WELCOME

Introductory Dairy Science

Dr. Shiva Khanal

Structure of mammary gland
• Modified sweat gland/Specialized skin gland in females
• Biological factory
• Udder consists of 4 mammary glands weighting 10-30kg
• Four mammary glands are joined closely but divided through fibrous
membrane so that no communication between them. It will minimize
the spread of infection within the udder.
• The right and left halves of the udder shows clear demarcation by
intermammary groove
• Front and rear quarters do not show separation externally
• Hind quarter (60%) > Fore quarter (40%)
Internal Structure
• A mammary gland is made up of
• Secretory cells arranged in hollow structure i.e. Alveoli
• Duct system
• Supportive structure
• Blood
• Lymph
• Nerves
Secretory cells and Alveoli
• Each quarter is composed of secretory cells which are arranged into
hollow spherical structures called alveoli
• Alveoli are composed of a single layer of epithelial cells
• These specialized cells take nutrients from blood, transforms them
into milk constituents and discharge the formed milk into the lumen
of each alveolus
• A capillary network of blood vessels surround each alveolus
• The alveolus is also surrounded by myo-epithelial cells which contract
in response to oxytocin
Suspensory structures of udder
1. Median suspensory ligament (Elastic)
2. Two lateral suspensory ligament (Non-Elastic)
3. Skin
• Minimizes swaying when cow is walking
• Note: The median suspensory ligament is primarily responsible for
udder “break-down”.
Duct System
• Each alveolus is drained by a small duct called terminal duct
• A cluster of alveoli and their duct resembling a bunch of grapes,
constitute a lobule
• A group of lobules are surrounded by a septum of connective tissue
and form a lobe
• Various terminal ducts are joined to form bigger ducts and similar to
the tributaries of river(Terminal duct Interlobular duct Intralobar
duct Interlobar
• The interlobar ducts join to form galactophores (lactiferous or
mammary ducts) that empty into gland cistern or milk cistern
Duct System
• The gland cistern is continuous immediately below with teat cistern.
• The teat cistern is joined with streak canal, that opens at the lower
end of the teat
• The streak canal is surrounded by a true muscular sphincter which
remains constricted and prevents leakage of milk until commences
• Streak canal and sphincter prevent the entry of bacteria and other
contaminants into the teat
• Teat cistern is separated from streak canal by folds of tissue called
Furstenberg's rosette
Blood Supply
• The blood supply to the udder is profuse particularly during lactation
• For production of one ml of milk 400 to 500 ml of blood must pass
through the udder
• That is why udder must possess an extensive vascular system
• Arterial blood supply: by external pudic artery(mammary artery)
The two external pudic arteries penetrate the abdominal wall through the
inguinal canal and forms a capillary network to supply oxygenated blood to
the both sides of the udder
• Venous return(3 primary routes)
a) Subcutaneous abdominal vein (milk vein)-1st route
b) External pudic vein-2nd route (runs parallel to external pudic artery)
c) Perineal vein-3rd route
 Nervous System
• The udder is supplied with sensory nerves (afferent) that carry
impulses from touch, temperature and pain receptors to CNS
• The efferent sympathetic nerve fibers regulate blood flow and
innervate the smooth muscles around the mammary glands and teat
sphincter
• Parasympathetic fibers are absent in mammary gland
• When the cow is subjected to stress or excitement adrenaline is
discharged by sympathetic system, vasoconstriction including in the
udder which, if prolonged may result in reduced milk production
Udder growth
• Embryonic and Fetal Development
Mammary glands develop from the ectoderm, starting as a band and evolving into
lines that form buds
These buds grow into primary sprouts, forming ducts in the teat.
Secondary sprouts emerge, later evolving into tertiary ones, establishing the udder's
duct system.
Primary and secondary sprouts are present at birth, while tertiary sprouts appear
later in development.
• From birth to puberty
In the cow between birth and two months of age there is little growth of the udder.
But between two months and the time of puberty (7-8 months), the mammary gland
grows three and half times faster than the body weight and reaches the peak
pubertal development at 10 to 12 months age.
The mammary gland does not grow much after this period until the animal becomes
pregnant.
Udder growth
• During the estrus cycle
The mammary gland undergoes cyclic changes during the course of the
estrous cycle,
The duct system growing during the estrogenic phase and regressing during
the progestational phase.
Cumulative growth of the mammary gland occurs for the first 4 to 5 cycles;
there after, there is not much net gain with each recurrent estrous cycle.
• During pregnancy
The largest portion of udder development occurs during pregnancy.
During first three months of pregnancy only the duct system proliferates.
From the third months on there is rapid growth of the secretory tissue which
continues even after the calf is born.
Udder growth
• During lactation
• It seems that considerable growth of the secretory tissue in the
mammary gland takes place during the early part of lactation.
• In general, estrogens promote duct growth while proper combination
of estrogen and progesterone stimulate the lobule-alveolar
development
Hormonal Regulation in Milk Production
• Initiation of Lactation (Lactogenesis)
Prolactin
GH
ACTH
• Maintenance of Lactation (Galactopoiesis)
S.N Endocrine Gland Hormones Secreted Major Functions

1 Ovary Estrogen Maturation of reproductive tract, female behavior, mammary duct

growth
Progesterone Pregnancy maintenance, mammary lobule-alveolar growth
2 Placenta Estrogen Maturation of reproductive tract, female behavior, mammary duct
growth
Placental Lactogen Mammary growth
3 Anterior Prolactin Mammary growth, lactation maintenance
Pituitary Growth Hormone Body growth, milk production
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Thyroid stimulation, metabolic function, lactation maintenance
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Adrenal stimulation, lactation maintenance
4 Posterior Oxytocin Milk letdown
Pituitary Antidiuretic Hormone Water balance
5 Hypothalamus Prolactin Inhibiting Factor Inhibits prolactin release
6 Thyroid Thyroxine Oxygen consumption, protein synthesis, milk yield
Adrenal Cortex Thyrocalcitonin Calcium and phosphorous metabolism
7 Glucocorticoids Glucose, fat, and protein metabolism
Mineralocorticoids Mineral metabolism
8 Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Stress response
Milk let down (Nervous control)
Stimulus for milk let down
• Stimuli Suckling reflex: Calf licking, sucking and cuddling at teats and
udder
• This reflex can be conditioned against other stimuli like washing with
warm water, wiping, massaging with towel
• Noise associated with milking, feeding concentrates prior to milking,
presence of milker
• Milk Let down
• Oxytocin
• Adrenaline
BIOSYNTHESIS OF MILK
• Milk Synthesis takes place inside the epithelial cells lining the alveoli
• Some milk components viz. vitamins, minerals and some proteins are
not synthesized but filtered from blood through epithelial cells
• Others, such as lactose, fat and most of the proteins are synthetized
inside the epithelial cells from various blood precursors
• The process of milk formation in the udder is divided into 2 steps
Supply of precursors of milk to the udder by the blood stream
Conversion of the raw materials into the constituents of milk i.e. protein, fat,
lactose, ash content by the cells of the mammary gland
 Milk Constituents Blood Precursors
Transferred without change
1. Water 1. Water
2. Minerals 2. Minerals
3. Vitamins 3. Vitamins
4. Fat 4. Fat
a. Long chain fatty acid a. Long chain fatty acid
5. Proteins
γ Globulin γ Globulin
γ Casein γ Casein
Secreted after synthesis in the alveolar cells
7. Carbohydrate(Lactose) 7. Glucose
8. Short chain fatty acid 8. Acetate and beta hydroxy butyrate (BHBA)
9. Protein 9. Protein
- α casein - Free amino acid
- β casein - Free amino acid
- κ casein - Free amino acid
- α lactalbumin - Free amino acid
- β lactoglobulin - Free amino acid
- Milk serum albumin - Milk serum albumin
Biosynthesis of Proteins
• Casein, lactalbumin and lactoglobulin are not present in blood, they
must be from synthesized from blood precursors (amino acids)
• These 3 components comprise about 90-95% of the total protein
nitrogen in cow’s milk
• The immunoglobulins and serum albumin appear to be identical in
blood and milk and are thus diffuses in milk in unchanged form from
blood
• In general terms, the biochemical mechanism involved in milk protein
synthesis are similar to those in other mammalian cells
Synthesis of fat
• Milk fat is a mixture of different triglycerides
• Approximately 50 % of these are short chain fatty acids (C4 - C14) and
the remaining half comprise of long chain fatty acids (C16 – C18)
• Fatty acid synthesis takes place in cytoplasm of mammary gland
• Precursors of Long chain fatty acids (LCFA)
(LCFA) are mostly direct origin from the diet of a cow
• Precursors of Short chain fatty acids
Short chain fatty acids that comprise the 50% of milk fat not derived directly
from the fatty acids of the ration are synthesized in the mammary secretary
cell from acetate and a ketone body β hydroxybutyrate.
 Fatty Acids present in Milk
Fatty Acids Acetate+BHBA Blood triglycerides
Butyric Acid (C4) +
Caproic Acid (C6) +
Caprylic Acid (C8) +
Capric Acid (C10) +
Lauric Acid (C12) +
Myristic Acid (C14) + +
Palmitic Acid (C16) + +
Stearic Acid (C18)
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Palmitoleic Acid (C16:1) +
Oleic Acid (C18:1) +
Linoleic Acid (C18:2) +
Linolenic Acid (C18:3) +
• Acetate is two carbon unit where as BHBA is a four carbon molecule,
and both molecules are derived from the fermentation of
carbohydrates in the rumen to volatile fatty acids
• More acetate than β-hydroxybutryrate is used for milk fat synthesis.
Acetate can entera glycolytic pathway to provide energy for the
mammary cell.
• Triglycerides Synthesis
• Occurs in Smooth ER
• Vitamins
• All sorts of vitamins enter through alveolar cell membranes through filtration
• Minerals
• They are derived from blood and reach milk through simple filtration
• Water
• It is filtered from blood
Lactose Synthesis
• Glucose + ATP Glucose-6-P
• Glucose-6-P Glucose-1-P
• Glucose-1-P + UTP UDP-Glucose + phosphate
• UDP-Glucose UDP-Galactose
• UDP-Galactose + Glucose-1-P Lactose-1-P
• Lactose-1-P Lactose + Phosphate

UTP = Uridine triphosphate

UDP = Uridine diphosphate
LALBA=Lactalbumin
GALT=Galactosyl
transferase
Role of α-lactalbumin in milk production
• α-lactalbumin combines with β-galactosyltransferase to form lactose
synthetase
• α-lactalbumin stimulates the transport of galactose, a crucial
substrate for lactose synthesis
Clean Milk Production
• The process of obtaining raw milk that it comes from the udder of
healthy animals, has good flavour, free from dirt, contains relatively
fewer bacteria and none of those are harmful to human health
• Purpose
• To produce milk free from dirt
• To secure milk of low bacterial count
• To keep milk free of disease organisms
• To prevent bad odor
• To prevent spread of milk born diseases/milk borne zoonosis
• To increase shelf-life of milk
• To make good quality dairy products
Method of Clean Milk Production
• Animal management
Housing
Feeding
Animal Health
Cleanliness of Animal
• Hygiene during Milking practices
• Milker Personal hygiene
• Hygiene of milking equipment and utensils
• During storage and transport
Housing
• Animal shed - main sources of contamination
• Mud, urine, faeces and feed residues should be regularly removed
from the shed
• Shed should have proper drainage, sufficient ventilation and lighting
• Appropriate arrangement for disposal of animal waste (manure pit or
biogas plant) and left over feed & fodder
• Floor sweeping just before milking should be avoided
Feeding
• During milking, non-dusty concentrate can be provided to keep
animals busy
• Silage and wet crop residues should not be fed at milking place as it
may impart foul odour to the milk
• Good quality straw and supply of adequate minerals and vitamins
• Feeding should be made one hour before milking
Animal Health
• Pre-requisite for Comprehensive Mastitis Prevention (CMP)
Healthy herd
• Routine examination of cattle for diseases like TB, Brucellosis etc.
• Diseased animals should be kept separate
• Sanitary precautions to prevent and control diseases should be
adopted
• Check for udder wounds and mastitis
• Vaccination of animals against FMD, Anthrax, etc. should be done
regularly
• Control of Ecto-endo parasites
Deworming and spray
Cleanliness of Animals
• Clean and high quality milk can only be produced by healthy cows,
i.e., cows free of udder infection, managed and milked under clean
and hygienic environment
• Hind quarters and thighs of cows should be brushed, and washed if
lot of filth-is accumulating on them
• Clean the udder and teats with warm water and wipe with clean cloth
or towel
Hygiene during Milking Practice
• The hind quarters and thighs of cows should be brushed, and washed
if lot of filth is accumulating on them
• Milking should be done gently, quietly, quickly, cleanly and completely
• Fore stripping should be collected in separate utensil/cup and should
be discarded to avoid flies and insects
• Complete milking has to be done, least the residual milk may act an
inducer for mastitis causing organisms & the overall yield may also be
less
• Complete the process from washing to milking within 7 minutes
Hygiene during Milking Practice
• Methods of Pre-milking Teat Sanitation
Washing by spraying water and wiping of teats
Washing of teats with a cloth immersed in warm disinfectant solution &
drying with a dry cloth
Immersing of teats in disinfectant and wiping with a paper cloth
• Applying teat dip to every quarter of every cow after every milking
Personal Hygiene of Milker
• Free from communicable diseases
• Should wear clean clothes, nails trimmed
• Should neither eat or spit anything
• Before milking, milker should clean his hands with soap, potable
water and then wipe with clean cloth or towel
• Clean the udder and teats with luke warm water and wipe with clean
cloth or towel
Milking equipment, storage and
Transportation
• Milk vessels should be cleaned before and after each milking
• Detergents used for cleaning should be non-injurious, non-toxic to health
like Teepol
• Use of ash or mud not recommended
• Cleaned vessels should be kept in inverted position
• Milking pail with dome shaped top should be used
• Open buckets should not be used
• Facilities for cooling milk on receipt and after heat treatment to 4oC should
be kept.
• Bacterial growth is retarded by cooling the milk within 2 hours of milking
The sources of contamination of milk
• Internal factors
• a) Mastitis udder
• 1. Test fore milk on strip cup.
• 2. Test by Hotis or Californian mastitis test if positive discard.
• 3. All positive reactors be milked at the end.
• B) Fore milk
• Remove to steams from each teat to reduce bacterial count.
External factors
• 1) Cow
• a) Cow body
Healthy, clean, well groomed an hour before milking, hind quarter washed, tail tied
with legs at milking time.
• b) Udder
Washed, wiped with clean towel soaked in antiseptic solution, kept dry at milking
time.
• 2) Milker
Healthy, nails cut, clean hands, head covered with cap, clean habits, hand washed
with chlorine solution of 200 pp.
• 3) Utensils
Clean and sterilized, stainless steel metal, seamless small open top (dome shape),
washed and sterilized by chlorine solution.
• 4. Barn
White washed, free from cob, webs, bad odor, floor clean and disinfected,
well lighted and ventilated.
• 5. Methods of milking
Full hand and dry hand milking.
• 6. Feed and water
Free from weeds and objectionable smell. No dusty roughage at milking time
clean and safe water.
• 7. Miscellaneous
Milk produced must be strained through muslin cloth and then it should be
stored at low temperature.
METHOD OF MILKING
• Milking is an art, requires skill, and experience
• The process of milking should be conducted quietly, quickly, gently,
cleanly and completely without any pain, annoyance or
inconvenience to the animal.
• Method
• Hand milking
Full hand milking known as fisting
Stripping
Knuckling.
• Machine milking
Full hand milking
• Full hand milking simulates natural sucking of a calf. Cows with large
teats and buffaloes are milked full hand method. It is done by
Grasping the teats with whole hand and steadly pressing it equally on all sides
against the palm with the fingers.
Maintaining a quick succession of alternate compression and relaxation in
which the alternate streams of milk from two teats sound like a continuous
stream.
Full hand milking removes milk quicker than stripping because of no loss of
time in changing the position of the hand.
Stripping
• Generally stripping method is adopted in small cows with smaller
teats
Stripping is accomplished by firmly seizing the teats at its base between front
of the thumb and forefinger.
Drawing them down the entire length of the teat while pressing
simultaneously to cause the milk to flow in a steam.
Repetition of this action by quickly taking the hand to the base of the teat
again.
Use of both the hand in holding different teats and working alternatively
Milking of the two nearest first followed by the two farthest teats
Stripping
• Advantages
The last drown milk at the close of milking called stripping is richer in fat than
fore milk.
• Disadvantages
Application of unequal pressure more than necessary on teats.
More frictional effect on teats by sliding the finger and thumb up and down.
Production of undue irritation of skin resulting in sores.
Necessity of undesirable lubrication of the teats frequently with milk, oil,
water or grease.
More pain to animal in stripping operation in event of chapped, cracked, sore
or teat affected with cowpox.
Loss of richest part of milk due to inefficient milking.
Knuckling
• In this method, teats are holding diagonally
• Teat is grasped between folded thumb and fore figure
• Animal feels discomfort, pain and uneasiness during the milking time
due to unequal pressure exerted on the top surface layer of the teat.
• It is bad method of milking.
Machine Milking
• Principle
• The milk machine performs two
basic functions.
It open the streak canal through the
use of a partial vacuum and allow the
milk to flow out of the teat cistern
through a line to a receiving container
It massages the teat, which prevents
congestion of blood and lymph in the
teat.
Some Facts
• Minimum herd size for machine milking is = 20
• Recommended vacuum in machine milking is 10-15 inches
• The optimum pulsation rate in machine milking: 60 cycles/minute
• Pulsation rate should not less than 40 cycles/minute & not more than 120
cycles per minute
• Pulsator is also known as “heart of milking machine”
• Pulsation ratio of milking machine- (a) For cattle: 60/40 (b) For buffalo
50/50
• Ideal vacuum of milking machine- (a) For cattle: 352 mmHg (b) For buffalo
400 mmHg
Aspect Machine Milking Hand Milking
Technique Modern technique for high milk yielders Conventional method in practice
Economics Economical, labor, and time-saving More labor, skill, and efficiency required
Hygiene More hygienic with optimum cleanliness Practical hygiene might lack
Regularity More regular milking process Irregular milking intervals
Efficiency Ensures quick, efficient, and complete milking Comparatively slower and less efficient
Pressure Consistent pressure and same milker for cows Occurrence of individual variations
Reduces the likelihood of infection spread among More infections may spread due to manual
Infections cows milking
Works efficiently for different milking Not equally operative for hard or slow
Adaptability characteristics milkers
Aids in protecting udder from daamage and
Udder Health diseases May affect milk yield and quality
Essential for large, organized dairies with high- Not necessary for natural calf-sucking
Management yielding cows process
Doesn't closely simulate the natural calf-suckling Divergent from the natural calf-sucking
Natural Process process process