Nepal Electricity Authority Level 4/5 chabeery] earres Er. Madhav Prasad Nagarkoti (Electrical Engineer, NEA) (BE in Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Kathmandu University, 2010) (MSC in Power System Engineering, TU-IOE, Pulchowk Campus-Running, 2078) aoe 2t. Uarewa waa fet aAeeT TET ¥. 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Series and parallel connection of resistance, inductance and capacitance. Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s law. Alternating current fundamentals: wade i of electromagnetic induction, generation of alternating voltages and currer ote their equations and waveforms, amplitude, frequency, phase) phasevdifference, average and rms values, A.C. through resistance, inductance, capacitance and through their combinations, single phase and three phase AC systems. Heating effect of electric current. * General norms of system voltage regulation and frequency regulation.Electric Charge Electric Charge is the property of subatomic particles that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electric and magnetic field.” * Electric charges are of two types: 1. Positive charge 2. Negative charge 1. Positive charge: W Nepa + A positive charge occurs When an atom tt 4 re protons than electrons. + Protons have a positive charge. 2. Negative charge: + When an object has more electrons than protons is called a negative charge. + Electrons have a negative charge. = When an atom has equal number of electrons and protons, then the atom is neutral or chargeless, Neutrons have a neutral electric charge (neither negative nor positive).= Like charges repel each other. " Unlike charges attract each other. * Unit of charge is Coulomb (C). 1 Coulomb(C): Charge on 625*10"* electron. * Charge of one electron = any MAT Rep oc = Charge (Q) = current (i) * time (0) Nepal = Charge (Q) = number of electrons (n) x charge of an electron (e)Electric Current: * The continuous flow of free electrons in an any electrical circuit is known as electric current. = In other words, the rate of flow of electric charge through a section of conductor is called electric current. _ Carge(Q) Current) ="ime(®) | WIT * Also, from Ohm’s law, /| Nepal Current(D) = Voltage(V) Resistance(R) * Unit of current is C/S or Ampere(A). 1 Ampere Current: If 1 Coulomb of charge passes through a section of conductor for 1 second, then current flowing through a conductor will be 1 A.Voltage or potential difference is the total work done required to move a unit of charge from one pole to another through a conductor. Voltage is also referred to as electric potential difference, electric pressure or electric tension, Mathematically, V=IR Where, V = Voltage in volts T= Current in amy NY, WIT R= Resistance in ofims\, Also, a Nepal Where, YU = Change in potential energy (J) Q= Charge (C) Unit of voltage is Volt (V) or IIC. ‘The most common sources of voltage are batteries and generators.Comparison between Emf and Potential difference: « Emf is the measure of energy that it gives to each coulomb of charge, whereas the potential difference is the amount of energy used by the one coulomb of charge. * Emf is represented by the symbol ‘E” whereas the symbol “V" represents the potential difference. = Emf does not depend on the internal resistance of the,circuil whereas the potential difference “Ty Ahe 2 lume of the circuit. Nepal i V=E-Lr ] WW Where, V=potential difference E=Emf r=internal resistance of cell I=current through circuit= Emf transmits current throughout the circuit whereas potential difference transmits current between any two points. = Emf is a cause, whereas potential difference is an effect. Exam} * Consider a circuit shown in the figure below. + A 12 volt supply applies across the resistances. WEF ice. cell Wh emf is 12 V. / Battery + Thus, cell provides 12 Joules of energy to each coulomi pare ange. + The potential difference between any two points, says A and B, is the energy used by one coulomb of charge in moving from one point (A) to the other (B). + Thus, the potential difference between points A and B is 7 volts. + This means that the 7 Joules of energy is used by each coulomb of charge.Electric Circuit: = An electric circuit is a closed loop network which provides a return path for the flow of current. = In other words, an electric circuit is a closed conducting path in which current can flow. * An electric circuit is also known as electrical network. Figure: Electric circuitCircuit Elements: * A circuit element is an idealized mathematical model of a two-terminal electrical device that is completely characterized by its voltage-current relationship * Circuit elements can be categorized as either 1. Active Circuit Elements 2. Passive circuit Elements 1. Active Circuit Elements: * Active Elements are those whic! Ne. g 4. WV, ly energy to the circuit. * Active elements have the ability to tee conizol electron flow (ie. the flow of charge * Active circuit elements can deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely * Examples include batteries, generators, operational amplifiers, solar cell, SCRs and odes. = They are: 1 Independent Source [Link] SourceIndependent Sout * Independent source are the sources, whose output value doesn’t depend upon the circuit parameters like voltage and current. = They are of two types a. Independent voltage source b. Independent current source 1. V/| WIT T Independent voltage source: Nepal * Independent voltage source has a voltage that Figure: Independent voltage is independent of other quantities in a circuit i.e. source not affected by any other quantity. Independent current source: + Independent current source maintains a current which is unaffected by any other quantities. Figure: Independent current sourceDependent Soure = Dependent sources are the sources that change their output depending on other parts of the circuit. Figure: Dependent voltage Dependent current source | WIT souve? | Neigure * It’s just a mathematical representation. * Dependent sources are most helpful, BJT will be designed as a dependent current source whose magnitude depends on the magnitude of the current maintained into its controlling base terminal. = OP-AMP can be described as a voltage source dependent on the differential input voltage between its input terminals.Depending upon the source it can be classified as [Link]-controlled voltage source (VCVS) The source delivers the voltage as per the voltage of the dependent element, 1 Vet) [Link]-controlled current source wey The source delivers the currents as per the cecs voltage of the dependent element. WIT 1=fVx) W/ hn }Qugent-contrlled current soure V| Nepal The source delivers the current as per the oa current of the dependent elements. vevs T=f(ly) [Link]-controlled voltage source (CCVS) The source delivers the voltage as per the current of the dependent element. V=fUy)Input Output Dependent source Amplifier type 1 1 | current controlled current source GCS current amplifier 1 V__ | current controlled voltage source CCVS _ transresistance amplifier v I voltage controlled current source VCCS: | transconductance amplifier v V__ | voltage controlled voltage sou Ur ‘voltage amplifier \ Nepal Amplifier type © Dependent source Input impedance Output impedance Current cccs o ° Transresistance ccvs ° 0 Transconductance vecs o o Voltage vevs = o2. Passive circuit Elements: = A passive circuit element is an electric component which can only receive energy. * Itcan either dissipate, absorb or store energy in an electric field or a magnetic field. = Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to operate. The examples of passive components are resistor, inductor, capacitor and transformer, etc. "As energy is not actually being rnplified sie ier is classified as a passive element. 1 IResistor IE=IR IZ=R Inductor |E = L dildt JZ = jo Capacitor — || = C dE rat |Z = 1/(jwC)"The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called electric power i.e., Work done in electric circuit (W) Electric power (P) = time taken (6) t or, [> W=V.Q, Q=Lt] Also, P= 0. : wil * The unit of electric power is J/S or watt (W). = 1 Watt power -> The power consumed in the circuit is 1 watt if the 1 volt p.d. causes 1 A current to flow through the circuit.Electrical Energy (E): * The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy. i.e., Electrical Energy = Electrical power (p) x time (t) E =V.1.t-----------(i) Also, E=I2.R.t----------(ii) — gr / WT * The unit of an electrical energy Mar ePal * The most commonly used unit of electrical energy is kWhr (or unit) in our daily life. = 1 kWhr (or 1 unit) > The energy consumed by 1kw (or 1000w) load in 1 hour is known as 1kwhr (or 1 unit) electrical energy.Resistance: = Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. * Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Q). Factors affecting the resistance of any conductor = Resistance of conductor is directly proportional to the length of that conductor. i.e., RaL coool) = Resistance of conductor is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of that conductor 1 Rat Gi) = Resistance of conductor depends upon nature of the conductor material and temperature.= From equation (i) and (ii), R as L R=pe Where, p = specific resistance or resistivity (Q-m) which depends upon the material used to e the wifes I T Resistivity: \W/ Nepal = Resistivity is defined as the resistance of a wire of that substance with unit length and unit area of cross-section. * The units of resistivity are Ohm-meters or Q-m. * Poor conductors have high resistivity. The insulator has a high resistivity. * Tt depends upon the nature of materi different. i.e., resistivity of copper and aluminum areConductivity: + Reciprocal of resistivity is known as conductivity. ie, eo “Pp ponductivity / WwW I T sitivity W Nepal + Conductivity represents a material's ability to conduct electric current. * Its unit is Siemens per meter (S/m) or Mho/m.Question: If a wire of resistance R is stretched to double of its length, then new resistance will be: yy Wit Questions The length of the Mw. Near. reased by 10%. What is the corresponding change in the resistance of wire’?Role of Resistan: Opposition to Current Flow: Resistance is a property of materials that opposes the flow of electric current. Current Limitation: Resistance is used in circuits to limit the amount of current flowing through a component or circuit. Voltage Division: Resistance also plays a role in components in a circuit. As a heating element: A resistor Kd |W | i nt converts electrical energy a! into heat through the process of Joule’s iting. ividing voltage across different Load Matching: Resistance is employed in circuits to match the load requirements of different components. Temperature and Light Control: Some components, such as thermistors and photoresistors, exhibit resistance changes based on external factors like temperature or light intensity.Resistances in Series: = Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series when the same amount of current flows through all the resistors. RR, Figure: Series connection of resistors = In such circuits, the voltage it WAI different. y resis = Ina series connection, if am circuit is turned off. fault occurs, then the entire * The construction of a series circuit is simpler compared to a parallel circuit. " For the above circuit, the total resistance is given as Reotar = Ri+Ra+ -.... +Rn * The total resistance of the system is just the total sum of individual resistances.Voltage Divider Rule: = A series circuit acts as a voltage divider as it divides the total supply voltage into different voltages across the circuit elements. = Figure2 shows a voltage divider circuit in which the total supply voltage V has been diyided into voltages V, and V, across tw an hy e * Although, the current through bothr ie. sistan@e8G¥ same,eee Wn ‘Tt le According to Ohm's law, W/ \ Nepal V, = IR; and V2 = IR2 Let Ris the total resistance of the circuit, and it is given by, R=Ri +R. ---(1)Also, from the circuit, we have, V=IR=1(R, +R) ---(2) WW) Nepal Therefore, from equations (2) & (3), we finally get, aa Vay, it)Vs v=“(R,+R) ia | WIT W Nepal 1Ma= gee aa) Hence, from equations of voltage division rule, it may be said that the voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the product of the value of that resistor and the total supply voltage, divided by the total resistance of the series resistors.Resistances in Parallel ‘Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel when the one end of each resistors are joined to a point and other ends of each resistors are joined to an another points such that voltage across all the resistors will be same. R in Figure; P rnngetfon of resistors In such circuits, the current is brancl Stet req i ‘n branches meet at a common point. & A resistor or any other component can be Connecte cted easily without affecting other elements in a parallel circuit. ‘The figure above shows the ‘n’ number of resistors connected in parallel. The following relation gives the total resistance here freed Reotat Re RQ Rn The sum of reciprocals of resistance of an individual resistor is the total reciprocal resistance of the system.Current Divider Rule: A parallel circuit acts as a current divider as it divides the total circuit current in its all branches. Figurel shows a current divider circuit in which the total circuit current J has been divided into currents /, and J, in two parallel branches with resistances R, and R>. Although, we can notice that byte Sil both resistances is V | Nepa same, i.e, V.According to Ohm's law, v v = ra and I, = R I iM ‘ Figure 1 - Wi iz ule WwW rs R Let R is the equivalent resistance of the circuit, and it is given by, R RiRe Ri +Ro “0Also, from the circuit, we get, 1=¥ =vx (Ak) +++ (2) But, we know that the Ts across both 7 is same. WM Neo 2.V=Ri =bR: Hence, from equations (2) & (3), we finally get, tum (Fah) (A) RiR2 ReSimilarly, rome (Eo Rik, “aa ©) Equations (4) and (5) give the expressions of current division rule. From these equations, we may state that the current in any of the parallel branches is equal to the ratio of opposite branch resistance to the sum of alll resistances, iplied by the total circuit current. xInductan * An inductor is called a coil or a reactor which has inductance. = Inductance is the property of a substance which opposes the change in current flowing through it. = An inductor consists of an insulated wire wound in a coil. * When a current flows through it energy ag ay porarily in a magnetic field in the coil. 8 i | * When the current flowing thfough”an {M&UEGH |changes, the time varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the inductor, according to the faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. = The direction of induced emf is given by Lenz's law i.e. direction of induced emf is always such that it opposes the change in current that created it. = Asa result, inductor always oppose change in current. = Inductance is normally represented by L and its unit is Henry (H).Inductance is given by, Lo ® _ Change in flux linage == current Emf induced Emf induced (di/at) = Rate of change of curent Self inductance ofa solenoid is given by, Also, L = oHNA " ‘Where, 1 = to ur = Permeability of th Ryle Ww I T N= Number of turns NV Nepal A= Cross-sectional area of the coil 1=length of coil Enmf induced in the inductor is at Eu=L 5 Current through the inductor is, nett i isp [Edt Tigsymbol of inductorRole of Inductor: Inductors as chokes: Inductors are used as chokes where it blocks AC while allowing DC to pass. Inductors as filters: They are used in electronic filters to separate signals of different frequencies. Inductors as tuner: They are used in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits used to tune radio and TY receivers. Inductors as reactors: Inductors are usedas)reactors in power systems, where they are used to limit switching currents and fault currents. Inductors as reactive compensators: They are used as reactive compensator to limit voltage in system in case of light load or no load in transmission line. Inductors as energy storing deice: Inductors are used as energy storage device in many SMPS to produce DC current.Inductors in series: 1. Series Aiding: Equivalent inductance, Lr=Li+L2+2M Where, L1= coefficient of self inc Raf red T Le= coefficient of self inductanvoof setbmeleail 4 ik M = coefficient of mutual inductance 2. Series opposing: a Equivalent inductance, Lr=Li+L:-2MInductors are in parallel: 1. When mutual flux assists separate flux ao (“ ( Equivalent inductance, lex Lilz-M_ M? +l 2M Iy4 Vent tain 2. When mutual flux opposes ri atelflan al = Equivalent inductance, The LiL2-M?* T*LitL2+2M Parallel opposiar inductorCapacitor: * Capacitor is a circuit element that can store electric charge. = The capacitor is made of two close conductors that are separated by a dielectric medium. * The electric charge accumulates at the plates when connected to power source. = It is sometimes called condenser and it wit i ity to store energy in the form of an electrical charge producinig’a p,d. aeross its plates. ® Capacitance of the capacitor is the BropeM WUD Adie charge on its plates in the form of an electrostatic field, which opposes the change of voltage across it. 1. T Fixed Capacitor Polarized Capacitor Variable CapacitorCapacitance of a capacitor is given by, . harge stored (Q) Capacitance (C) = [7 pehween two plaies CV) The unit of capacitance is Farad (F). Current through capacitor is be cite ap Voltage across capacitor is, NY, WIT vee? | teat WW Nepal The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is given by, Where, A= cross sectional area of plate d = separation between plates = Permittivity of medium Fig: Parallel plate capacitorPermit E = Permittivity measures the ability of a material to store energy within the material. = The vacuum has the least possible value of Permittivity. * This is commonly referred to as the Permittivity of Free Space, which is equal to 8.85X 1071? Farad/meter. * Relative permittivity (¢,) = * Relative permittivity (¢,) isRoles of Capacitor: Capacitor as blocking element: Capacitors are used to block DC while allowing AC to pass. Capacitor as filter: In rectifier circuit, capacitor acts to filter the output so that there is little ripple. Capacitor as tuning element: Capacitors are used in combination with inductors to make tuned circuits used to tune radia and TY receivers. Capacitor as power factor correcting clement: Capacitor is used to correct power factor. Capacitor as reactive power compensator: They are used to compensate reactive power i.e. in heavy load condition it improves voltage in the system by injecting reactive power to the system. Capacitor as phase shifting element: They are used to create phase shift in single phase induction motors so that they can easily be started.Capacitors in series: Equivalent capacitance is, Atte d qth =b Ceq =r * cz Cn Fig : capacitors in series Equivalent capacitance is, INV N¢pal i Ceq = Ci + Ca +--+ Cn ery of oT Fig : capacitors in parallelOhm’s Law: * The relationship between voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R) ina DC circuit was first discovered by German scientist George Simon ohm. * This relationship is called Ohm's law. = Ohm's law states that, "the current through any conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its two ends, provided that the physical condition eterna ’) do not change". i.e., Val | Nepal or, V=LR----------(i) or, ve R = Constant --- (ii) = Where, 'R' is the proportionality constant and is known as resistance of the conductor between two ends.Verification Ohm’s law: i RB * To verify ohm’s law, let us consider a circuit as shown in figure and p.d. across the conductor having resistance 'R’ is, increased step by step and corresponding current following through the conductor is noted down. HH = After that the ratio of p.d. to the currentis calculated. v * If this ratio is constant at every step, AT Jaw is Figs Verification of Ohm's law verified. i., \ 7 4=R= Constant | Nepal = If we plot graph between current and potential difference, then we will obtain the straight line passing through the origin having certain slope. 4 av This slope gives the value of resistance of the conductor. av . Slope =~ = Resistance ar Fig.: Graph between voltage and currentimitations of Ohi Itis valid only when physical condition like temperature is kept constant. It is valid only for conductors but not for insulators and semi-conductor. Ohm's law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. Unilateral networks allow the current to flow only in one direction. Examples of such networks include diodes, transistors etc. Ohm's law is not applicable if the castlef ho -linear objects like thyristor, vacuum tube (vacuum radio valves ) tes 5.9) Calculation using Ohm's law can be difficult in the case of complicated circuits. Ohm's law is not applicable in the case of electrolysis.Applications of Ohm’s law: * Ohm’s law is used to calculate the values of current, voltage, or resistance. Using Ohm’s law formula, any one of the values can be derived if the other two are given, Power consumption can also be calculated using Ohm’s law formula. The knob used to control the speed of fi i is based on the workings of Ohm’s law. [ N \ / Wi eletifical The power flow in househol BRED wicts us bonters, ioe, and kettles are computed with the help of Ohm’s Law. * Ohm’s law is also used in designing and studying DC (direct current) measuring devices such as ammeters and voltmeters.irchoff’s Lay * In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or laws which deal with the conservation of charge (or current) and energy within electrical circuits. * These two rules are commonly known as: Kirchhoff 8 Circuit Laws. + Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL):Kirchhoft’s laws dealing with the current flowing around a closed éixcuit, + Kirchoffs Voltage van sources present in a clos AML aw dealing with the voltage -eireuit.Kirchoff’s Current Law: * Itstates that, "the algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a point or a junction '‘o’ is zero.” ie., yr=0 or, 1+ Cla) +13 + (iy) = 0 ht+b=hth Incoming current is tal Ry Mlbe urrent is taken ve] \W| Nepal = In other words, KCL states that, "the sum of all the incoming current is equal to the sum of all the outgoing currents at a point or a junction in an electrical networks". * Explanation: Consider a circuit as shown in figure. Now We can use Ohm's Law to determine the individual branch currents through each resistor as: I = V/R, thus:* From above we know that Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents entering a junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the junction, and in our simple example above, there is one current, I, going into the junction at node B and two currents leaving the junction, I, and I}. * Now, to find current reaching at point B, applying KCL, lp=h+h Ip=342=5A 1 WIT * As the two currents entering MALE Nes E Nepat s and 2 amps respectively, the sum of the currents entering point F is there +2=5 amperes.‘choff’s Voltage Law (KVL): = It states that, "In any closed circuit or mesh, the +V2- algebraic sum of all the emf's and the voltage drops is (+l) equal to zero.” Ry In other words. It states that, "In any closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the emf's are equal to the algebraic sum of all the voltage dropst* "Explanation: To explain KVL, let us, There are three loops ABCFA, ABCDEFA and CDEFC. as shown in figure. w sy. > Emfis negative Le, “E! " KVL can be applied to these closed loops to get desired equations. : = In loop ABCFA, Applying KVL, (it) TR |, pad is [Link], “IR E,-1,R, - (I, +1,)R3=0 E, =1, Ry + (1; +1) Ry : 0 (vy) Fs [Link]."+ IR’* In loop ABCDEFA, Applying KVL, -E,-1,R,)+1,R,=0 ~ E,= 1, Ry - 1, Ry --------(ii) * In loop CDEFC, Applying KVL, -E, +1, R,+ (I, +1) Rg= 0 Be hfee eR 1S) WIT T Nepal* Complicated networks can be simplified by successively replacing delta meshes by equivalent star systems and vice-versa.Superposition Theore: * It states that, "In any linear resistive network containing several sources, the voltage across or the current through any resistor or source may be calculated by adding algebraically all the individual voltages or currents caused by the separate independent sources acting alone, with all other independent voltage sources replaced by internal resistance (or short circuit) and current sources replaced by internal resistance (or open circuit).” Dependent sources are active in all cases. 1. Identify the number of indepentienr SOUMEESs 5 =| 2. Take one independent source at a time while other sources are replaced by their internal resistances and calculate current through or voltage across given element. 3. Repeat step 2 for all the remaining independent sources. 4. Add all the currents or voltages caused due to individual independent sources.Example: This theorem can be better understood with a numerical examples given below. Let us find the current passing through 3 Ohm resistor in the circuit of fig. (i) using super position theorem. * Now, considering 20 V source only, (Refer fig.(ii)) 2020 y54 ues 8 * Again, considering 5 A source * Refer yT + _ SxS T= 23 =3.125A fa) Nepal * Current through 30 resistor (I) =I +1 5+ 3.125 625 A Fig ill)Again, current through same resistor can be Calculated using KVL, (Refer fig.) Applying KVL in mesh I, 20-51, -3(1,-1)=0 or, 20=51, +31, ~ 31; or, 20= 81-31, —i) In second mesh Il, h=-5A | om equation ( /)) WIT eae W Nepal ! ©. Current through 3Q resistor (1) 1 — f= 0.625 - (5) = 5.6254 Hence, superposition theorem is verified.Thevenin's Theorem: = It states that, "In any two terminal linear network having a number of voltage sources, current sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a simple voltage source in series with a resistance, where the value of voltage is equal to the open circuit voltage across the two terminals of the network and resistance is equal to the equivalent resistange measure the terminals with replacing voltage source and current source by their repo a sistances." WY Nepal Ry Vth fig. (v): Thevenin’s equivalent circuit* To verify this theorem, let us assume a circuit shown in fig. (i). In the circuit, if the load resistor 24Q is connected to Thevenin's equivalent circuit, it will have the same current through it and same voltage across its terminals as it experienced in the original circuit. * To show this, let us find the current passing through the 24Q resistance due to original circuit. W WIT Nepal* Applying KCL at node‘ in fig. (i), iisiatis 20 Jig a 10-vV VV a or, = 40 +24 2 712724 Ov 20 2402 or, iy. a Vv Wi T WW] Nepal or, 240 - 24V = 6V Fig.(i) “ V=8V = Current through 249 resistor (I2s0) = =0.33A * Now, solving by applying Thevenin's Theorem,Applying KVL in closed loop of fig. (ii) 10 =1(2 +12) do qq 207148 Vw = P12 = 0.714 « 12 =8.57V Tr Teun) Ryy=L. 7140 Therefore, current through 240 Resistor = 0.33A Voltage drop across 240. resistor=0.33x24 =8V Ry=240, Thus, itis proved that Ri (= 249) has the same #857" values of current and voltage in both the original Tet) circuit and Thevenin's equivalent circuit.Procedure for Thevenin's Theorem: 1. 2. a. Open the load resistance, Find the open circuit voltage across load terminals ie. Vax Find Thevenin's equivalent resistance i.e. the resistance Re seen from the load terminals by replacing voltage 1 sources and current sources wir] ternal me resistances, W/ Obtain Thevenin's equivalent civMuit a WNOWAAIfig.(v), gly Theveniv equivalent circuit Calculate the current through the load resistance.Norton’s Theorem: * It states that, "any two terminal linear network having a number of current sources, voltage sources and resistance can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance." = The value of current source is the short circuit current through the two terminals of the network and the resistance is the equivalent resistance measured between the terminals of the network with replacing all the voltage source ae ort circuit and current sources by open circuit (or by their respecti NT AeRiscan s). /| NepalTo verify this theorem, let us find current through load resistance (R.= 60) in the given circuit of fig (1). 5a. 20 5+ (10/16) __20 510s 10+6 Tie) =2.29A 10 lo=b7geg = Ise 20v 10 29x76 = 434Also, we have to find the current through load resistance (R, = 69) by Norton's theorem $0, To find short circuit current I, bene 24a To find Ry (Refer fig. (if)) "=| Nepal + Ry=3.332 SR-6 “A N=3.33 ‘Since, the current through 68 resistor is same by both methods. Hence, Norton's theorem verified.Remove the resistance across two given terminals and put a short circuit across them, Compute the short circuit current I... Find the Norton's equivalent resistance by replacing all the voltage sources by short circuit or current sources by open circuit (i.e. by internal resistances), Obtain the Norton's equival PY uit Agshowe ih figure, Calculate the load current Nepal etn te te Tee Rt Re 1 © ay fig: Norton's equivalent circuitMaximum Power Transfer Theorem: = It states that, " A resistive load connected to a d.c. network receives maximum power when the load resistor is equal to Thevenin's equivalent resistance of the network or the internal resistance of the source from the load terminals." 0) Power consumed by load mt FR A eT ve pall. (Rat Ry + Current through the circuit (It) ae(Rea + Re)? a AR, (tm Ri) - Vin Riga (Ra + oe ((Ra + Ru)" or, (R°m + 2Ru. Ru + Re’). Vw - Von Ri (2Re + 2Ri) = 0 or, V'a. R’a + 2Ren “RY | VHT. or, Rv. Vin’ = Vex? Ren” Nepal or, Ru. Van’ = 2Ven" Ru? = 0 Ru = Ri) Hence, maximum power transfer theorem is verified.= Maximum power (Pmax) Putting Ru = Ri in eqn (ii); we get _ Vo" Ro me (Re + Ra)? NW Nepal + Power supplied by source to load (P:) = ro > ya = Total power supplied by source (P1) ak + He vat “a,v+ Efficiency (n) = pr x 100% Val , 2B x 100% “aR va? /) WIT NV Nepal =4 « 100% = 50% = Hence, power transfer efficiency during maximum power transfer condition is 50%.Procedure for maximum power Transfer Theorem >» fF e Open the load resistance, Obtain Vn and Rwas in Thevenin's Theorem, When Ri = Ry then power roy e maximum, Find maximum power taisferfus Da | Vax? Pras = “ARAlternating current fundamentals: Ek magnetic Ine tion: * The induction of an electromotive force (EMF) either by moving the conductor within stationary magnetic field or by placing the stationary conductor within varying magnetic field is called ‘Electromagnetic Induction’. = In case of DC generator, emf is induced by moving armature conductors placed in rotor within stationary magnetic field. = In case of AC generator, emf js iriduged by holy stationary armature conductors in stator within varying magnetic field produc field winding.Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction: Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction shows the relationship between magnetic field, electric current, and an electromotive force(EMF). In nature, there are two mutually dependent phenomena namely electricity and magnetism. At present, it is a well-known fact that a changing magnetic field can produce an EMF and a moving charge (or electri¢ current) c i € a magnetic field. Michael Faraday who develope 1 Ny dsc < of e|cetromagneticinduetion in 1831, a Yeraddy SFO Haw and Faraday’s Second Law of These laws are popularly known a Electromagnetic Induction. These two laws explain how a changing magnetic field produces an EMF in a moving conductor.First Law: Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction states that “Whenever a magnetic field linked to a conductor changes, an electromotive force (emf) is induced in the conductor.” Second Law: Faraday’s second law states that “the magnitude of the induced emf in the conductor is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked to the conductor.” * Consider a coil having N conductors and a wit t is moving towards the coil. then ; At the initial position, the flux linkage: IN liNepal W=Ndr (1) At the final condition, the flux linkage with the coil is Y2=No2 (2) Moyement* The change in flux linkage is, Ay = 2 = bp = N(b2- 1) Now, the rate of change of ths flux linkane‘s WIT TM Ab _N@s— 0) = t t= According to Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction, the EMF induced in the conductor is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage. —NG@2 = bs) a .@ In differential form, | W| Wee ap \W] Nepal e =i (4) Where, =q2-qh, the total change in magnetic flux. Considering Lenz's law, i.e. induced EMF always opposes the cause producing it. dories _ Square Wave Alternating current (AC): {| i = Magnitude of ac changes continuous with ° rr, 8 4 respect to time. | = Magnitude changes from zero to maximum. = i ‘ oF complex = Direction of magnitude reverse periodically. Wave i * Ac contains two half cycle. £ at, + Positive half cycle > cure} et W I nt ig) + Negative half cycle > cut Ptinep: al ct current (Dt = No change with time. = Constant magnitude with time. * Itis also called steady current. : Direct currentAdvantages of AC over DC: = Alternating voltage can be stepped up & stepped down efficiently. = Alternating current can easily generated, transmitted and utilized as compared to DC. * Ac devices are generally simpler in construction and cheaper. = Ac can be controlled by choke coil at small energy losses whereas De can be controlled only by resistance and energy losses are heavy. Disadv: FAC: W/ WIT * Ac is more dangerous compared to DC. G8) * Major portion of the ac flows through the surface of the conductor, So where a thick wire is required a number of thin wire have to be twisted to form a thick wire.Generation of Alternating Current: * Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field, as shown in Fig. (a) or by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil, as shown in Fig. 11.1 (6). * The value of the voltage generat depends, in each case, upon number of turns in the coil, stren; of the field and the speed at whicl the coil or magnetic field rotates. = Alternating voltage may be generated in either of the two ways shown above, but rotating-field method is the one which is mostly used in practice.Equations of Alternating Currents and Voltages: = An AC generator uses the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. = It states that when a moving conductor cut the magnetic field then emf is induced in the conductor. = Inside this magnetic field a single rectangular loop of wire rotes around a fixed axis allowing it to cut the magnetic flux at various angles as shown figure Ww I T = Consider a rectangular coil having: W/ Ni ep: al N=No. of turns of coil = id (m2: A= Area of coil (m?) FFig.1: Generation of EMF ‘o=Angular velocity (radians/second) © y= Maximum flux (wb)* When coil is along XX’ (perpendicular to the lines of flux), flux linking with coil= Op. * When coil is along YY” (parallel to the lines of flux), flux linking with the coil is zero. * When coil is making an angle @ with respect to XX’ flux linking with coil, P= ©,, coswt [v6 = ot] Fig.2: Alternating induced EMF According to Faraday's law of el Tee ction, dé W | Nepal i Where, £,, = NO, 7 scar nb) N= no. oftuns of the coil Nd a 6, =B,A No, (-sinat)xo B,, = Maximum flux density (wb/m? ) = No, @sinot A= Area of the coil (m* ) sinot1e=NB,A2nf sinot Similarly, an alternating current can be express as i=1,sinot Where, Im=Maximum values of current ‘Thus, both the induced emf and the induced current vary as the sine function of the phase angle cf =0. Shown in figure 4.3. Phase Induced angle emf e=E, sino ot=0" | e=0 et =90° | e =F. ot =180"| e=0 ot =270°| ¢=-£. ot =360"| e=0vantages of Sine Wav = Sine can be expressed in a simple mathematical form easily. * Inaac machine, sinusoidal wave produce the least iron & copper losses for a given output. = Sine wave produces minimum disturbance in electrical circuit. = Any non periodical tien wave fay ni as a sum of a number of sine waves of different frequé RY usoidall quay Iso sinusoidal. = The rate of change of any siiAc Terminologies: Waveform: = It is defined as the graph between magnitude of alternating quantity (on Y axis) against time (on X axis). Fig.: Ac waveformsCyek = It is defined as one complete set of positive, negative and zero values of an alternating quantity. Instantaneous value: * It is defined as the value of an alternating quantity at a particular instant of given time * Generally denoted by small letters. e.g. Instantaneous value of current Y= Instantaneous value of voltage p= Instantaneous values of pov WIT Maxivhum val = It is defined as the maximum value (either positive or negative) attained by an alternating quantity in one cycle, = Generally denoted by capital letters. e.g. Im = Maximum Value of current Vn = Maximum value of voltage Py, = Maximum values of powerAverage value; + It is defined as the average of all instantaneous value of alternating quantities over a half cycle. eg. Vave = Average value of voltage Tave = Average value of current RMS valu * It is the equivalent de current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces same amount of heat as produced by nating current when flowing through the Same iru forthe sane tine. eg Wit agNepal Vrms =Root Mean Square val Inms = Root Mean Square value of current Frequency: + Ibis defined as number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second, Symbol is f. Unit is Hertz (Hz). ‘Time period: = Itis defined as time taken to complete one cycle, Symbol is T. Unit is seconds.Power factor = Itis defined as the cosine of angle between voltage 2° = +x* and current. Reactance, X = Power Factor = p.f. = cos® = 5 where ® is the angle between voltage and current. ive power: Resistance, R27 sg, jed\in any rms. X=Zsne = Itis the actual power consui * It is given by product of rms voltage and Fig.: Impedance triangle : a. current and cosine angle between voltage and mens current (VI cos®). s Q=Ssing sino= 2 * Active Power = P= I?R = VI cos®. 2 tan = P=Scosd P = Unit is Watt (W) or kW. Fig.: Power triangleReactive power * The power drawn by the circuit due to reactive component of current is called as reactive power. Itis given by product of rms voltage and rms current and sine angle between voltage and current (VI sin®). * Reactive Power = Q = [2X = VI sin®. * Unit is VAR or KVAR. Apparent power: © Itis the product of rms value of Shs lhl of current. ® Itis total power supplied to the circuit 09 * Apparent Power = S = VI. * Unit is VA or kVA, Peak factor/ Crest factor: * Itis defined as the ratio of peak value (crest value or maximum value) to rms value of an alternating quantity. = Peak factor = Kp= 1.414 for sine wave.Generation of Alternating Current: * Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field, as shown in Fig. (a) or by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil, as shown in Fig. 11.1 (6). * The value of the voltage generat depends, in each case, upon number of turns in the coil, stren; of the field and the speed at whicl the coil or magnetic field rotates. = Alternating voltage may be generated in either of the two ways shown above, but rotating-field method is the one which is mostly used in practice.Form factor: = Itis defined as the ratio of rms value to average value of an alternating quantity. = Denoted by Ky. = Form factor Ky = 1.11 for sine wave. Phase difference: = Ibis defined as angular displacement between two zero values or two maximum values of the two-alternating quantity having s: hy I T itvd ase ep] In Phase ( ¢=0") Negative Phase (-) Vey = Vnsinwt Viv=Vnsin(wt+) | Ven=Vnsin(wt-) | Fig.: Ac phase differenceLeading phase difference: = If a quantity which attains its zero or positive maximum value before the compared to the other quantity is known to have leading phase difference. Lagging phase difference: = If a quantity which attains its zero or positive maximum value after the other quantity is known to have WN phase differen W| WeeBase ofthe Curve Sim of All_Instontncous Vales Tal [Link] Valuer within tna tatePhasor Representation of Altern: * Sinusoidal expression given as: v(t) = Vp sin (ot + ©) representing the sinusoid in the time domain form. = Phasor is a quantity that has both “Magnitude” and “Direction”. Vector uant Fig.: Phasor representation of alternating quantitiesPhase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform: * The generalized mathematical expression to define these two sinusoidal quantities will be written as: Vasinot Ipsin(ot-®) Fig.1: Waveforms of voltage and current Fig.2: Phasor diagram of voltage and current = As shown in the above voltage and current equations, waveforms and phasor diagram the current, i is lagging the voltage, v by angle ®. * This shows that phase difference between voltage and current is ©.AC Through Purely Resistive Circuit: * The figure shown below an AC circuit consisting of a pure resistor to which an alternating voltage v = V,,sinot is applied. hk * | Where, ante AY R »_ instantaneous Voltage W/ I ¢ ‘Maximum Voltage \ Voltage across Resistance N lepal Fig.: AC through pure resistorTo find the equations for Voltage and Current. * Consider an alternating sinusoidal voltage v is applied across the pure resistor. Where, v=V,sinot = According to ohm’s law, W * From above equations, it is clear that the current is in phase with voltage for purely resistive circuit, i=[,sinot Fig.l: Waveform of v & i Fig.2: Phasor diagram of v & i* Instantaneous power: The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product of the instantaneous values of voltage and current. Pay =Vxi Pu) =¥q Sint, sinot Poy =Vo ly Si? Oot pivandi WIT py =talell= aie N/| Nepal |= Average power: ji a £28201) Go hot Qn “el orf [omy ] ie Pe o]-[0- N\/ wT] * The average power consumed by purely resistive circuit is multiplication of Vrms & Inns -AC Through Purely Resistive Circuit: * The Figure below shows an AC circuit consisting of a pure Inductor to which an alternating voltage v= Vj,Sinost is applied. Equations for Voltage and Current, . = As shown in the figure voltage source is, veVmsinut “a v=V,sinot | WIT * Due to self-inductance of the evil, there will-bey = | emf indued in it. _ = This back emf will oppose the instantaneous rise Fig.: AC through pure inductor or fall of current through the coil, it is given by di* As, circuit does not contain any resistance, there is no ohmic drop and hence applied voltage is equal and opposite to back emf. 4 =- (2 =Lo or, Vasinot = 1 | W/ WIT oo oe Yasin \W | NepalIntegrate on both the sides, fai= Es f sin wt dt L Vi ( =cos ot L\ © J, —*cos wt oL IX [, sin( ot -90") oon | Wi Mehra tng & Cranford Nepal yv se 4=-90 I Figure 418 Phasor Diagram of Voltage & Current for Pure Inductor From the above equations it is clear that the current lags the voltage by 90°in a purely inductive circuit.Power © The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product of the instantaneous values of voltage and current. Instantaneous Power P,=Vxi P,=Vqsinotx1,, sin (@t—90" WIT int x(— 1, ot W/ Peon noses |W] WET] -2V, 1, sinot coset Pp 2p=" sin201 Average Power f- I, poe - Waly a Ta Pa, = Hale fcas4n—cos0] Fig.: Waveform of v, 1 & p P..=0 * The average power consumed by purely inductive circuit is zero.AC Through Purely Capacitive Cireuit: * = The figure below shows a capacitor of capacitance C farads Age connected to an a.c. voltage supply v = V_sinet. voVinsinuat cle ve ‘Equations for Voltage & Curren at = As show in the figure, voltage source is, ¥,=V,.Sin ot ‘A pure capacitor having zero resistance, Thus, the alternating supply applied to the plates of the capacitor, the capacitor is charged. If the charge on the capacitor plates at: os {sq potential difference between the plates at any instant is ‘w’ then we know that, | g=Oy 4=CVsinot ‘The current is given by rate of change of charge. aq dt ACY, sinot dt=1, sin(oot +90" ) ( feet) * From the above equations it is clear_that the c1 Je: e voltage by 90° in a purely omnes WF weVmsinwt | Ne Pp: I, ir=insin(ust+ 905 | J¢=+90 faveform of v & i Fig.2: Phasor diagram of v & iPower * The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product of the instantaneous values of voltage and current. Instantaneous Power Pay =vxt ‘, sineat x1, sin (1 +90°) P= Py) =Vq SiN LX, COS OF Fyn YC cat /)) WIT i Thin wea W Nepal Puy = 2Valu { —casot ‘an atte mf aoe pao ‘* The average power consumed by purely capacitive circuit is zero. Fig.: Waveform of v, i & pAc_Through Series Resistance-Inductance (R-L) Gi " Consider a circuit consisting of a resistor of la Ve —t vi | resistance R Ohms and a purely inductive coil of inductance L Henry in series as shown in the figure below. : = In the series circuit, the current/it flowing fi R and L will be the same. \ wrt = But the voltage across them will be ere OPA ‘eananae * The vector sum of voltage across resistor Vz and Figure 4.22 Circuit Diagram of Series RL Circuit voltage across inductor V;, will be equal to supply voltage v. Waveforms and Phasor Diagram: * The voltage and current waveforms in R-L series circuit is shown in figure.We know that in purely resistive the voltage and current both are in phase and therefore vector Vp is drawn superimposed to scale onto the current vector and in purely inductive circuit the current I lag the voltage V;, by 90°. So, to draw the vector diagram, first I taken as the reference. This is shown in the figure below. Next Vp drawn in phase with I. Next V; is drawn 90° leadin; Ry WIT The supply voltage V is then phasot sun SPANK V,.+ Thus, from the above, it can be sai voltage V by an angle 9. If supply vol v=V,, Sin wt i=1,,sin (wt) Where /, gure 423 Wivfarm f YoRogeond Caren Series CreatVoltage Triangle Impedance Triangle ey % wen re Veer R \ Nepal] ae Ze, < RFR eto =e : 2 ne Pout fers whore, NixPower © The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product of the instantaneous values of voltage and current. Instantaneous power Dp. =vxi Pp, =V,, sinotx 1, ~ 2 In Sin Ors in( wt =O) 1,, Sin ot x sil = tale feos 4 cos(2ur-4)] * Thus, the instantaneous values of the power consist of two components. © First component is constant w.r.t time and second component vary with time.Average Power P. =f fafom $ cos(2eot-4)] door at Foo $ cos(2org)] dor pla Fomadaf {feow20r9) der] SM. Wit [-sing+sina] “ele Fata ZeenatAc Through Series Resistance-Capacitor (R-C) Circuit ‘* Consider a circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R ohms and a purely capacitive of capacitance farad in series as in the Fig. 4.28. Figure 428 Creut Diagram of Series R-C Creu ‘© In the series circuit, the current ix flowing through R and C will be the same. But the voltage across them will be different. ‘© The vector sum of voltage across resistor Va and voltage across capacitor Vc will be equal to supply voltage ve.‘Waveforms and Phasor Diagram mend aot WALT fom © We know that in purely resistive Xie vpltage ir resistive circuit both are in mnie te mrez epson Repl ee purely capacitive circuit the current | lead the voltage Vc by 90°, Eran es cee cea tora eho ‘Next Va drawn in phase with I. Next Vc is drawn 90° lagging the I. The supply voltage V is then are $0 Phaser Digramof Series Creat‘+ Thus, from theabove equation itis dear that the current in series R-Ccircuteads the applied voltage V by an angle 9. Ifsupply voltage v=, Sin ot tatsin(owsg) Where, Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle Power Triangle Real Power, VesiR a R Wat) g AX pre | WA 2 olf A V epi our 431 oye Tonle rex | Powe s2tmpedne root | par 433 Power Tg Ses Ware Z=fR axe Real Power, P=VI cos ; 1X, R RE ORF tan He Reactive Power, Q=V'1 sind = 1 PRE oI = where, 2=fROXE Apparent Power.S=V 1 “PZ© The instantaneous value of power drawn by this circuit is given by the product of the instantaneous values of voltage and current. Instantaneous power aera | WIT p,=V, sinorx!, sin(ot ow wit] P,= V, 1, snot xsin(ot+) 2. not x sin (wt+4) 2 f [cos $-cos(201+4)] © Thus, the instantaneous values of the power consist of two components. First component remains constant wrt. time and second component vary with time. R=Average Power RB = [lle [eos $- cos(2ot+)] dot 2 FHleos & cosr2ars6)] dor i ain ae Feacos) ch Land AMET “ete sin(An-+0)—sin(@)]‘© Consider a circuit consisting ofa resistor of R ohm, pure inductor of inductance L henry and a pure capacitor of capacitance C farads connected in series. hedNepal Phasor Diagram a Current Lis taken as reference. Vr i drawn in phase with current, Viis drawn leading I by 90°, = Ve is drawn lagging I by 90° vd gure 4.35 Phasor Diagram Series RUC CreweSince Vi and Vc are in opposition to each other, there can be two cases: ()VL> Ve (2) Vi Vo, the phasor diagram would be | When, Vi < Vc, the phasor diagram would be as in the figure 4.36 as in the figure 4.37 Phasor Diagram ' Figure 4.36 Phasor Diagram of Series R-L-C Circuitfor | Figure 4.37 Phasor Diagram of Series R-L-C Circuit for Case VL> VC Case VL < VCva fhi (tite) variety = YOUR P +1(X,-X, = YURP +1(X_—xL) = fets(x,-X) a1 IR (X.-x,) = 12 where, 2=|R+(X--%,) (heXe) zg a=tan ‘Thus, when Vi > Ve the series current I| * Thus, when Vi < Ve the series current 1 lags V by angle ¢. leads Vby angle 4. ity, =P, Sin ot ry, =¥, Sin ot },, Sin (wot) i, =1, Sin (r+) Power consumed inthis case equal to| «Power consumed inthis case is equal to series RL circuit P., =V7cos series RC creuit P., =!Zcos 6.Series resonance RLC circuit ‘* Such a circuit shown in the Fig. 4.38 is connected to an A.C. source of constant supply voltage V but having variable frequency. R iL re Wa © The frequency can be varied from zero, increasing and approaching infinity. Since X;, and Xe ie ogee ere ee ee ee ject of ean tas ee M-Xe= 0 Z= VR +0= R The circuit, when Xi.= Xc and hence Z = R, is said to be in resonance. In a series circuit since current I remain the same throughout we can write, :Phasor Diagram * Shown in the Fig.4.39 is the phasor diagram of series resonance RLC circuit. © So, at resonance Vi and Vc will cancel out of each other. The supply voltage 1 WI Tre W | --Nepal ee ee ea voltage will drop across the resistor R. es, ! Figure 4.39 Phasor Diagram of Series Resonance RLC CircuitResonance Frequency « Atresonance frequency X= Xc I InfL= IL = TFG 1 (2ny Li W| tees 1 (J, is the resonance frequency ) aren TolQ- Factor © The Q-factor is nothing but the voltage magnification during resonance. © Itindicates as to how many times the potential difference across L or C is greater than the applied voltage during resonance. © Q-factor = Voltage magnification Y, iticton ate Q- Factor = 4s IW WIT \W] NepalGraphical Representation of Resonance Resistance (R) is independent of frequency. Thus, itis represented by straight line, Inductive reactance (X1) is directly proportional to frequency. Thus, itis increases linearly with the frequency. akef Capacitive reactance(X:) is inversely proportional to frequency. Thus, it is show as hyperbolic curve in fourth quadrant. WWII N Nepal ! Impedance (2) is minimum at resonance frequency. 2a (PRX For, f= f.2=R Current (1) is maximum at resonance frequency. is maximum yy.« Power factor is unity at resonance frequency. Power factor=cosd== For f = f,,p.f.=1 (unity) [Na WesParallel resonance RLC circuit © Fig. 4.41 Shows a parallel circuit consisting of an inductive coil with internal resistance R ohm and inductance L henry in parallel with capacitor C farads. R z h x veVmsinut ‘Figure 4.41 Circuit Diagram of Parallel Resonance RLC Circuit Figure 4.42 Circuit Diagram of Parallel Resonance RLC Circuit The current Ic can be resolved into its active and reactive components. Its active component I,cos@ and reactive component I, sin¢.* A parallel circuit is said to be in resonance when the power factor of the circuit becomes unity. This will happen when the resultant current I is in phase with the resultant voltage V and hence the phase angle between them is zero. Inthe phasor diagram shown, this will happen when Ic= Ising and I = h, cos . Resonance Frequency + Tofind the resonance frequency, wermakeusy gigyeamiaton [c= Isto. Ie=I, sind X/ Nepal VV x, : P Xe 2%, 2,© Ifthe resistance of the coil is negligible,Impedance * To find the resonance frequency, we make use of the equation I = hy cos} because, at resonance, the supply current | will be in phase with the supply voltage V. \W) Nepal ! © The impedance during parallel resonance is very large because of L and C has a very large value at that time. Thus, impedance at the resonance is maximum. i= S will be minimum.Q-Factor ¢ Q-factor = Current magnification 1 Q- Factor = a. _fsing _ sing I,Graphical representation of Parallel Resonance + Conductance (G) is independent of frequency. Hence it is represented by straight line parallel to frequency. * Inductive Susceptance (Bi) is inversely proportional to the frequency. Also, itis negative. wa 1 B, Bee JX, faxfl y ‘+ Capacitive Susceptance (Bc) is directly proportional to the frequency. Le jarft, Bex f oad <7) WIT © Admittance (¥) is minimum at reson: nod uendNepal © Current (1) is minimum at resonance frequency. =VY + Power factor is unity at resonance frequency. Power factor=cos;Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonance [Link]. Description Series Circuit Parallel Circuit Minimum Menu 1_| Impedance at resonance ft Z=R z= RC Biximum Minimum 2 | Current v v [yaw T T/RC a 3 | Resonance Frequency £ = EL — “~ OndLC " OndLC 4_| Power Factor Unity Unity 1[L LE 5 | Q- Factor a= |E =) JE : FRC FRC 6 _| Itmagnifies at resonance Voltage CurrentIt consists of two wires, one for phase and another for neutral. This type of power supply is used when the loads (home appliances) are generally heating and lighting with some small electric motors. A single phase system voltage achieves a peak value two times; the direct power is not stable. A single phase system can be iN wy é secondary” of three-phase tahsformer techniques. \\ ‘© Connection between two phafes WV | Nepal © Connection between any one phase and neutral. These two will sive dissimilar voltages irom a given power supply and provides phase Supply Up 10 The applications of this supply are for running the small home appliances like air conditioners, Tans, heater, bulbs etc. TIME Fig.: Single phase waveformSingle Phase Supply Benefits: Single Phase Supply Applications: The design is less complex. Design cost is less. Most efficient AC power supply for up to 1000 watts Single Phase AC Power Supply is most competent for up to 1000 watts. Wide-range of application uses. | WIT \ | Nepal This power supply is applicable for homes as well as businesses. Used to supply plenty of power for homes, as well as nonindustrial businesses. This power supply is sufficient to run the motors up to about 5 horsepower (hp).Distribution transformer 3 phase 4 wire system =D House 1 House 2 House 3 Three phase factory loadThe three-phase power supply consists four wires such as one neutral as well as three phase conductors. The three conductors are away from phase & space 120° apart from each other. Three phase power supplies can be utilized as a single-phase AC power supply. For the small load, 1-phase| AC pow as well as neutral, can be choser Thy the Rr power supply system. This supply is constant and not at all a falls to zero. The power of this system can be illustrated in two configurations o Star connection o Delta connection. Phase Phase? Phased Fig.: Three phase waveformThree Phase Supply Benefits: * Copper utilization reduction, = Reducing of security risks for employees, «The efficiency of the Conductor is Greater, * Facility to run high power loads. ‘Three Phase Suy an /)) WIT * ‘These types of supplies are uselin power MEP Albite towers, data centers, airratt shipboard, as well as other electrical loads larger than 1000 watts. * Itis applicable to industrial, manufacturing, and large businesses.Comparison Between Star and Delta Connectio1 SLNo. Star (V) Connected System | Delta (A) Connected System ___| T. | instar connected system there is There is no neutral point in delta ‘common point known as neutral ‘n’ or | connected system star point, Ircan be earthed. 2} instar connected system we get S-phase, | Only 3-phase, 3 wire system is possible three wire system and also 3-phase,4 | in delta connected system wire system is taken out. CAR PGF | Phase voltage Nepaly’ Line current = Phase current Line eurent 1, = V3 Ipn 11 =Iph 1 lob “Fit Three phase power = V3 V1 Ip,.c08 | Three phase power = V3 ¥ 1, cos =3 Vp 1ph 608 > =3V ph 1 ph 008 >ingle phase and three phase AC systems: single Phase Power Supply requires two conductors Three Phase Power Supply requies three conductors Tie two wires conductors)n single phase system are called Phase and Neutral [athe tree wires (condicors) in three phase aystem are calla phares| Since there i only single wire, theres only one AC Signal (usually 2| Sinusoidal Wave) The three wires in three phase supply cary AC signal ofits own andthe thee signals are 120° apart Power delivery in single phase supply isnot consistent due to peaks and sips in voage The supply voltage in single phase power supply s=230V Duet tree conductors with 120° phase ifference the power delivery in ays steady and consistent (the peaks and dips of compensated by eachother) supply the supply voltage fs—415V Single Phase supply is relatively less efficient than a three forthe same power delivery Thee Fasd Pow SUpplyis more efficent asitcan delver three times the power than a single phase power supply wit ust one addtional wire Usually, single Phase Power Supply i served residential and domestic needs (often spl phase fram three phace supply) Three Phase Power Supply is usualy served to large commercial centers and industries ti eo for small oad ike lghting ond heating Thre Phase Supply ean handle lorge industriel motors Single Phase Power Supplies abways have a neuval wire acts as return Path from the eae) Neutral wires optional in Three Phase Power Supplies (Deka Connections have no neutral wie, but Sear Connections may ar may not have neutral wire) The chance of fautis higher asa Single Phase Pome Supply has only one phase (if fl, then there is no power) Even i theres fault in one or two phases the remaining phases wil continue to delver poner in Three Phase Power Supply So, the chance of faulis lessHeating Effect of Electric Current = When electric current is passed through a conductor, heat is generated in the conductor. This effect of electric current is known as heating effect of electric current. * The heating effect produced by an electric current, I through a conductor of resistance, R for a time, t is given by, Pe se fd WEE This expression is called the Joule’S Jay af ireating = Therefore, according to the Joule’s law of heating, the heat produced in a conductor is directly proportional to; ©. square of current through the conductor (H @/?), © resistance of the conductor (Ha R), and © time for which current being passed through the conductor (Ha@ 0).(© Aheating coil is surrounded by Mica which is placed in between metal component of iron and the coil. ‘©9 When current is passed through the coil, the heat produced is transmitted to the metallic component through, mica. © Finally, the metal component is heated and utilized for ironing garments. = Electric Heater: © Acoil made of high resistance nichrome wire is used in ; et heater, ©. The coil is coiled around grooves formed of egrar © When current flows through the coil, it heats/up. it et oe cooking pot. Electric Fuse: ‘© When the current through the circuit increases beyond the rated current of fuse wire, then the wire melts due to overheating, causing the electrical circuit to break Water Heater and Electric Heater: ‘© When the water heater is connected to an electrical source, then the heat produced in the heating coil made up of Nichrome wire will heat the water. = Electric Bulb: © When the current is passed through the filament made up of tungsten, then it is heated due to the high resistance of filament material producing light and heat.Advantages of Heating by Electric Current in Comparison to Other Heating Methods * Electrical heating is economical. * Ibis cleanliness method for heating. «There is absence of flue gases. + Heat output can be easily controlled. * Automatic protection against over-currents or overheating can be provided through suitable switchgears in the electric heating system, 7) WIT = Higher temperature can be achie' Nep: al = Electrical heating is more efficient.General norms of system voltage regulation and frequency regulation: Electricity Regulation Act, 2050: Chapter 4 Rule: 40 Supply Voltage: (1) The standard of supply voltage shall have to be maintained as follows: (a) 230 volt in A.C. single phase and 400 volt in three phase for general consumers. (b) for those who want a supply of electtici ip four wires, the electric service shall be made available ie Wi fe three phases. ive percent in standard volt as (2) The fluctuation shall not be allowed Yor ntdv hah! mentioned in Clauses (a) and (b) of subrule (1)igh Voltage Distribution System: (1) The standard of the voltage in the high voltage distribution system, the standard of distribution system shall be maintained as follows: (a) 3,300 volt (b) 6,600 volt (©) 11,000 volt (4) 22,000 volt (e) 33,000 volt (2) The fluctuation shall not be allowed for more than five percent in standard volt as mentioned in Clauses (a) to (e) of subrule (1) WRe Transmission System: (1) The standard of the voltage of the in the high voltage transmission system shall be transmitted as follows: (a) 33,000 volt (b) 66,000 volt (©) 1,32,000 volt (@) 2.20,000 volt /| WIT (e) 4,00,000 volt | Nepal (2) The fluctuation shall __ not be allowed for more than ten percent in standard volt mentioned in Clauses (a) to (e) of subrule (1) Rule: 43 Frequency: (1) The standard of the frequency shall be maintained as 50 cycles per second (50 hertz). (2) The fluctuation shall not be allowed more than 2.5 percent in the frequency standard as mentioned in subrule (1)Rule: 43 Power Factor: The standard of the power factor shall have to be maintained as follow: (a) The level of power factor of the electricity supplied to the consumer shall not be allowed not less than 0.8 lagging and not more than one unit leadings. (b) The condensers or any other appropriate equipment shall be managed for maintaining the standard of power factor in electric transmission and distribution system pursuant to clause (a). \/ i F he Y onsulé? [asl (©) The licensee may cause stall appropriate condenser if the consumer's electricity related power factor is not at the level mentioned in clause (a).Q. What is the heating effect of electric current. Derive the expression of heat produced when electric current flows through a wire. Answer: * When an electric charge Q moves against a p.d. V, the amount of work done is given by, -( W=Q«V We know, Charge, Q=Pxt = By ohms law, V=IKR \ = Putting eqs. (2) and (3) in eq. (1), Walt R W=I?Rt + Assuming that all the electrical work done is converted into heat energy , we get Heat produced , H=I?Rt Joules * This relation is known as Joule's law of heating.Q. What is the heating effect of electric current. Derive the expression of heat produced when electric current flows through a wire. [a Ws !