compressive strength of the
E-mail address: cecspoon@[Link] (C.-S. Poon). blocks produced but the compressive strength would decreased

0956-053X/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2009.02.018
2370 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 29 (2009) 2369–2377

Fig. 1. (a–d) Photos of different particle size fractions of construction wastes.

at high levels of replacement. However, the flexural strength in- and recycled fine aggregate, 5/0 mm, according to the particle size
creased with the use of recycled aggregates. It was also reported requirements of British Standard BS 812 (BSI, 1975). The recycled
that the use of recycled aggregate which contained a significant aggregates were referred to as RCAI and RFAI, respectively. The
percentage of crushed clay bricks reduced the density, compressive 150–50 mm fraction underwent a further process of mechanized
strength and tensile strength of the blocks produced due to the crushing and sieving to produce recycled coarse aggregate (RCAII)
high water absorption capacity of the crushed clay bricks (Poon and recycled fine aggregate (RFAII).
et al., 2002). The presence of contaminants as glass, wood chips The properties of recycled aggregates were tested according to
seems to adversely affect physical and mechanical properties of British Standard methods (BSI, 1983) and the results are presented
concrete paving blocks (Poon and Chan, 2007). in Table 3. The soil content was determined according to Chinese
This paper presents the results of a laboratory study to explore the Standard GB/T14685-2001. Fig. 2 shows the grading curves of the
feasibility of using the inert portion of the sorted construction waste recycled fine aggregates (RFAI and RFAII).
(low grade recycled aggregates) for concrete block production.
2.1.3. Crushed fine stone
2. Experimental details Crushed fine stone (CFS) obtained from a local quarry with a
fineness modulus (FM) of 3.3 was used as the natural fine aggre-
2.1. Materials gate. Its grading curve is also given in Fig. 2.

2.1.1. Cement
In this study, ASTM Type I Portland cement was used and the
Table 2
corresponding properties are shown in Table 1.
Constituents of recycled aggregates.

2.1.2. Recycled aggregate (RA) Material Constituent (% by weight)

The recycled aggregates used in this study were sorted C&D 50–150 mm <50 mm
wastes sourced from a sorting facility in Hong Kong. The two main Old concrete 74.4 13.4
products of the sorting facility, namely size fractions between 150– Natural stones 10.7 2.3
50 mm, and <50 mm were used as recycled coarse and fine aggre- Clay bricks 13.0 4.5
Gravel soil 0.5 78.6
gates. The constituents of recycled aggregates are shown in Table 2.
Other impurities (glass, metals, wood, 1.4 1.2
The <50 mm fraction underwent a further process of mecha- pitch, plastic, paper, etc.)
nized sieving to produce recycled coarse aggregates, 10/5 mm,

Table 1
Chemical composition of cement.

SiO2 (%) Fe2O3 (%) Al2O3 (%) CaO (%) MgO (%) SO3 (%) LoI (%) Specific mass (g/cm3) Specific surface area (cm2/g)
19.61 3.32 7.33 63.15 2.54 2.13 2.97 3.16 3520
 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 29 (2009) 2369–2377 2371

Table 3
Properties of recycled aggregates.

Properties Coarse aggregates (5–10 mm) Fine aggregates (<5 mm)

RCAI RCAII RFAI RFAII CFS
Density-SSD (kg/m3) 2263 2315 1988 2005 2098
Density-oven-dry (kg/m3) 2133 2159 1671 1837 1960
Water adsorption (%) 6.25 5.81 18.92 13.48 7.06
Water-soluble sulphate content (g/l) 0.02 0.01 – – –
Ten percent fine value (kN) 72 88 – – –
Soil content (%) 8.0 0.7 23.2 7.7 –

CFS - Crushed fine stone.

In Series C, an aggregate-to-cement ratio of 12:1 was used. C1

was prepared with 100% RCAI as the coarse aggregate and 50% RFAI
and 50% CFS as fine aggregates. C2 mixture was produced with
100% RCAI as the coarse aggregate and 100% RFAI as the fine aggre-
gate. The mix proportions of the blocks in Series A, B, and C are
shown in Tables 4–6, respectively.

2.3. Fabrication of blocks

The blocks were fabricated in steel moulds with internal dimen-

sions of 200 mm in length, 100 mm in width, and 60 mm in depth.
The mixed materials used were approximately 2.8 kg for each
block. The materials were put into the mould in three layers of
approximately equal depth. After each of the first two layers was
filled, compaction was applied manually using a hammer and a
wooden stem. After the third layer was filled, a compressive force
Fig. 2. Particle size distributions of recycled fine aggregates and crushed fine stone
at a rate of 600 kN/min was applied for about 50 s to mechanically
with BS882 limits indicated. compact the mix within the mould. Excess materials were then re-
moved with a trowel. The fabricated blocks, in the steel moulds,
2.2. Mix proportioning were covered by a plastic sheet and left at room temperature
and relative humidity of about 50%. The blocks were then remoul-
A total of three series of concrete block mixes were prepared. In ded, one day after casting, and were cured (covered by a hemp bag
Series A, the blocks were prepared using RCAI as the coarse aggre- to maintain a RH of over 90%) at room temperature (21 °C) until
gates. An aggregate-to-cement ratio of 10:1 was used. A0, the con- testing.
trol, was produced with the use of CFS as the fine aggregate. In the
other mixes (A1–A4), RFAI was used at levels of 25, 50, 75, and 2.4. Exposure to high temperature
100% to replace CFS.
In Series B, 100% RCAII and 100% RFAII were used as the coarse After 28 days of curing, the specimens in Series B and C were
and fine aggregates respectively. The aggregate-to-cement (A/C) ra- heated in an electric furnace up to 800 °C. The maximum temper-
tios were 8:1, 10:1 and 12:1 for B1, B2, and B3 mixes, respectively. ature was maintained for four hours. The heating rate was set at

Table 4
Mix ratio (by mass) of block mixtures in Series A (A/C = 10).

No. Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Total aggregate Cement Soil content (%)
RCAI RFAI CFS RT

A0 3.5 0 6.5 0 10 1 2.8

A1 3.5 1.625 4.875 25 10 1 6.6
A2 3.5 3.25 3.25 50 10 1 10.3
A3 3.5 4.875 1.625 75 10 1 14.1
A4 3.5 6.5 0 100 10 1 17.9

A0 - Control sample, CFS was used as fine aggregate.

RT - replacement ratio of CFS by RFAI.

Table 5
Mix ratio (by mass) of block mixtures in Series B (100% RCAII and RFAII, varying A/C).

No. Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Total aggregate Cement Soil content (%)
RCAII RFAII

B1 2.8 5.2 8 1 5.3

B2 3.5 6.5 10 1 5.3
B3 4.2 7.8 12 1 5.3
2372 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 29 (2009) 2369–2377

Table 6
Mix ratio (by mass) of block mixtures in Series C (A/C = 12).

No. Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Total aggregate Cement Soil content (%)
RCAI RFAI CFS RT

C0 4.2 0 7.8 0 12 1 2.8

C1 4.2 3.9 3.9 50 12 1 10.3
C2 4.2 7.8 0 100 12 1 17.9

C0 - Control sample.
RT - replacement ratio of CFS replaced by RFAI.

2.5 °C per minute. The specimens were allowed to cool naturally to 3. Results and discussion
room temperature in the end.
3.1. Aggregate properties
2.5. Testing
The characterization of aggregates is presented in Tables 2 and
2.5.1. Density 3 and Fig. 2. As shown in Table 2, the <50 mm fraction mainly con-
The density of partition blocks was determined using a water tained soft soil and old concrete rubbles. It also contained a small
displacement method as per BS 1881 Part 114 (BSI 1983) for hard- amount of natural stone, clay bricks, and other impurities such as
ened concrete. small pieces of wood, paper, tiles, and metals. The fraction 150–
50 mm contained mainly old concrete rubbles and a small amount
2.5.2. Compressive strength of natural stones and other impurities similar to that of the
The compressive strength was determined using a compressive <50 mm fraction although the percentage of the impurities were
testing machine with a maximum capacity of 3000 kN. The load, smaller in the 150–50 mm fraction.
increased at a rate of 450 kN/min, was applied to the nominal area As shown in Table 3, the water absorption capacity and the soil
of the blocks. Prior to the loading test, the blocks were soft capped content were the major differences between the aggregates ob-
with two pieces of plywood. tained from the two different fractions of the sorting plant. The soil
content of recycled fine aggregates, RFAI and RFAII, were 23.2% and
2.5.3. Transverse strength 7.7%, respectively. And the soil content of recycled coarse aggre-
The transverse strength of the block specimens was determined gates, RCAI and RCAII, were 8.0% and 0.7%, respectively. Fig. 2
in accordance with BS 6073 (BSI, 1981). The test was carried out by shows that the particle size distribution of RFAI and RFAII satisfied
a three-point bending test with a supporting span of 180 mm and a the British Standard requirement.
height of 60 mm, using a material testing machine with a maxi-
mum load capacity of 30 kN. 3.2. Density of block

2.5.4. Drying shrinkage The density values of the blocks specimens are shown in Fig. 3.
The drying shrinkage of the specimens was determined in The presented values are the average of three measurements. The
accordance with BS 6073 (BSI, 1981). After 28 days of curing, the results indicated that the density of the blocks decreased with an
specimens were immersed in water at room temperature for increase in the RFA content. This is due to the fact that fine recycled
24 h, and then initial length of the specimens was measured. After aggregates had lower densities when compared to the CFS. More-
the initial reading, the specimens were conveyed to a drying- over, the aggregate-to-cement ratio had only a minor influence
chamber with a temperature of 23 °C and a relative humidity of on the density of the blocks produced.
55%. Length measurements were made again 1, 3, 7, 14 days after
the initial measurement. 3.3. Compressive strength

2.5.5. SEM and XRD The 7-day and 28-day compressive strengths of the blocks in
The microstructures of the specimens in Series C were analysed Series A, B and C are given in Fig. 4. The presented values are the
by using scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The average of three measurements. It can be seen that the compres-
specimens were examined before and after exposure to the high
temperature. The cement mortar specimens used for the micro-
structural analysis were prepared as follow: After 28 days of curing
2350
and exposure to 800 °C as required, representative samples were
taken from the central part of the block specimens by carefully 2300
breaking the hardened blocks with a chisel. The extracted samples
2250
were immersed in acetone for 48 h to stop the hydration and the
Density (kg/m3)

cement followed by further drying at 60 °C for 72 h. For SEM exam- 2200

ination, the fracture surfaces of the samples were coated by sput-
tering a thin layer of gold before they were examined using a 2150
JEOL JSM-6490 SEM and FEI Quanta 200 SEM systems. For XRD
2100
analysis, the extracted samples were further separately ground
and sieved through a 150 lm sieve. Additionally, the recycled fine 2050
aggregates, RFAI and RFAII were also examined by the XRD. The
2000
qualitative XRD analyses were performed with a Bruker D8 ad- A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 B3 C0 C1 C2
vanced diffractometer using a CuK source. The tests were per-
Mix notation
formed over a Braggs angle (2h) range of 3–60°, at steps of 0.005°
per 4 s. Fig. 3. Density of concrete block specimens.
 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 29 (2009) 2369–2377 2373

45 0.07
7-day
40
28-day 0.06
Compressive strength (MPa)

35

Drying shrinkage (%)

0.05
30

25 0.04
20
0.03 A0
15
A1
10 0.02 A2
A3
5 0.01
A4
0
A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 B3 C0 C1 C2 0
Mix notation 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (day)
Fig. 4. Compressive strengths of concrete blocks at 7-day and 28-day.
Fig. 6. Drying shrinkage values of block specimens in Series A.

sive strength of the blocks in all three Series decreased with an in-
crease in the RFA content except for A1 and A2 specimens. For the
case of RFA1 in Series A, a replacement level of 50% or lower re-
0.07
sulted in essentially no or only small reduction in compressive
strength. Moreover, the compressive strength of the blocks in- 0.06
creased when either RFA II was used or with a decrease in the

Drying shrinkage (%)

aggregate-to-cement ratio. 0.05
Specimens A1 and A2 (25 and 50% replacement of CFS by low
0.04
grade recycled aggregates) had higher compressive strength com-
pared to the corresponding blocks made with 100% natural fine 0.03
aggregates. This may be due to the RFAI, containing a higher per- B1
centage of fine soil, which was capable of filling up the voids more 0.02 B2
effectively than that of CFS in the blocks produced. Comparing the B3
0.01
blocks prepared with the same A/C and fine aggregates replace-
ment level (A4 and B2), B2, which was produced made with RCAII, 0
had a higher compressive strength than that of A4. Fig. 4 also 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
shows that the block B1 has higher compressive strength due its Time (day)
lower A/C ratio. Fig. 7. Drying shrinkage values of block specimens in Series B.

3.4. Transverse strength

The results of the transverse strength for the blocks are given in shrinkage of the blocks increased with an increase in RFA content,
Fig. 5. The presented values are the averages of two measurements. particularly for RFAI. Fig. 8 shows that the drying shrinkage of the
A trend, similar to that of compressive strength, was observed. The blocks increased with an increase in soil content. Regarding the
transverse strengths of all block specimens were much higher than case of RFAI which had an A/C ratio of 10, the 14-day drying shrink-
that of the requirements of BS6073 (=0.65 MPa). age values of the blocks prepared with <50% fine aggregate replace-
ment level (A1 and A2) were within the prescribed limit of BS6073
3.5. Drying shrinkage (0.06%). Also, the drying shrinkage of the blocks decreased either
when RFAII was used (compare A4 and B2) or when there was a de-
The results of drying shrinkage of the blocks in Series A and B crease in the aggregate-to-cement ratio.
are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. The present data are the
average of three measurements. The results show the drying

0.08
7
0.07
14-day drying shrinkage (%)

6
Transverse strength (MPa)

0.06
5
0.05
4
0.04
y = 0.0014x + 0.0419
3 2
0.03 R = 0.984
2 0.02

1 0.01

0 0
A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 B3 C0 C1 C2 0 5 10 15 20
Mix notation Soil content (%)

Fig. 5. Transverse strength of concrete blocks at 28-day. Fig. 8. Relationship between drying shrinkage and soil content of blocks in Series A.
2374 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 29 (2009) 2369–2377

Table 7
Compressive strength of blocks before and after exposure to 800 °C.

No. A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 C0 C1 C2 B1 B2 B3
28-day compressive strength (MPa) 37.3 42.3 38.9 31.2 26.1 29.4 25.5 24.3 38.5 31.8 28.9
Compressive strength after exposure to 800 °C (MPa) 18.7 24.5 22.9 20.1 18.3 16.9 16.1 17.8 14.5 13.5 15.9
Ratio of strength before and after exposure to 800 °C (%) 50.1 57.9 58.9 64.4 70.1 57.5 63.1 73.3 37.7 42.5 55.0

3.6. Exposure to high temperature

80 The results of the compressive strength and relative residual

strength (ratio of strength after 800 °C exposure to that of the
Relative compressive strength (%)

70
28 days compressive strength) are presented in Table 7 and
60 Fig. 9, respectively. Fig. 9 shows that for the blocks prepared with
50 RFA1 (Series A and C), the percentage of residual strength in-
creased with increasing RFA1 content. But for the blocks prepared
40 with RFAII (Series B), the percentages of residual strengths attained
30 after exposure to the high temperature were much lower. The
above observations can be explained by the facts that: (i) there
20
was a higher percentage of soil in RFAI used for preparing Series
10 A and C blocks, and (ii) RFAII used for preparing the Series B blocks
were obtained by crushing the 50–150 mm recycled aggregates
0
A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 B3 C0 C1 C2 (mainly concrete rubbles) and hence the fine portion resulted from
Mix notation the crushing operation which contained mainly crushed cement
mortar. It is well known that hydrated cement paste would disin-
Fig. 9. Relative residual compressive strength of blocks after exposure to 800 °C.
tegrate at high temperatures (e.g. the hydration products of ce-

Fig. 10. SEM images of B3 block before exposure to 800 °C showing crystalline hydration products.

Fig. 11. SEM images of B3 block after exposure to 800 °C showing large cracks and degraded hydration products.
 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 29 (2009) 2369–2377 2375

Fig. 12. SEM images of C2 block before exposure to 800 °C showing fibrous hydration products.

Fig. 13. SEM images of C2 block after exposure to 800 °C showing the formation of new crystalline phases.

Fig. 14. XRD patterns of C2 block before and after exposure to 800 °C. (a new crystalline phase, calcium aluminum silicate is formed, Q: Quartz, F: Feldspar, CC: CaCO3, E:
Ettringite, K: Kaolinite, I: Illite.

ment, such as Ca(OH)2 are decomposed at 500 °C and calcium sili- paste and clusters of Ca(OH)2 crystals in the interfacial transition
cate hydrates are decomposed at 800 °C (Mehta and Monteiro, zone between the cement paste and the recycled aggregates.
1993; Chan et al., 1999; Lin et al., 1996; Rostasy et al., 1980). Fig. 11 illustrates the SEM images of B3 after exposure to 800 °C
Fig. 10 shows the SEM images of B3 before the exposure to for 4 h. They show that before exposure to the elevated tempera-
800 °C. The images show clearly the microstructure of the cement ture, C–S–H gel and Ca(OH)2 were the principal products. However,
2376 C.-S. Poon et al. / Waste Management 29 (2009) 2369–2377

3. The drying shrinkage of the blocks increased with the increase

in the RFA content.
4. The compressive strength, transverse strength of the blocks
increased but the drying shrinkage of the blocks decreased with
a decrease in the aggregate-to-cement ratio.
5. With the same A/C ratio and fine aggregate replacement level,
blocks prepared with RFAII performed better than that of RFAI
due to the lower soil content in RFAII.
6. The higher soil content in the recycled aggregates decreased the
level of reduction of compressive strength of the blocks after
exposure to high temperature which was probably due to the
formation of a new crystalline phase, calcium aluminium
silicate.
7. The results show that the low grade recycled aggregates
obtained from the construction waste sorting facility has poten-
tial to be used as aggregates for making non-structural pre-cast
concrete blocks. For the RFA, the optimal percentage that can be
Fig. 15. XRD patterns of soil in recycled aggregates. used to replace natural fine aggregates is 50%.

Acknowledgements
after exposure to 800 °C, the presence of cracks, as well as coarser
pores in the partially decomposed hydrated cement paste were The authors wish to acknowledge the Research Grants Council
evident. The poorer cement-aggregate bonds after heating can also (PolyU 5259/06E) and the Hong Kong Polytechnic University
be observed. Fig. 12 provides the SEM images of C2 before expo- for funding support. We also thank the Civil Engineering and
sure to the high temperature whilst Fig. 13 shows the SEM images Development Department for providing the samples of recycled
of C2 after the exposure to 800 °C. In general, the microstructure of materials.
C2 after exposure to 800 °C can be described as denser than that of
B3 probably due to the higher soil content in RFAI for preparing C2. References
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