Alan Turing

Alan Mathison Turing OBE FRS (/ˈt jʊərɪŋ/; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English
mat hemat ician, comput er scient ist , logician, crypt analyst , philosopher and t heoret ical biologist .[5] He
was highly influent ial in t he development of t heoret ical comput er science, providing a formalisat ion
of t he concept s of algorit hm and comput at ion wit h t he Turing machine, which can be considered a
model of a general-purpose comput er.[6][7][8] Turing is widely considered t o be t he fat her of
t heoret ical comput er science.[9]

Born in London, Turing was raised in sout hern England. He graduat ed in mat hs from King's College,
Cambridge, and in 1938, earned a mat hs PhD from Princet on Universit y. During t he Second World War,
Turing worked for t he Government Code and Cypher School at Blet chley Park, Brit ain's codebreaking
cent re t hat produced Ult ra int elligence. He led Hut 8, t he sect ion responsible for German naval
crypt analysis. Turing devised t echniques for speeding t he breaking of German ciphers, including
improvement s t o t he pre-war Polish bomba met hod, an elect romechanical machine t hat could find
set t ings for t he Enigma machine. He played a crucial role in cracking int ercept ed messages t hat
enabled t he Allies t o defeat t he Axis powers in many crucial engagement s, including t he Bat t le of
t he At lant ic.[10][11]

Aft er t he war, Turing worked at t he Nat ional Physical Laborat ory, where he designed t he Aut omat ic
Comput ing Engine, one of t he first designs for a st ored-program comput er. In 1948, Turing joined
Max Newman's Comput ing Machine Laborat ory at t he Vict oria Universit y of Manchest er, where he
helped develop t he Manchest er comput ers[12] and became int erest ed in mat hemat ical biology.
Turing wrot e on t he chemical basis of morphogenesis[13][1] and predict ed oscillat ing chemical
react ions such as t he Belousov–Zhabot insky react ion, first observed in t he 1960s. Despit e t hese
accomplishment s, he was never fully recognised during his lifet ime because much of his work was
covered by t he Official Secret s Act .[14]

In 1952, Turing was prosecut ed for homosexual act s. He accept ed hormone t reat ment , a procedure
commonly referred t o as chemical cast rat ion, as an alt ernat ive t o prison. Turing died on 7 June 1954,
aged 41, from cyanide poisoning. An inquest det ermined his deat h as suicide, but t he evidence is also
consist ent wit h accident al poisoning.[15] Following a campaign in 2009, Brit ish prime minist er Gordon
Brown made an official public apology for "t he appalling way [Turing] was t reat ed". Queen Elizabet h II
grant ed a pardon in 2013. The t erm "Alan Turing law" is used informally t o refer t o a 2017 law in t he
UK t hat ret roact ively pardoned men caut ioned or convict ed under hist orical legislat ion t hat
out lawed homosexual act s.[16]
Turing has an ext ensive legacy wit h st at ues and
Alan Turing
many t hings named aft er him, including an annual OBE FRS
award for comput er science innovat ions. He
appears on t he current Bank of England £50 not e,
which was released on 23 June 2021 t o coincide
wit h his birt hday. A 2019 BBC series, as vot ed by
t he audience, named Turing t he great est person
of t he 20t h cent ury.

Early life and education

Family Turing in 1936

Born Alan Mathison

Turing
23 June 1912
Maida Vale, London,
England

Died 7 June 1954

(aged 41)
English Heritage plaque in Wilmslow, Cheshire,
Maida Vale, London marking England
Turing's birthplace in 1912
Cause of death Cyanide poisoning as
Turing was born in Maida Vale, London, while his
an act of
fat her, Julius Mat hison Turing, was on leave from
suicide[note 1]
his posit ion wit h t he Indian Civil Service (ICS) of
t he Brit ish Raj government at Chat rapur, t hen in Alma mater University of
Cambridge (BA, MA)
t he Madras Presidency and present ly in Odisha
Princeton University
st at e, in India.[17][18] Turing's fat her was t he son of
(PhD)
a clergyman, t he Rev. John Robert Turing, from a
Scot t ish family of merchant s t hat had been Known for Cryptanalysis of the
based in t he Net herlands and included a baronet . Enigma

Turing's mot her, Julius's wife, was Et hel Sara Turing's proof
Turing machine
Turing (née St oney), daught er of Edward Waller
Turing test
St oney, chief engineer of t he Madras Railways.
Unorganised
The St oneys were a Prot est ant Anglo-Irish gent ry
machine
family from bot h Count y Tipperary and Count y Turing pattern
Longford, while Et hel herself had spent much of Turing reduction
her childhood in Count y Clare.[19] Julius and Et hel "The Chemical Basis

married on 1 Oct ober 1907 at St . Bart holomew's of Morphogenesis"

Church on Clyde Road in Ballsbridge, Dublin.[20] Partner Joan Clarke[note 2]

Julius's work wit h t he ICS brought t he family t o Awards Smith's Prize (1936)
Brit ish India, where his grandfat her had been a
Scientific career
general in t he Bengal Army. However, bot h Julius
and Et hel want ed t heir children t o be brought up Fields Logic
[21] Mathematics
in Brit ain, so t hey moved t o Maida Vale, London,
where Alan Turing was born on 23 June 1912, as Cryptanalysis
Computer science
recorded by a blue plaque on t he out side of t he
Mathematical and
house of his birt h,[22][23] lat er t he Colonnade
theoretical biology[1]
Hot el.[17][24] Turing had an elder brot her, John
Ferrier Turing, fat her of Sir John Dermot Turing, Institutions University of
12t h Baronet of t he Turing baronet s.[25] Manchester
Government Code
Turing's fat her's civil service commission was st ill and Cypher School
act ive during Turing's childhood years, and his National Physical
parent s t ravelled bet ween Hast ings in t he Unit ed Laboratory

Kingdom[26] and India, leaving t heir t wo sons t o

Thesis Systems of Logic
st ay wit h a ret ired Army couple. At Hast ings, Based on Ordinals (ht
Turing st ayed at Bast on Lodge, Upper Maze Hill, tps://[Link]
St Leonards-on-Sea, now marked wit h a blue g/web/20121023103

plaque.[27] The plaque was unveiled on 23 June 503/[Link]

2012, t he cent enary of Turing's birt h.[28] [Link]/user

s/jedwards/Turing%2
Very early in life, Turing's parent s purchased a 0Centennial%20201

house in Guildford in 1927, and Turing lived t here 2/Mudd%20Archive%

during school holidays. The locat ion is also marked 20files/12285_AC100

_Turing_1938.pd
wit h a blue plaque.[29]
f) (1938)

Doctoral advisor Alonzo Church[2]

School
Doctoral students Robin Gandy[2][3]
Turing's parent s enrolled him at St Michael's, a Beatrice Worsley[4]
primary school at 20 Charles Road, St Leonards-
Signature
on-Sea, from t he age of six t o nine. The
headmist ress recognised his t alent , not ing t hat
she "...had clever boys and hardworking boys, but
Alan is a genius".[30]

Bet ween January 1922 and 1926, Turing was educat ed at Hazelhurst Preparat ory School, an
independent school in t he village of Frant in Sussex (now East Sussex).[31] In 1926, at t he age of 13,
he went on t o Sherborne School,[32] an independent boarding school in t he market t own of
Sherborne in Dorset , where he boarded at West cot t House. The first day of t erm coincided wit h t he
1926 General St rike, in Brit ain, but Turing was so det ermined t o at t end t hat he rode his bicycle
unaccompanied 60 miles (97 km) from Sout hampt on t o Sherborne, st opping overnight at an inn.[33]

Turing's nat ural inclinat ion t owards mat hemat ics and science did not earn him respect from some of
t he t eachers at Sherborne, whose definit ion of educat ion placed more emphasis on t he classics. His
headmast er wrot e t o his parent s: "I hope he will not fall bet ween t wo st ools. If he is t o st ay at
public school, he must aim at becoming educated. If he is t o be solely a Scientific Specialist, he is
wast ing his t ime at a public school".[34] Despit e t his, Turing cont inued t o show remarkable abilit y in
t he st udies he loved, solving advanced problems in 1927 wit hout having st udied even element ary
calculus. In 1928, aged 16, Turing encount ered Albert Einst ein's work; not only did he grasp it , but it is
possible t hat he managed t o deduce Einst ein's quest ioning of Newt on's laws of mot ion from a t ext
in which t his was never made explicit .[35]

Christopher Morcom

At Sherborne, Turing formed a significant friendship wit h fellow pupil Christ opher Collan Morcom (13
July 1911 – 13 February 1930),[36] who has been described as Turing's first love.[37][38][39] Their
relat ionship provided inspirat ion in Turing's fut ure endeavours, but it was cut short by Morcom's
deat h, in February 1930, from complicat ions of bovine t uberculosis, cont ract ed aft er drinking
infect ed cow's milk some years previously.[40][41][42]

The event caused Turing great sorrow. He coped wit h his grief by working t hat much harder on t he
t opics of science and mat hemat ics t hat he had shared wit h Morcom. In a let t er t o Morcom's mot her,
Frances Isobel Morcom (née Swan), Turing wrot e:

I am sure I could not have found anywhere another companion so brilliant and yet
so charming and unconceited. I regarded my interest in my work, and in such
things as astronomy (to which he introduced me) as something to be shared with
him and I think he felt a little the same about me ... I know I must put as much
 energy if not as much interest into my work as if he were alive, because that is
what he would like me to do.[43]

Turing's relat ionship wit h Morcom's mot her cont inued long aft er Morcom's deat h, wit h her sending
gift s t o Turing, and him sending let t ers, t ypically on Morcom's birt hday.[44] A day before t he t hird
anniversary of Morcom's deat h (13 February 1933), he wrot e t o Mrs. Morcom:

I expect you will be thinking of Chris when this reaches you. I shall too, and this
letter is just to tell you that I shall be thinking of Chris and of you tomorrow. I am
sure that he is as happy now as he was when he was here. Your affectionate
Alan.[45]

Some have speculat ed t hat Morcom's deat h was t he cause of Turing's at heism and mat erialism.[46]
Apparent ly, at t his point in his life he st ill believed in such concept s as a spirit , independent of t he
body and surviving deat h. In a lat er let t er, also writ t en t o Morcom's mot her, Turing wrot e:

Personally, I believe that spirit is really eternally connected with matter but
certainly not by the same kind of body ... as regards the actual connection between
spirit and body I consider that the body can hold on to a 'spirit', whilst the body is
alive and awake the two are firmly connected. When the body is asleep I cannot
guess what happens but when the body dies, the 'mechanism' of the body, holding
the spirit is gone and the spirit finds a new body sooner or later, perhaps
immediately.[47][48]

University and work on computability

Aft er graduat ing from Sherborne, Turing applied for several Cambridge colleges scholarships,
including Trinit y and King's, event ually earning an £80 per annum scholarship (equivalent t o about
£4,300 as of 2023) t o st udy at t he lat t er.[49][50] There, Turing st udied t he undergraduat e course in
Schedule B (t hat is, a t hree-year Part s I and II, of t he Mat hemat ical Tripos, wit h ext ra courses at t he
end of t he t hird year, as Part III only emerged as a separat e degree in 1934) from February 1931 t o
November 1934 at King's College, Cambridge, where he was awarded first -class honours in
mat hemat ics. His dissert at ion, On the Gaussian error function, writ t en during his senior year and
delivered in November 1934 (wit h a deadline dat e of 6 December) proved a version of t he cent ral
limit t heorem. It was finally accept ed on 16 March 1935. By spring of t hat same year, Turing st art ed
his mast er's course (Part III)—which he complet ed in 1937—and, at t he same t ime, he published his
first paper, a one-page art icle called Equivalence of left and right almost periodicity (sent on 23
April), feat ured in t he t ent h volume of t he Journal of the London Mathematical Society.[51] Lat er
t hat year, Turing was elect ed a Fellow of King's College on t he st rengt h of his dissert at ion[52] where
he served as a lect urer.[53] However, and, unknown t o Turing, t his version of t he t heorem he proved in
his paper, had already been proven, in 1922, by Jarl Waldemar Lindeberg. Despit e t his, t he commit t ee
found Turing's met hods original and so regarded t he work wort hy of considerat ion for t he fellowship.
Abram Besicovit ch's report for t he commit t ee went so far as t o say t hat if Turing's work had been
published before Lindeberg's, it would have been "an import ant event in t he mat hemat ical lit erat ure
of t hat year".[54][55][56]

Bet ween t he springs of 1935 and 1936, at t he same t ime as Church, Turing worked on t he
decidabilit y of problems, st art ing from Gödel's incomplet eness t heorems. In mid-April 1936, Turing
sent Max Newman t he first draft t ypescript of his invest igat ions. That same mont h, Alonzo Church
published his An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory, wit h similar conclusions t o
Turing's t hen-yet unpublished work. Finally, on 28 May of t hat year, he finished and delivered his 36-
page paper for publicat ion called "On Comput able Numbers, wit h an Applicat ion t o t he
Ent scheidungsproblem".[57] It was published in t he Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society
journal in t wo part s, t he first on 30 November and t he second on 23 December.[58] In t his paper,
Turing reformulat ed Kurt Gödel's 1931 result s on t he limit s of proof and comput at ion, replacing
Gödel's universal arit hmet ic-based formal language wit h t he formal and simple hypot het ical devices
t hat became known as Turing machines. The Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem) was originally
posed by German mat hemat ician David Hilbert in 1928. Turing proved t hat his "universal comput ing
machine" would be capable of performing any conceivable mat hemat ical comput at ion if it were
represent able as an algorit hm. He went on t o prove t hat t here was no solut ion t o t he decision
problem by first showing t hat t he halt ing problem for Turing machines is undecidable: it is not
possible t o decide algorit hmically whet her a Turing machine will ever halt . This paper has been called
"easily t he most influent ial mat h paper in hist ory".[59]

King's College, Cambridge, where

Turing was an undergraduate in 1931
and became a Fellow in 1935. The
computer room is named after him.
Alt hough Turing's proof was published short ly aft er Alonzo Church's equivalent proof using his
lambda calculus,[60] Turing's approach is considerably more accessible and int uit ive t han Church's.[61]
It also included a not ion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a universal Turing machine), wit h t he
idea t hat such a machine could perform t he t asks of any ot her comput at ion machine (as indeed
could Church's lambda calculus). According t o t he Church–Turing t hesis, Turing machines and t he
lambda calculus are capable of comput ing anyt hing t hat is comput able. John von Neumann
acknowledged t hat t he cent ral concept of t he modern comput er was due t o Turing's paper.[62] To
t his day, Turing machines are a cent ral object of st udy in t heory of comput at ion.[63]

From Sept ember 1936 t o July 1938, Turing spent most of his t ime st udying under Church at
Princet on Universit y,[4] in t he second year as a Jane Eliza Proct er Visit ing Fellow. In addit ion t o his
purely mat hemat ical work, he st udied crypt ology and also built t hree of four st ages of an elect ro-
mechanical binary mult iplier.[64] In June 1938, he obt ained his PhD from t he Depart ment of
Mat hemat ics at Princet on;[65] his dissert at ion, Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals ,[66][67] int roduced
t he concept of ordinal logic and t he not ion of relat ive comput ing, in which Turing machines are
augment ed wit h so-called oracles, allowing t he st udy of problems t hat cannot be solved by Turing
machines. John von Neumann want ed t o hire him as his post doct oral assist ant , but he went back t o
t he Unit ed Kingdom.[68]

Career and research

When Turing ret urned t o Cambridge, he at t ended lect ures given in 1939 by Ludwig Wit t genst ein
about t he foundat ions of mat hemat ics.[69] The lect ures have been reconst ruct ed verbat im, including
int erject ions from Turing and ot her st udent s, from st udent s' not es.[70] Turing and Wit t genst ein
argued and disagreed, wit h Turing defending formalism and Wit t genst ein propounding his view t hat
mat hemat ics does not discover any absolut e t rut hs, but rat her invent s t hem.[71]

Cryptanalysis

During t he Second World War, Turing was a leading part icipant in t he breaking of German ciphers at
Blet chley Park. The hist orian and wart ime codebreaker Asa Briggs has said, "You needed except ional
t alent , you needed genius at Blet chley and Turing's was t hat genius."[72]

From Sept ember 1938, Turing worked part -t ime wit h t he Government Code and Cypher School
(GC&CS), t he Brit ish codebreaking organisat ion. He concent rat ed on crypt analysis of t he Enigma
cipher machine used by Nazi Germany, t oget her wit h Dilly Knox, a senior GC&CS codebreaker.[73] Soon
aft er t he July 1939 meet ing near Warsaw at which t he Polish Cipher Bureau gave t he Brit ish and
French det ails of t he wiring of Enigma machine's rot ors and t heir met hod of decrypt ing Enigma
machine's messages, Turing and Knox developed a broader solut ion.[74] The Polish met hod relied on
an insecure indicat or procedure t hat t he Germans were likely t o change, which t hey in fact did in May
1940. Turing's approach was more general, using crib-based decrypt ion for which he produced t he
funct ional specificat ion of t he bombe (an improvement on t he Polish Bomba).[75]

Two cottages in the stable yard at

Bletchley Park. Turing worked here in
1939 and 1940, before moving to Hut
8.

On 4 Sept ember 1939, t he day aft er t he UK declared war on Germany, Turing report ed t o Blet chley
Park, t he wart ime st at ion of GC&CS.[76] Like all ot hers who came t o Blet chley, he was required t o
sign t he Official Secret s Act , in which he agreed not t o disclose anyt hing about his work at Blet chley,
wit h severe legal penalt ies for violat ing t he Act .[77]

Specifying t he bombe was t he first of five major crypt analyt ical advances t hat Turing made during
t he war. The ot hers were: deducing t he indicat or procedure used by t he German navy; developing a
st at ist ical procedure dubbed Banburismus for making much more efficient use of t he bombes;
developing a procedure dubbed Turingery for working out t he cam set t ings of t he wheels of t he
Lorenz SZ 40/42 (Tunny) cipher machine and, t owards t he end of t he war, t he development of a
port able secure voice scrambler at Hanslope Park t hat was codenamed Delilah.[78][79]

By using st at ist ical t echniques t o opt imise t he t rial of different possibilit ies in t he code breaking
process, Turing made an innovat ive cont ribut ion t o t he subject . He wrot e t wo papers discussing
mat hemat ical approaches, t it led The Applications of Probability to Cryptography[80] and Paper on
Statistics of Repetitions ,[81] which were of such value t o GC&CS and it s successor GCHQ t hat t hey
were not released t o t he UK Nat ional Archives unt il April 2012, short ly before t he cent enary of his
birt h. A GCHQ mat hemat ician, "who ident ified himself only as Richard," said at t he t ime t hat t he fact
t hat t he cont ent s had been rest rict ed under t he Official Secret s Act for some 70 years
demonst rat ed t heir import ance, and t heir relevance t o post -war crypt analysis:[82]
 [He] said the fact that the contents had been restricted "shows what a tremendous
importance it has in the foundations of our subject". ... The papers detailed using
"mathematical analysis to try and determine which are the more likely settings so
that they can be tried as quickly as possible". ... Richard said that GCHQ had now
"squeezed the juice" out of the two papers and was "happy for them to be released
into the public domain".

Turing had a reput at ion for eccent ricit y at Blet chley Park. He was known t o his colleagues as "Prof"
and his t reat ise on Enigma was known as t he "Prof's Book".[83][84] According t o hist orian Ronald Lewin,
Jack Good, a crypt analyst who worked wit h Turing, said of his colleague:

In the first week of June each year he would get a bad attack of hay fever, and he
would cycle to the office wearing a service gas mask to keep the pollen off. His
bicycle had a fault: the chain would come off at regular intervals. Instead of having
it mended he would count the number of times the pedals went round and would
get off the bicycle in time to adjust the chain by hand. Another of his eccentricities
is that he chained his mug to the radiator pipes to prevent it being stolen.[85]

Pet er Hilt on recount ed his experience working wit h Turing in Hut 8 in his "Reminiscences of
Blet chley Park" from A Century of Mathematics in America: [86]

It is a rare experience to meet an authentic genius. Those of us privileged to inhabit

the world of scholarship are familiar with the intellectual stimulation furnished by
talented colleagues. We can admire the ideas they share with us and are usually
able to understand their source; we may even often believe that we ourselves could
have created such concepts and originated such thoughts. However, the experience
of sharing the intellectual life of a genius is entirely different; one realizes that one
is in the presence of an intelligence, a sensibility of such profundity and originality
that one is filled with wonder and excitement. Alan Turing was such a genius, and
those, like myself, who had the astonishing and unexpected opportunity, created by
the strange exigencies of the Second World War, to be able to count Turing as
colleague and friend will never forget that experience, nor can we ever lose its
immense benefit to us.

Hilt on echoed similar t hought s in t he Nova PBS document ary Decoding Nazi Secrets .[87]
While working at Blet chley, Turing, who was a t alent ed long-dist ance runner, occasionally ran t he 40
miles (64 km) t o London when he was needed for meet ings,[88] and he was capable of world-class
marat hon st andards.[89][90] Turing t ried out for t he 1948 Brit ish Olympic t eam, but he was hampered
by an injury. His t ryout t ime for t he marat hon was only 11 minut es slower t han Brit ish silver medallist
Thomas Richards' Olympic race t ime of 2 hours 35 minut es. He was Walt on At hlet ic Club's best
runner, a fact discovered when he passed t he group while running alone.[91][92][93] When asked why he
ran so hard in t raining he replied:

I have such a stressful job that the only way I can get it out of my mind is by running
hard; it's the only way I can get some release.[94]

Due t o t he problems of count erfact ual hist ory, it is hard t o est imat e t he precise effect Ult ra
int elligence had on t he war.[95] However, official war hist orian Harry Hinsley est imat ed t hat t his work
short ened t he war in Europe by more t han t wo years and saved over 14 million lives.[96]

At t he end of t he war, a memo was sent t o all t hose who had worked at Blet chley Park, reminding
t hem t hat t he code of silence dict at ed by t he Official Secret s Act did not end wit h t he war but
would cont inue indefinit ely.[77] Thus, even t hough Turing was appoint ed an Officer of t he Order of t he
Brit ish Empire (OBE) in 1946 by King George VI for his wart ime services, his work remained secret for
many years.[97][98]

Bombe

Wit hin weeks of arriving at Blet chley Park,[76] Turing had specified an elect romechanical machine
called t he bombe, which could break Enigma more effect ively t han t he Polish bomba kryptologiczna ,
from which it s name was derived. The bombe, wit h an enhancement suggest ed by mat hemat ician
Gordon Welchman, became one of t he primary t ools, and t he major aut omat ed one, used t o at t ack
Enigma-enciphered messages.[99]
 A working replica of a bombe now at
The National Museum of Computing
on Bletchley Park

The bombe searched for possible correct set t ings used for an Enigma message (i.e., rot or order,
rot or set t ings and plugboard set t ings) using a suit able crib: a fragment of probable plaint ext . For
each possible set t ing of t he rot ors (which had on t he order of 1019 st at es, or 1022 st at es for t he
four-rot or U-boat variant ),[100] t he bombe performed a chain of logical deduct ions based on t he crib,
implement ed elect romechanically.[101]

The bombe det ect ed when a cont radict ion had occurred and ruled out t hat set t ing, moving on t o
t he next . Most of t he possible set t ings would cause cont radict ions and be discarded, leaving only a
few t o be invest igat ed in det ail. A cont radict ion would occur when an enciphered let t er would be
t urned back int o t he same plaint ext let t er, which was impossible wit h t he Enigma. The first bombe
was inst alled on 18 March 1940.[102]

Action This Day

By lat e 1941, Turing and his fellow crypt analyst s Gordon Welchman, Hugh Alexander and St uart
Milner-Barry were frust rat ed. Building on t he work of t he Poles, t hey had set up a good working
syst em for decrypt ing Enigma signals, but t heir limit ed st aff and bombes meant t hey could not
t ranslat e all t he signals. In t he summer, t hey had considerable success, and shipping losses had
fallen t o under 100,000 t ons a mont h; however, t hey badly needed more resources t o keep abreast
of German adjust ment s. They had t ried t o get more people and fund more bombes t hrough t he
proper channels, but had failed.[103]

On 28 Oct ober t hey wrot e direct ly t o Winst on Churchill explaining t heir difficult ies, wit h Turing as t he
first named. They emphasised how small t heir need was compared wit h t he vast expendit ure of men
and money by t he forces and compared wit h t he level of assist ance t hey could offer t o t he
forces.[103] As Andrew Hodges, biographer of Turing, lat er wrot e, "This let t er had an elect ric
effect ."[104] Churchill wrot e a memo t o General Ismay, which read: "ACTION THIS DAY. Make sure
t hey have all t hey want on ext reme priorit y and report t o me t hat t his has been done." On 18
November, t he chief of t he secret service report ed t hat every possible measure was being
t aken.[104] The crypt ographers at Blet chley Park did not know of t he Prime Minist er's response, but
as Milner-Barry recalled, "All t hat we did not ice was t hat almost from t hat day t he rough ways began
miraculously t o be made smoot h."[105] More t han t wo hundred bombes were in operat ion by t he end
of t he war.[106]

Hut 8 and the naval Enigma

Statue of Turing holding an

Enigma machine by Stephen
Kettle at Bletchley Park,
commissioned by Sidney
Frank, built from half a million
pieces of Welsh slate[107]

Turing decided t o t ackle t he part icularly difficult problem of cracking t he German naval use of
Enigma "because no one else was doing anyt hing about it and I could have it t o myself".[108] In
December 1939, Turing solved t he essent ial part of t he naval indicat or syst em, which was more
complex t han t he indicat or syst ems used by t he ot her services.[108][109]

That same night , he also conceived of t he idea of Banburismus , a sequent ial st at ist ical t echnique
(what Abraham Wald lat er called sequent ial analysis) t o assist in breaking t he naval Enigma, "t hough I
was not sure t hat it would work in pract ice, and was not , in fact , sure unt il some days had act ually
broken".[108] For t his, he invent ed a measure of weight of evidence t hat he called t he ban.
Banburismus could rule out cert ain sequences of t he Enigma rot ors, subst ant ially reducing t he t ime
needed t o t est set t ings on t he bombes.[110] Lat er t his sequent ial process of accumulat ing sufficient
weight of evidence using decibans (one t ent h of a ban) was used in crypt analysis of t he Lorenz
cipher.[111]
Turing t ravelled t o t he Unit ed St at es in November 1942 and worked wit h US Navy crypt analyst s on
t he naval Enigma and bombe const ruct ion in Washingt on.[112][113] He also visit ed t heir Comput ing
Machine Laborat ory in Dayt on, Ohio.[114]

Turing's react ion t o t he American bombe design was far from ent husiast ic:

The American Bombe programme was to produce 336 Bombes, one for each wheel
order. I used to smile inwardly at the conception of Bombe hut routine implied by
this programme, but thought that no particular purpose would be served by
pointing out that we would not really use them in that way. Their test (of
commutators) can hardly be considered conclusive as they were not testing for the
bounce with electronic stop finding devices. Nobody seems to be told about rods or
offiziers or banburismus unless they are really going to do something about it.[115]

During t his t rip, he also assist ed at Bell Labs wit h t he development of secure speech devices.[116]
He ret urned t o Blet chley Park in March 1943. During his absence, Hugh Alexander had officially
assumed t he posit ion of head of Hut 8, alt hough Alexander had been de facto head for some t ime
(Turing having lit t le int erest in t he day-t o-day running of t he sect ion). Turing became a general
consult ant for crypt analysis at Blet chley Park.[117]

Alexander wrot e of Turing's cont ribut ion:

There should be no question in anyone's mind that Turing's work was the biggest
factor in Hut 8's success. In the early days, he was the only cryptographer who
thought the problem worth tackling and not only was he primarily responsible for
the main theoretical work within the Hut, but he also shared with Welchman and
Keen the chief credit for the invention of the bombe. It is always difficult to say that
anyone is 'absolutely indispensable', but if anyone was indispensable to Hut 8, it
was Turing. The pioneer's work always tends to be forgotten when experience and
routine later make everything seem easy and many of us in Hut 8 felt that the
magnitude of Turing's contribution was never fully realised by the outside
world.[118]

Turingery

In July 1942, Turing devised a t echnique t ermed Turingery (or jokingly Turingismus [119]) for use
against t he Lorenz cipher messages produced by t he Germans' new Geheimschreiber (secret writ er)
machine. This was a t eleprint er rot or cipher at t achment codenamed Tunny at Blet chley Park.
Turingery was a met hod of wheel-breaking, i.e., a procedure for working out t he cam set t ings of
Tunny's wheels.[120] He also int roduced t he Tunny t eam t o Tommy Flowers who, under t he guidance
of Max Newman, went on t o build t he Colossus comput er, t he world's first programmable digit al
elect ronic comput er, which replaced a simpler prior machine (t he Heat h Robinson), and whose
superior speed allowed t he st at ist ical decrypt ion t echniques t o be applied usefully t o t he
messages.[121] Some have mist akenly said t hat Turing was a key figure in t he design of t he Colossus
comput er. Turingery and t he st at ist ical approach of Banburismus undoubt edly fed int o t he t hinking
about crypt analysis of t he Lorenz cipher,[122][123] but he was not direct ly involved in t he Colossus
development .[124]

Delilah

Following his work at Bell Labs in t he US,[125] Turing pursued t he idea of elect ronic enciphering of
speech in t he t elephone syst em. In t he lat t er part of t he war, he moved t o work for t he Secret
Service's Radio Securit y Service (lat er HMGCC) at Hanslope Park.[126][127] At t he park, he furt her
developed his knowledge of elect ronics wit h t he assist ance of REME officer Donald Bayley.
Toget her t hey undert ook t he design and const ruct ion of a port able secure voice communicat ions
machine codenamed Delilah.[128] The machine was int ended for different applicat ions, but it lacked
t he capabilit y for use wit h long-dist ance radio t ransmissions. In any case, Delilah was complet ed t oo
lat e t o be used during t he war. Though t he syst em worked fully, wit h Turing demonst rat ing it t o
officials by encrypt ing and decrypt ing a recording of a Winst on Churchill speech, Delilah was not
adopt ed for use.[129] Turing also consult ed wit h Bell Labs on t he development of SIGSALY, a secure
voice syst em t hat was used in t he lat er years of t he war.

Early computers and the Turing test

Plaque, 78 High Street, Hampton

Bet ween 1945 and 1947, Turing lived in Hampt on, London,[130] while he worked on t he design of t he
ACE (Aut omat ic Comput ing Engine) at t he Nat ional Physical Laborat ory (NPL). He present ed a paper
on 19 February 1946, which was t he first det ailed design of a st ored-program comput er.[131] Von
Neumann's incomplet e First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC had predat ed Turing's paper, but it was
much less det ailed and, according t o John R. Womersley, Superint endent of t he NPL Mat hemat ics
Division, it "cont ains a number of ideas which are Dr. Turing's own".[132]

Alt hough ACE was a feasible design, t he effect of t he Official Secret s Act surrounding t he wart ime
work at Blet chley Park made it impossible for Turing t o explain t he basis of his analysis of how a
comput er inst allat ion involving human operat ors would work.[133] This led t o delays in st art ing t he
project and he became disillusioned. In lat e 1947 he ret urned t o Cambridge for a sabbat ical year
during which he produced a seminal work on Intelligent Machinery t hat was not published in his
lifet ime.[134] While he was at Cambridge, t he Pilot ACE was being built in his absence. It execut ed it s
first program on 10 May 1950, and a number of lat er comput ers around t he world owe much t o it ,
including t he English Elect ric DEUCE and t he American Bendix G-15. The full version of Turing's ACE
was not built unt il aft er his deat h.[135]

According t o t he memoirs of t he German comput er pioneer Heinz Billing from t he Max Planck
Inst it ut e for Physics, published by Genscher, Düsseldorf, t here was a meet ing bet ween Turing and
Konrad Zuse.[136] It t ook place in Göt t ingen in 1947. The int errogat ion had t he form of a colloquium.
Part icipant s were Womersley, Turing, Port er from England and a few German researchers like Zuse,
Walt her, and Billing (for more det ails see Herbert Bruderer, Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz).

In 1948, Turing was appoint ed reader in t he Mat hemat ics Depart ment at t he Vict oria Universit y of
Manchest er. A year lat er, he became deput y direct or of t he Comput ing Machine Laborat ory, where
he worked on soft ware for one of t he earliest st ored-program comput ers—t he Manchest er Mark 1.
Turing wrot e t he first version of t he Programmer's Manual for t his machine, and was recruit ed by
Ferrant i as a consult ant in t he development of t heir commercialised machine, t he Ferrant i Mark 1. He
cont inued t o be paid consult ancy fees by Ferrant i unt il his deat h.[137] During t his t ime, he cont inued
t o do more abst ract work in mat hemat ics,[138] and in "Comput ing Machinery and Int elligence" (Mind,
Oct ober 1950), Turing addressed t he problem of art ificial int elligence, and proposed an experiment
t hat became known as t he Turing t est , an at t empt t o define a st andard for a machine t o be called
"int elligent ". The idea was t hat a comput er could be said t o "t hink" if a human int errogat or could not
t ell it apart , t hrough conversat ion, from a human being.[139] In t he paper, Turing suggest ed t hat rat her
t han building a program t o simulat e t he adult mind, it would be bet t er t o produce a simpler one t o
simulat e a child's mind and t hen t o subject it t o a course of educat ion. A reversed form of t he Turing
t est is widely used on t he Int ernet ; t he CAPTCHA t est is int ended t o det ermine whet her t he user is
a human or a comput er.
In 1948, Turing, working wit h his former undergraduat e colleague, D.G. Champernowne, began writ ing
a chess program for a comput er t hat did not yet exist . By 1950, t he program was complet ed and
dubbed t he Turochamp.[140] In 1952, he t ried t o implement it on a Ferrant i Mark 1, but lacking enough
power, t he comput er was unable t o execut e t he program. Inst ead, Turing "ran" t he program by
flipping t hrough t he pages of t he algorit hm and carrying out it s inst ruct ions on a chessboard, t aking
about half an hour per move. The game was recorded.[141] According t o Garry Kasparov, Turing's
program "played a recognizable game of chess".[142] The program lost t o Turing's colleague Alick
Glennie, alt hough it is said t hat it won a game against Champernowne's wife, Isabel.[143]

His Turing t est was a significant , charact erist ically provocat ive, and last ing cont ribut ion t o t he
debat e regarding art ificial int elligence, which cont inues aft er more t han half a cent ury.[144]

Pattern formation and mathematical biology

When Turing was 39 years old in 1951, he t urned t o mat hemat ical biology, finally publishing his
mast erpiece "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis" in January 1952. He was int erest ed in
morphogenesis, t he development of pat t erns and shapes in biological organisms. He suggest ed t hat
a syst em of chemicals react ing wit h each ot her and diffusing across space, t ermed a react ion–
diffusion syst em, could account for "t he main phenomena of morphogenesis".[145] He used syst ems
of part ial different ial equat ions t o model cat alyt ic chemical react ions. For example, if a cat alyst A is
required for a cert ain chemical react ion t o t ake place, and if t he react ion produced more of t he
cat alyst A, t hen we say t hat t he react ion is aut ocat alyt ic, and t here is posit ive feedback t hat can be
modelled by nonlinear different ial equat ions. Turing discovered t hat pat t erns could be creat ed if t he
chemical react ion not only produced cat alyst A, but also produced an inhibit or B t hat slowed down
t he product ion of A. If A and B t hen diffused t hrough t he cont ainer at different rat es, t hen you could
have some regions where A dominat ed and some where B did. To calculat e t he ext ent of t his, Turing
would have needed a powerful comput er, but t hese were not so freely available in 1951, so he had
t o use linear approximat ions t o solve t he equat ions by hand. These calculat ions gave t he right
qualit at ive result s, and produced, for example, a uniform mixt ure t hat oddly enough had regularly
spaced fixed red spot s. The Russian biochemist Boris Belousov had performed experiment s wit h
similar result s, but could not get his papers published because of t he cont emporary prejudice t hat
any such t hing violat ed t he second law of t hermodynamics. Belousov was not aware of Turing's
paper in t he Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.[146]

Alt hough published before t he st ruct ure and role of DNA was underst ood, Turing's work on
morphogenesis remains relevant t oday and is considered a seminal piece of work in mat hemat ical
biology.[147] One of t he early applicat ions of Turing's paper was t he work by James Murray explaining
spot s and st ripes on t he fur of cat s, large and small.[148][149][150] Furt her research in t he area
suggest s t hat Turing's work can part ially explain t he growt h of "feat hers, hair follicles, t he branching
pat t ern of lungs, and even t he left -right asymmet ry t hat put s t he heart on t he left side of t he
chest ".[151] In 2012, Shet h, et al. found t hat in mice, removal of Hox genes causes an increase in t he
number of digit s wit hout an increase in t he overall size of t he limb, suggest ing t hat Hox genes
cont rol digit format ion by t uning t he wavelengt h of a Turing-t ype mechanism.[152] Lat er papers were
not available unt il Collected Works of A. M. Turing was published in 1992.[153]

A st udy conduct ed in 2023 confirmed Turing's mat hemat ical model hypot hesis. Present ed by t he
American Physical Societ y, t he experiment involved growing chia seeds in even layers wit hin t rays,
lat er adjust ing t he available moist ure. Researchers experiment ally t weaked t he fact ors which appear
in t he Turing equat ions, and, as a result , pat t erns resembling t hose seen in nat ural environment s
emerged. This is believed t o be t he first t ime t hat experiment s wit h living veget at ion have verified
Turing's mat hemat ical insight .[154][155]

Personal life

Treasure

In t he 1940s, Turing became worried about losing his savings in t he event of a German invasion. In
order t o prot ect it , he bought t wo silver bars weighing 3,200 oz (90 kg) and wort h £250 (in 2022,
£8,000 adjust ed for inflat ion, £48,000 at spot price) and buried t hem in a wood near Blet chley
Park.[156] Upon ret urning t o dig t hem up, Turing found t hat he was unable t o break his own code
describing where exact ly he had hidden t hem. This, along wit h t he fact t hat t he area had been
renovat ed, meant t hat he never regained t he silver.[157]

Engagement

In 1941, Turing proposed marriage t o Hut 8 colleague Joan Clarke, a fellow mat hemat ician and
crypt analyst , but t heir engagement was short -lived. Aft er admit t ing his homosexualit y t o his fiancée,
who was report edly "unfazed" by t he revelat ion, Turing decided t hat he could not go t hrough wit h
t he marriage.[158]
Homosexuality and indecency conviction

In January 1952, Turing was 39 when he st art ed a relat ionship wit h Arnold Murray, a 19-year-old
unemployed man.[159] Just before Christ mas, Turing was walking along Manchest er's Oxford Road
when he met Murray just out side t he Regal Cinema and invit ed him t o lunch. On 23 January, Turing's
house was burgled. Murray t old Turing t hat he and t he burglar were acquaint ed, and Turing report ed
t he crime t o t he police. During t he invest igat ion, he acknowledged a sexual relat ionship wit h Murray.
Homosexual act s were criminal offences in t he Unit ed Kingdom at t hat t ime,[160] and bot h men were
charged wit h "gross indecency" under Sect ion 11 of t he Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885.[161]
Init ial commit t al proceedings for t he t rial were held on 27 February during which Turing's solicit or
"reserved his defence", i.e., did not argue or provide evidence against t he allegat ions. The
proceedings were held at t he Sessions House in Knut sford.[162]

Turing was lat er convinced by t he advice of his brot her and his own solicit or, and he ent ered a plea
of guilt y.[163] The case, Regina v. Turing and Murray, was brought t o t rial on 31 March 1952.[164]
Turing was convict ed and given a choice bet ween imprisonment and probat ion. His probat ion would
be condit ional on his agreement t o undergo hormonal physical changes designed t o reduce libido,
known as "chemical cast rat ion".[165] He accept ed t he opt ion of inject ions of what was t hen called
st ilboest rol (now known as diet hylst ilbest rol or DES), a synt het ic oest rogen; t his feminizat ion of his
body was cont inued for t he course of one year. The t reat ment rendered Turing impot ent and caused
breast t issue t o form.[166] In a let t er, Turing wrot e t hat "no doubt I shall emerge from it all a
different man, but quit e who I've not found out ".[167][168] Murray was given a condit ional
discharge.[169]

Turing's convict ion led t o t he removal of his securit y clearance and barred him from cont inuing wit h
his crypt ographic consult ancy for t he Government Communicat ions Headquart ers (GCHQ), t he Brit ish
signals int elligence agency t hat had evolved from GC&CS in 1946, t hough he kept his academic job.
His t rial t ook place only mont hs aft er t he defect ion t o t he Soviet Union of Guy Burgess and Donald
Maclean in summer 1951 aft er which t he Foreign Office st art ed t o consider anyone known t o be
homosexual as a pot ent ial securit y risk.[170]

Turing was denied ent ry int o t he Unit ed St at es aft er his convict ion in 1952, but was free t o visit
ot her European count ries.[171] In t he summer of 1952 he visit ed Norway which was more t olerant of
homosexuals. Among t he various men he met t here was one named Kjell Carlson. Kjell int ended t o
visit Turing in t he UK but t he aut horit ies int ercept ed Kjell's post card det ailing his t ravel
arrangement s and were able t o int ercept and deport him before t he t wo could meet .[172] It was also
during t his t ime t hat Turing st art ed consult ing a psychiat rist , Dr Franz Greenbaum, wit h whom he got
on well and who subsequent ly became a family friend.[172][173]
Death

A blue plaque on the house at 43

Adlington Road, Wilmslow, where
Turing lived and died [174]

On 8 June 1954, at his house at 43 Adlingt on Road, Wilmslow, Turing's housekeeper found him
dead.[174] A post mort em was held t hat evening, which det ermined t hat he had died t he previous day
at age 41 wit h cyanide poisoning cit ed as t he cause of deat h.[175][176] When his body was discovered,
an apple lay half-eat en beside his bed, and alt hough t he apple was not t est ed for cyanide,[177] it was
speculat ed t hat t his was t he means by which Turing had consumed a fat al dose.

Turing's brot her, John, ident ified t he body t he following day and t ook t he advice given by Dr.
Greenbaum t o accept t he verdict of t he inquest , as t here was lit t le prospect of est ablishing t hat
t he deat h was accident al.[178] The inquest was held t he following day, which det ermined t he cause
of deat h t o be suicide.[165] Turing's remains were cremat ed at Woking Cremat orium just t wo days
lat er on 12 June 1954 wit h just t hree people at t ending[179][180] and his ashes were scat t ered in t he
gardens of t he cremat orium, just as his fat her's had been.[181] Turing's mot her was on holiday in It aly
at t he t ime of his deat h and ret urned home aft er t he inquest . She never accept ed t he verdict of
suicide.[178]

Andrew Hodges and anot her biographer, David Leavit t , have bot h speculat ed t hat Turing was re-
enact ing a scene from t he Walt Disney film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), his favourit e
fairy t ale. Bot h men not ed t hat (in Leavit t 's words) he t ook "an especially keen pleasure in t he scene
where t he Wicked Queen immerses her apple in t he poisonous brew".[182]

Philosopher Jack Copeland has quest ioned various aspect s of t he coroner's hist orical verdict . He
suggest ed an alt ernat ive explanat ion for t he cause of Turing's deat h: t he accident al inhalat ion of
cyanide fumes from an apparat us used t o elect roplat e gold ont o spoons. The pot assium cyanide
was used t o dissolve t he gold. Turing had such an apparat us set up in his t iny spare room. Copeland
not ed t hat t he aut opsy findings were more consist ent wit h inhalat ion t han wit h ingest ion of t he
poison. Turing also habit ually at e an apple before going t o bed, and it was not unusual for t he apple
t o be discarded half-eat en.[15] Furt hermore, Turing had report edly borne his legal set backs and
hormone t reat ment (which had been discont inued a year previously) "wit h good humour" and had
shown no sign of despondency before his deat h. He even set down a list of t asks t hat he int ended
t o complet e upon ret urning t o his office aft er t he holiday weekend.[15] Turing's mot her believed t hat
t he ingest ion was accident al, result ing from her son's careless st orage of laborat ory chemicals.[183]
Biographer Andrew Hodges t heorised t hat Turing deliberat ely left t he nat ure of his deat h ambiguous
in order t o shield his mot her from t he knowledge t hat he had killed himself.[184] Doubt s on t he
suicide t hesis have been also cast by John W. Dawson Jr. who, in his review of Hodges' book, recalls
"Turing's vulnerable posit ion in t he Cold War polit ical climat e" and point s out t hat "Turing was found
dead by a maid, who discovered him 'lying neat ly in his bed'—hardly what one would expect of "a man
fight ing for life against t he suffocat ion induced by cyanide poisoning." Turing had given no hint of
suicidal inclinat ions t o his friends and had made no effort t o put his affairs in order.[185]

Turing's OBE currently held in

Sherborne School archives

It has been suggest ed t hat Turing's belief in fort une-t elling may have caused his depressed
mood.[181] As a yout h, Turing had been t old by a fort une-t eller t hat he would be a genius. In mid-May
1954, short ly before his deat h, Turing again decided t o consult a fort une-t eller during a day-t rip t o
St Annes-on-Sea wit h t he Greenbaum family.[181] According t o t he Greenbaums' daught er,
Barbara:[173]

But it was a lovely sunny day and Alan was in a cheerful mood and off we went ...
Then he thought it would be a good idea to go to the Pleasure Beach at Blackpool.
We found a fortune-teller's tent and Alan said he'd like to go in[,] so we waited
around for him to come back ... And this sunny, cheerful visage had shrunk into a
pale, shaking, horror-stricken face. Something had happened. We don't know what
 the fortune-teller said but he obviously was deeply unhappy. I think that was
probably the last time we saw him before we heard of his suicide.

Government apology and pardon

In August 2009, Brit ish programmer John Graham-Cumming st art ed a pet it ion urging t he Brit ish
government t o apologise for Turing's prosecut ion as a homosexual.[186][187] The pet it ion received
more t han 30,000 signat ures.[188][189] The prime minist er, Gordon Brown, acknowledged t he pet it ion,
releasing a st at ement on 10 Sept ember 2009 apologising and describing t he t reat ment of Turing as
"appalling":[188][190]

Thousands of people have come together to demand justice for Alan Turing and
recognition of the appalling way he was treated. While Turing was dealt with
under the law of the time and we can't put the clock back, his treatment was of
course utterly unfair and I am pleased to have the chance to say how deeply sorry I
and we all are for what happened to him ... So on behalf of the British government,
and all those who live freely thanks to Alan's work I am very proud to say: we're
sorry, you deserved so much better.[188][191]

In December 2011, William Jones and his member of Parliament , John Leech, creat ed an e-
pet it ion[192] request ing t hat t he Brit ish government pardon Turing for his convict ion of "gross
indecency":[193]

We ask the HM Government to grant a pardon to Alan Turing for the conviction of
"gross indecency". In 1952, he was convicted of "gross indecency" with another man
and was forced to undergo so-called "organo-therapy"—chemical castration. Two
years later, he killed himself with cyanide, aged just 41. Alan Turing was driven to a
terrible despair and early death by the nation he'd done so much to save. This
remains a shame on the British government and British history. A pardon can go
some way to healing this damage. It may act as an apology to many of the other gay
men, not as well-known as Alan Turing, who were subjected to these laws.[192]

The pet it ion gat hered over 37,000 signat ures,[192][194] and was submit t ed t o Parliament by t he
Manchest er MP John Leech but t he request was discouraged by Just ice Minist er Lord McNally, who
said:[195]
 A posthumous pardon was not considered appropriate as Alan Turing was properly
convicted of what at the time was a criminal offence. He would have known that his
offence was against the law and that he would be prosecuted. It is tragic that Alan
Turing was convicted of an offence that now seems both cruel and absurd—
particularly poignant given his outstanding contribution to the war effort.
However, the law at the time required a prosecution and, as such, long-standing
policy has been to accept that such convictions took place and, rather than trying to
alter the historical context and to put right what cannot be put right, ensure instead
that we never again return to those times.[196]

John Leech, t he MP for Manchest er Wit hingt on (2005–15), submit t ed several bills t o Parliament [197]
and led a high-profile campaign t o secure t he pardon. Leech made t he case in t he House of
Commons t hat Turing's cont ribut ion t o t he war made him a nat ional hero and t hat it was "ult imat ely
just embarrassing" t hat t he convict ion st ill st ood.[198] Leech cont inued t o t ake t he bill t hrough
Parliament and campaigned for several years, gaining t he public support of numerous leading
scient ist s, including St ephen Hawking.[199][200] At t he Brit ish premiere of a film based on Turing's life,
The Imitation Game, t he producers t hanked Leech for bringing t he t opic t o public at t ent ion and
securing Turing's pardon.[201] Leech is now regularly described as t he "archit ect " of Turing's pardon
and subsequent ly t he Alan Turing Law which went on t o secure pardons for 75,000 ot her men and
women convict ed of similar crimes.[202][203][204][205][206][207][208]

On 26 July 2012, a bill was int roduced in t he House of Lords t o grant a st at ut ory pardon t o Turing for
offences under sect ion 11 of t he Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, of which he was convict ed on
31 March 1952.[209] Lat e in t he year in a let t er t o The Daily Telegraph, t he physicist St ephen Hawking
and 10 ot her signat ories including t he Ast ronomer Royal Lord Rees, President of t he Royal Societ y
Sir Paul Nurse, Lady Trumpingt on (who worked for Turing during t he war) and Lord Sharkey (t he bill's
sponsor) called on Prime Minist er David Cameron t o act on t he pardon request .[210] The government
indicat ed it would support t he bill,[211][212][213] and it passed it s t hird reading in t he House of Lords in
Oct ober.[214]

At t he bill's second reading in t he House of Commons on 29 November 2013, Conservat ive MP

Christ opher Chope object ed t o t he bill, delaying it s passage. The bill was due t o ret urn t o t he House
of Commons on 28 February 2014,[215] but before t he bill could be debat ed in t he House of
Commons,[216] t he government elect ed t o proceed under t he royal prerogat ive of mercy. On 24
December 2013, Queen Elizabet h II signed a pardon for Turing's convict ion for "gross indecency",
wit h immediat e effect .[217] Announcing t he pardon, Lord Chancellor Chris Grayling said Turing
deserved t o be "remembered and recognised for his fant ast ic cont ribut ion t o t he war effort " and
not for his lat er criminal convict ion.[194][218] The Queen officially pronounced Turing pardoned in
August 2014.[219] The Queen's act ion is only t he fourt h royal pardon grant ed since t he conclusion of
t he Second World War.[220] Pardons are normally grant ed only when t he person is t echnically
innocent , and a request has been made by t he family or ot her int erest ed part y; neit her condit ion was
met in regard t o Turing's convict ion.[221]

In Sept ember 2016, t he government announced it s int ent ion t o expand t his ret roact ive exonerat ion
t o ot her men convict ed of similar hist orical indecency offences, in what was described as an "Alan
Turing law".[222][223] The Alan Turing law is now an informal t erm for t he law in t he Unit ed Kingdom,
cont ained in t he Policing and Crime Act 2017, which serves as an amnest y law t o ret roact ively
pardon men who were caut ioned or convict ed under hist orical legislat ion t hat out lawed homosexual
act s. The law applies in England and Wales.[224]

On 19 July 2023, following an apology t o LGBT vet erans from t he UK Government , Defence
Secret ary Ben Wallace suggest ed Turing should be honoured wit h a permanent st at ue on t he fourt h
plint h of Trafalgar Square, describing Turing as "probably t he great est war hero, in my book, of t he
Second World War, [whose] achievement s short ened t he war, saved t housands of lives, helped
defeat t he Nazis. And his st ory is a sad st ory of a societ y and how it t reat ed him."[225][226][227]

Publications

Turing, A. M. (1938). "On Comput able Numbers, wit h an Applicat ion t o t he Ent scheidungsproblem: A
correct ion". Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 2. 43 (published 1937): 544–46.
doi:10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544 (ht t ps://[Link]/10.1112%2Fplms%2Fs2-43.6.544) .

Turing, Alan (1950). "Comput ing Machinery and Int elligence" (ht t ps://[Link]/course
s/471/papers/t [Link]) (PDF). Mind. 49 (236): 433–460. doi:10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433 (ht t p
s://[Link]/10.1093%2Fmind%2FLIX.236.433) . Archived (ht t ps://ghost [Link]/archive/20221
009/ht t ps://[Link]/courses/471/papers/t [Link]) (PDF) from t he original on 9
Oct ober 2022.

See also

Legacy of Alan Turing

List of t hings named aft er Alan Turing

References

Notes
1. Turing's death was officially determined as a suicide by an inquest, but this has been disputed.

2. Alan and Joan were engaged in 1941 but did not marry.

Citations

1. Alan Turing ([Link] publications indexed by

Google Scholar

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3. Gandy, Robin Oliver (1953). On axiomatic systems in mathematics and theories in physics ([Link]
[Link]/handle/1810/245090) (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge.
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4. Bowen, Jonathan P. (2019). "The Impact of Alan Turing: Formal Methods and Beyond". In Bowen,
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Retrieved 10 January 2011. "Providing a blueprint for the electronic digital computer. The fact remains
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working on an incarnation of a Turing machine."
 8. Sipser 2006, p. 137

9. Beavers 2013, p. 481

10. Copeland, Jack (18 June 2012). "Alan Turing: The codebreaker who saved 'millions of lives' " ([Link]
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11. A number of sources state that Winston Churchill said that Turing made the single biggest
contribution to Allied victory in the war against Nazi Germany. However, both the Churchill Centre and
Turing's biographer Andrew Hodges have stated they know of no documentary evidence to support
this claim, nor of the date or context in which Churchill supposedly said it, and the Churchill Centre
lists it among their Churchill 'Myths', see Schilling, Jonathan (8 January 2015). "Myths > Churchill Said
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-contribution-to-allied-victory) . The Churchill Centre. Archived from the original ([Link]
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14. Olinick, Michael (2021). "Chapter 15". Simply Turing. United States: Simply Charly.
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Further reading

Articles
Copeland, B. Jack (ed.). "The Mind and the Computing Machine: Alan Turing and others" ([Link]
[Link]/[Link]) . The Rutherford Journal.

Copeland, B. Jack (ed.). "Alan Turing: Father of the Modern Computer" ([Link]
[Link]) . The Rutherford Journal.

Hodges, Andrew (2004). "Turing, Alan Mathison". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.).
Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/36578 ([Link]
8) . (Subscription or UK public library membership ([Link]
required.)

Hodges, Andrew (2007). "Alan Turing" ([Link] . In Edward N. Zalta

(ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2009 ed.). Stanford University. Retrieved 10 January
2011.
 Gray, Paul (29 March 1999). "Computer Scientist: Alan Turing" ([Link]
903/[Link] . Time. Archived from the
original ([Link] on 16 October 2007.

O'Connell, H; Fitzgerald, M (2003). "Did Alan Turing have Asperger's syndrome?". Irish Journal of
Psychological Medicine. 20 (1). Irish Institute of Psychological Medicine: 28–31.
doi:10.1017/s0790966700007503 ([Link] . ISSN 0790-9667 (ht
tps://[Link]/issn/0790-9667) . PMID 30440230 ([Link]
0) . S2CID 53563123 ([Link] .

O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Alan Mathison Turing" ([Link]
Biographies/[Link]) , MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews

Books
Agar, Jon (2001). Turing and the Universal Machine. Duxford: Icon. ISBN 978-1-84046-250-0.

Agar, Jon (2003). The government machine: a revolutionary history of the computer. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01202-7.

Babbage, Charles (1864). Campbell-Kelly, Martin (ed.). Passages from the life of a philosopher. Rough Draft
Printing (published 2008). ISBN 978-1-60386-092-5.

Beniger, James (1986). The control revolution: technological and economic origins of the information
society . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16986-9.

Bernhardt, Chris (2017). Turing's Vision: The Birth of Computer Science. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-53351-
5.

Bodanis, David (2005). Electric Universe: How Electricity Switched on the Modern World. New York: Three
Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0-307-33598-2. OCLC 61684223 ([Link] .

Bruderer, Herbert (2012). "Die Maschinen von Charles Babbage, Alan Turing und John von Neumann".
Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz. Wer hat den Computer erfunden? (in German). München: Oldenbourg
Wissenschaftsverlag. doi:10.1524/9783486716658 ([Link] .
ISBN 978-3-486-71366-4.

Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Aspray, William (1996). Computer: A History of the Information Machine ([Link]
[Link]/details/computerhistoryo00camp) . New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02989-1.

Ceruzzi, Paul E. (1998). A History of Modern Computing. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: MIT
Press. ISBN 978-0-262-53169-6.

Chandler, Alfred (1977). The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business ([Link]
org/details/visiblehandmanag00chan) . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-
94052-9.

Cooper, S. Barry; van Leeuwen, Jan (2013). Alan Turing: His Work and Impact . New York: Elsevier. ISBN 978-
0-12-386980-7.
Copeland, B. Jack, ed. (2005). Alan Turing's Automatic Computing Engine ([Link]
uringsautom0000unse) . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856593-2. OCLC 224640979 (htt
ps://[Link]/oclc/224640979) .

Copeland, B. Jack; Bowen, Jonathan P.; Wilson, Robin; Sprevak, Mark (2017). The Turing Guide. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-874783-3.

Dyson, George (2012). Turing's Cathedral: The Origins of the Digital Universe. Vintage. ISBN 978-1-4000-
7599-7.

Edwards, Paul N (1996). The closed world: computers and the politics of discourse in Cold War America.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-55028-4.

Gleick, James (2011). The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-375-
42372-7.

Hochhuth, Rolf (1988). Alan Turing: en berättelse. Symposion. ISBN 978-91-7868-109-9.

Hodges, Andrew (2014). Alan Turing: The Enigma. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16472-4.
(originally published in 1983); basis of the film The Imitation Game

Levin, Janna (2006). A Madman Dreams of Turing Machines . New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-3240-2.

Lubar, Steven (1993). Infoculture ([Link] . Boston,

Massachusetts and New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-57042-5.

Petzold, Charles (2008). The Annotated Turing: A Guided Tour through Alan Turing's Historic Paper on
Computability and the Turing Machine. Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-470-22905-7.

Smith, Roger (1997). Fontana History of the Human Sciences . London: Fontana.

Turing, Sara Stoney (1959). Alan M Turing. W Heffer. Turing's mother, who survived him by many years,
wrote this 157-page biography of her son, glorifying his life. It was published in 1959, and so could not
cover his war work. Scarcely 300 copies were sold (Sara Turing to Lyn Newman, 1967, Library of St John's
College, Cambridge). The six-page foreword by Lyn Irvine includes reminiscences and is more frequently
quoted. It was re-published by Cambridge University Press in 2012, to honour the centenary of his birth,
and included a new foreword by Martin Davis, as well as a never-before-published memoir by Turing's
older brother John F. Turing.

Turing, Sara (2012). Alan M. Turing. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02058-0. (originally
published in 1959 by W. Heffer & Sons, Ltd)

Weizenbaum, Joseph (1976). Computer Power and Human Reason. London: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-
0463-3.

Whitemore, Hugh; Hodges, Andrew (1988). Breaking the code. S. French. This 1986 Hugh Whitemore play
tells the story of Turing's life and death. In the original West End and Broadway runs, Derek Jacobi played
Turing and he recreated the role in a 1997 television film based on the play made jointly by the BBC and
WGBH, Boston. The play is published by Amber Lane Press, Oxford, ASIN: B000B7TM0Q
 Williams, Michael R. (1985). A History of Computing Technology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall. ISBN 0-8186-7739-2.

Yates, David M. (1997). Turing's Legacy: A history of computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945–
1995. London: London Science Museum. ISBN 978-0-901805-94-2. OCLC 123794619 ([Link]
[Link]/oclc/123794619) .

External links

Oral hist ory int erview wit h Nicholas C. Met ropolis (ht t p://purl.u
Alan Turing
[Link]/107493) , Charles Babbage Inst it ut e, Universit y of at Wikipedia's sister projects
Minnesot a. Met ropolis was t he first direct or of comput ing
services at Los Alamos Nat ional Laborat ory; t opics include t he Media from Commons
relat ionship bet ween Turing and John von Neumann News from Wikinews

How Alan Turing Cracked The Enigma Code (ht t p://[Link] Quotations from Wikiquote
[Link]/hist ory/how-alan-t uring-cracked-t he-enigma-code) Texts from Wikisource
Imperial War Museums

Alan Turing Year (ht t p://[Link] [Link]/t uring2012/) Archived (ht t ps://[Link].o
rg/web/20190217215512/ht t p://[Link] [Link]/t uring2012/) 17 February 2019 at
t he Wayback Machine

CiE 2012: Turing Cent enary Conference (ht t p://[Link]/)

Science in t he Making (ht t ps://[Link] [Link]/s/rs/people/fst 00117605)

Archived (ht t ps://[Link]/web/20230404044604/ht t ps://[Link] [Link]/
s/rs/people/fst 00117605) 4 April 2023 at t he Wayback Machine Alan Turing's papers in t he
Royal Societ y's archives

Alan Turing (ht t p://www.t [Link]/) sit e maint ained by Andrew Hodges including a short
biography (ht t ps://[Link]/web/20180721235734/ht t p://www.t [Link]/bio/part [Link] m
l)

[Link] – Turing Archive for t he Hist ory of Comput ing (ht t ps://[Link]/web/20181
012014022/ht t p://[Link] [Link] /) by Jack Copeland

The Turing Digit al Archive (ht t ps://t [Link]/) – cont ains scans of some
unpublished document s and mat erial from t he King's College, Cambridge archive

Alan Turing Papers (ht t ps://[Link]/manchest eruniversit y/dat a/gb133-t ur/add) –

Universit y of Manchest er Library, Manchest er
Jones, G. James (11 December 2001). "Alan Turing – Towards a Digit al Mind: Part 1" (ht t ps://web.a
[Link]/web/20070803163318/ht t p://[Link] emt [Link]/art [Link]?hist ory_ id=3) .
System Toolbox. The Binary Freedom Project . Archived from t he original (ht t p://[Link] emt oolb
[Link]/art [Link]?hist ory_ id=3) on 3 August 2007.

Sherborne School Archives (ht t ps://[Link]/web/20160104203150/ht t p://oldshirburnian.o

[Link]/wp-cont ent /uploads/2015/09/TURING-Alan-Mat [Link]) – holds papers relat ing t o
Turing's t ime at Sherborne School

Alan Turing plaques (ht t ps://[Link]/people/368) recorded on [Link]

Alan Turing (ht t ps://[Link] ist .com/people/alan-t uring/) archive on New Scient ist

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