PHYSICS PROJECT

ON

“To study the various factors on which the

Internal resistance/EMF of the cell depends”.
 OVERVIEW

* Introduction
* Aim of project
* Theory
* Circuit diagram
* Apparatus Required
* Procedure Followed
* Observation
* Results and Inference
* Precautions
* Bibliography

INTRODUCTION
There is a great need of batteries in our daily use electronic appliances and the use is increasing
every day. Thus , the batteries need to be made more powerful so that their potential can be
increased greatly . Thus , this project report is based on practical analysis for the factors affecting
the internal resistance of a cell. When the internal resistance of the cell is decreased we can
increase the potential difference across it, and hence make it more reliable.

To study the various factors on which the internal resistance and emf of the cell
depends

INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Internal resistance is defined as the resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to
the flow of ions.

Its S.I. unit is ohm(Ω ) its s.i unit is ohm for a cell of emf (E) and internal resistance (r),
connected to an external resistance (R) such that (I) is the current flowing through
the circuit
E = V + Ir

Then

r = E-V/I

AIM OF PROJECT

To study the various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of the cell depends.

THEORY
The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by its electrolyte to the flow of ions. The
internal resistance of a cell is
∙ Directly proportional to the distance between the electrodes.
∙ Is inversely proportional to facing surface area of the electrodes in electrolyte.
∙ Decreases with increase in temperature of electrolyte.
∙ Is inversely proportional to concentration of electrolyte

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Apparatus Required
A potentiometer,
● A jockey,
● A battery,
● Three way keys,
● A fractional resistance box,
● A high resistance box (about 0-10000 Ω),
● A rheostat of low resistance,
● A voltmeter, a primary cell (say voltaic),
● Electrolytes of different concentrations,
● An ammeter, connecting wires and pieces of Sand paper.

PROCEDURE FOLLOWED
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight connections according
to the circuit diagram.
2. Tighten the plugs of the resistance box.
3. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and of the cell and make sure that e.m.f. of the battery is more
than that of the cell, otherwise null or balance point will not be obtained.

To study variation of internal resistance with distance of separation

4. Keep both the electrodes at a distance of 16 cm.

5. Take maximum current from the battery, making rheostat resistance small.
6. Without inserting a plug in key K2, adjust the rheostat so that a null point is obtained on the
last wire of the potentiometer.
7. Determine the position of the null point accurately using a set square and measure the
balancing length (l1) between the null point and the end P.
8. Next introduce plugs in both keys K1 and K2. At the same time, take out a small resistance (1
– 5W) from the shunt resistance box connected in parallel with the cell.
9. Slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire and obtain the null point.
10. Measure the balancing length (l2) from end P. Record these observations.
11. Now keep the electrodes 12 cm apart. Then remove the plugs of keys K1 and K2. Wait for
some time and repeat steps 7 to 10.
12. Next, keep the electrodes 9 cm apart to obtain another set of observations.

To study variation of internal resistance with area of electrodes

13. Keeping all other factors constant, increase the area of electrodes in the electrolyte by
dipping them into the electrolyte at different depths for each observation.
14. Obtain three such observations by repeating steps 7 to 10. Record your readings.

To study variation of internal resistance with concentration of electrolyte

15. Keeping all other factors constant, decrease the concentration of electrolyte by adding
distilled water for different observations.
16. Obtain three such observations by repeating step.

OBSERVATION
Table for effect of separation between electrodes

Table for effect of temperature

RESULT & INFERENCES

● The Electromotive Force of the cell is constant and is equal to E = 0.98 Volt.
 ● The internal resistance of a cell is directly proportional to the separation between the
electrodes.
● The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the area of the electrodes
dipped in electrolyte.
● The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the temperature of
electrolytes.
● The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the concentration of the
electrolyte.

PRECAUTIONS

1. The connections should be neat , clean and tight.

2. The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations are to be taken.
3. The positive polls of the battery E and cells E1 and E2 should , all be connected to the
terminal at the zero of the wires.
4. The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should touch the wire gently.
5. The ammeter reading should remain constant for a particular set of observation. If
necessary , adjust the rheostat for this purpose.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
∙ Help from internet
1. Wikipedia
2. Google
∙ Information from library
∙ Help from teacher
∙NCERT textbook class 12th
∙NCERT physics lab manual
Project work 2
 PHYSICS PROJECT
ON

“To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit containing a LDR, because of
a variation:-
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at
a fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of an incandescent lamp, (of fixed power), used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR ”.

OVERVIEW

* Abstract
* Objective
 * Theory
* Apparatus Required
* Circuit Diagram
* Procedure
* Observation
* Application
* Conclusion
* References

ABSTRACT

The general purpose photoconductive cell is also known as LDR – light dependent resistor. It is a
type of semiconductor and its conductivity changes with proportional change in the intensity of
light. There are two common types of materials used to manufacture the photoconductive cells.
They are Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide (CdSe). Extrinsic devices have impurities
added, which have a ground state energy closer to the conduction band - since the electrons don't
have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are
sufficient to trigger the device. Two of its earliest applications were as part of smoke and fire
detection systems and camera light meters. The structure is covered with glass sheet to protect it
from moisture and dust and allows only light to fall on it.

Objective

To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit containing a LDR, because of a

variation:-

(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at
a fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of a incandescent lamp, (of fixed power), used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.

THEORY

1. LDR and its characteristics when light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby
it excites an electron from valence band into conduction band.
 2. Due to such new electrons coming up in conduction band area, the electrical resistance
of the device decreases. Thus, the LDR or photoconductive transducer has the resistance,
which is the inverse function of radiation intensity.

λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters

e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs
Ew = work function of the metal used, in Ev.

Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength greater than the value obtained in
above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the resistance of this device. The band gap
energy of Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42eV and for Cadmium Selenide it is1.74eV. Due to such large
energy gaps, both the materials have extremely high resistivity at room temperature.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS

Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistance is called as dark resistance. This
resistance is typically of the order of 1013 ohms. When light falls on it, its resistance decreases
up to several kilo ohms or even hundreds of ohms, depending on the intensity of light, falling on
it. The spectral response characteristics of two commercial cells were compared in our
laboratory. And we found that there is almost no response to the radiation of a wavelength
which was shorter than 300nm. It was very interesting to note that the Cadmium Sulphide cell
has a peak response nearer or within the green color of the spectrum within a range of 520nm.
Thus it can be used nearer to the infra-red region up to 750nm. It was found that the maximum
response of Cadmium Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at 615nm and also it can be
used in the infra-red region up to about 970nm.

SENSITIVITY
The sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship between the light falling on the device and
the resulting output signal. In the case of a photocell, one is dealing with the relationship
between the incident light and the corresponding resistance of the cell.

SPECTRAL RESPONSE
Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a photoconductive cell is dependent on the
wavelength (color) of the incident light. Each photoconductor material type has its own unique
spectral response curve or plot of the relative response of the photocell versus wavelength of
light.
APPARTUS REQUIRED:

● Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

● Connecting Wires
● Source of different power rating (bulbs)
● Bulb Holder
● Meter scale
● Multi Meter
● Battery

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:
 ● Choose a specific position for the source and mount it using a holder, make sure it is
stable.
● Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and connect it to the holder as shown in the
figure.
● Connect the LDR, battery(6V) and the multimeter in series.
● Set the multimeter to ohm section and select suitable range and measure the resistance
with a bulb on.
● Similarly switch to current section and move to micro ampere in the multimeter. This
gives the value of the current.
● Repeat these steps with different power sources at different distances and note down
observations

OBSERVATIONS

The experiment has been conducted by using various sources with different power ratings.
Voltage of the battery = 6 V
APPLICATION:

Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs are used for the mid infrared spectral
region. GeCu photoconductors are among the best farinfrared detectors available, and are used
for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

Analog Applications

· Camera Exposure Control

· Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
· Photocopy Machines - density of toner
· Colorimetric Test Equipment
· Densitometer
· Electronic Scales - dual cell
· Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source
· Automated Rear View Mirror

Digital Applications

· Automatic Headlight Dimmer

· Night Light Control
· Oil Burner Flame Out
· Street Light Control
· Position Sensor

CONCLUSION

∙ The LDR resistance decreases with increase in intensity of light and hence there is an increase in
the flow of current.
∙ There is an increase in the current as the distance from the source decreases.
∙ The intensity decreases as the distance from the source increases
∙ The error lies within the experimental limit.
REFERENCES

∙ NCERT physics class XII

∙ Art of Electronics by Paul worowitz
∙ [Link]/
PROJECT WORK 3
 PHYSICS PROJECT
ON
“To find refractive indices of water and turpentine oil using a plane mirror, an equiconvex lens
(made from a glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable object needle .”

SUBMITTED BY:
 OVERVIEW

* Aim
* Apparatus
* Theory
* Procedure
* Observation
* Calculation
* Precaution
* Source of error
* Result
* References
AIM:

To find refractive indices of water and turpentine oil using a plane mirror, a equiconvex lens
(made from a glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable object needle.

APPARATUS:

A convex lens, an optical needle, a plane mirror, a clamp stand, a spherometer, a plumb line,
metre scale, water and turpentine oil.

THEORY:

Let’s add small amount of water on a flat, plane surface and place a convex lens over it. This
forms a plano-concave lens of water between the lower surface of convex lens and plane mirror.
Let f1 and f2 are the focal lengths of water lens and convex lens respectively,

Focal length of the combination is:

1 1 1
= +
F f1 f2

The focal length of the Plano-concave lens is

1 1 1
= − …………………………………… (i)
f1 F f2

From Lens Maker’s formula,

1 1 1
=(μ−1)( − )
f1 R1 R2

1 1
=(μ−1)( )
f1 R

∴ R1 = R and R2 = ∞ for water lens.

The refractive index of water is,

 R
μ=1+ ……………………………………………………………….. (ii)
f1

Where ‘R’ is the radius of curvature of the concave surfaces of the Plano-concave lens

2
l h
The Radius of curvature of lens is R= + ……………………………………………………. (iii)
6h 2

PROCEDURE:

I. For finding the focal length of convex lens:

i. Measure the rough focal length of the convex lens.

ii. Place the plane mirror with the convex lens placed on it above the horizontal base of a clamp
stand horizontally as its tip lies vertically above the optical centre of the lens. Adjust the needle
at a height a little more than the rough focal length of the convex lens.

iii. Try to remove the parallax between the tip of the object needle and its image tip.

iv. Note the distance of the tip of the needle from the centre of the upper surface of the lens. Let it
be x1. (Use plumb line).

v. Remove the convex lens and measure the distance of the tip of the needle from the plane mirror.
Let it be x2. (Use plumb line).

vi. Repeat and record all the observations.

II. For finding the focal length of the Plano-concave lens:

i. Pour few drops of water over the plane mirror and place the convex lens over it.
Repeat steps (ii) to (iv) as done above.

ii. Repeat the procedure with turpentine oil also

III. For finding ‘l’:

Determine the pitch and least count of scale of the spherometer. Place the spherometer on the dried
surface of the convex lens. Turn the screw downwards very gently till the tip of the screw just touches
the lens. Read and record the reading.

Keep the spherometer’s legs on the base of a paper and adjusting the central screw, find the pricks A, B
and C of the three legs of the spherometer. Join the centres of the three pricks and measure the lengths
with the half-metre scale.
Note the values of AB, BC and AC

Fig: (a) to find focal length of convex lens

(b) For the length of legs AB, BC, CA of the spherometer

 Fig: To find focal length of the Plano concave lens

OBSERVATIONS

Pitch of the spherometer= 1 cm

Least count of the spherometer = 0.01 cm
Distance between the legs:
AB = 3 cm
BC = 3 cm
CA = 3 cm

Table for calculation of ‘h’

[Link] Initial reading No. of Final reading Additional h=n x Mean “h”
of the C.S. on complete of the c.s on pitch
C.S div.
the convex lens rotations the
moved + m x
glass slab
(a) L.C
(n)

1 62 0 6.5 55.5 0.555 0.5775

2 64 0 4 60 0.6

To measure focal length (f) of convex lens

 Distance of needle tip from

Area between lens [Link] Tip of the upper Upper surface Mean Focal
and plane mirror surface of the convex of the plane length
lens mirror x 1+ x 2
x=
X1 X2 2

Without 1 30.5 31 30.75 f1=

liquid 2 36.7 37.2 36.95 33.85

With water 1 31.4 31.8 31.6 f2=34.7

2 37.5 38.1 37.8

With oil 1 9.4 9.6 9.5 f3=10

2 10.4 10,6 10.5

CALCULATIONS
Mean distance between two lens:
AB+ BC +CA
L= =3cm
3

Mean h = 0.7557 cm

To find the radius of curvature of the convex lens:

2
l h
R= +
6h 2

R = 2.27366 𝑐𝑚
Measurement of refractive indices of water and turpentine oil
1) With water between the convex lens and the plane mirror:
R 2.27366
μ1=1+ =1+
f1 34.7
μ1=1.06552

2) With turpentine oil between the convex lens and the plane mirror:

R 2.27366
μ2=1+ =1+
f3 10
μ2=1.22736

PRECAUTIONS

● The screw of the spherometer should be moved in one direction only to avoid
backlash error.
● The screw should be moved just to touch the surface of the convex lens or the glass
slab.
● The parallax should be removed properly.
● The lens and the plane mirror should be properly cleaned.
● The convex lens of large focal length should be used.
● The spherometer reading should be taken first on the surface of the convex lens
and then on the glass slab.
SOURCES OF ERROR:

● The distances x1 and x2 may not be measured correctly.

● The value of h and l may not be correct.
● Parallax may not be removed properly.
● Backlash error may be acting on the spherometer.
RESULT
● The refractive index of water is µ1 = 1.06552
● The refractive index of turpentine oil is µ2 = 1.22736
REFERENCES

∙ Help from internet

1. Wikipedia
2. Google
∙ Information from library
∙ Help from teacher
∙NCERT textbook class 12th
∙NCERT physics lab manual
PROJECT WORK 4
 PHYSICS PROJECT
ON

“To investigate the relation between the ratio of:

1. Output and Input Voltage
2. Number of turns in the secondary coil and the primary coil of a self-designed
transformer.”

SUBMITTED BY:
 OVERVIEW

* Objective
* Circuit diagram
* Introduction
* Theory
* Procedure
* Observation
* Result
* Precaution
* Source of error
* References
OBJECTIVE:

To investigate the relation between the ratio of:

1. Output and Input Voltage

2. Number of turns in the secondary coil and the primary coil of a self-designed
transformer.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

INTRODUCTION :

The transformer is a device used for converting a low alternating voltage to a high
alternating voltage or vice-versa. A Transformer based on the Principle of mutual
induction according to this principle, the amount of magnetic flux linked with a coil
changing, an e.m.f is induced in the neighboring coil.
A transformer is an electrical device which is used for changing the A.C. voltages. A
transformer is most widely used device in both low and high current circuit. As such
transformers are built in an amazing strength of sizes.

In electronic, measurement and control circuits, transformer size may be so small

that it weight only a few tens of grams where as in high voltage power circuits, it
may weight hundred of tones. In a transformer, the electrical energy transfer from
one circuit to another circuit takes place without the use of moving parts. A
transformer which increases the voltages is called a stepup transformer. A
transformer which decreases the A.C. voltages is called a step-down transformer.
Transformer is, therefore, an essential piece of apparatus both for high and low
current circuits.

THEORY :

When an altering e.m.f. is supplied to the primary coil p1p2, an alternating current
starts falling in it. The altering current in the primary produces a changing magnetic
flux, which induces altering voltage in the primary as well as in the secondary.
In a good transformer, whole of the magnetic flux linked with primary is also linked
with the secondary, and then the induced e.m.f. induced in each turn of the
secondary is equal to that induced in each turn of the primary. Thus if Ep and Es be
the instantaneous values of the e.m.f.’s induced in the primary and the secondary
and Np and Ns are the no. of turns of the primary secondary coils of the transformer
and
dф / dt = rate of change of flux in each turn off the coil at this instant,
we have,
Ep = -Np dф/dt _______________ (1)

and
Es = -Ns dф/dt _______________ (2)

Since the above relations are true at every instant, so by dividing 2 by 1, we get
 Es / Ep = - Ns / Np ______________ (3)

As Ep is the instantaneous value of back e.m.f induced in the primary coil p1, so the
instantaneous current in primary coil is due to the difference (E – Ep ) in the
instantaneous values of the applied and back e.m.f. further if Rp is the resistance o, p1p2
coil, then the instantaneous current Ip in the primary coil is given by
Ip = E – Ep / Rp
E – Ep = Ip Rp
When the resistance of the primary is small, Rp Ip can be neglected so therefore
E – Ep = 0 or Ep = E
Thus back e.m.f = input e.m.f
Hence equation 3 can be written as
Es / Ep = Es / E
= output e.m.f / input e.m.f
= Ns / Np = K

Where K is constant, called turn or transformation ratio.

PROCEDURE :

● Take a laminated iron core and wind a small number [say about 2000 ] of turns of
thick insulated copper wire uniformly on it leaving two free ends P1 P2 .
● Wind a large numbers of turns [say 100] of thin insulated copper wire on the
opposite arm of the core leaving two free end S1 & S2.
● Connect the primary coil to a variable a.c. supply source and secondary to a.c. volt
meter of suitable range .
● Connect an a.c. voltmeter across the primary to measure the input voltage .
OBSERVATIONS :

● No. of turns in primary , NP = 2000

● No. of turns in secondary , NS = 100

S. No. Input Voltage EP [volt] Output Voltage ES ES/EP

[volt]

1. 12 V 240 V 1/20

2. 240 V 12 V 20

RESULT:
Clearly ES/EP = NS/NP within experimental error .

PRECAUTIONS :
● Keep yourself safe from voltage .
● While taking the readings of the current and voltage of the a.c. should remain
constant.

SOURCES OF ERROR :
● Values of current can be changed due to heating effect .
● Eddy current can changed the readings
REFERENCES

∙ Help from internet

1. Wikipedia
2. Google
∙ Information from library
∙ Help from teacher
∙NCERT textbook class 12th
∙NCERT physics lab manual
PROJECT WORK 5
 PHYSICS PROJECT
ON

“To investigate the dependence, of the angle of deviation on the angle of

incidence, using a hallow prism filled, one by one, with different transparent
fluids.”
 OVERVIEW

* Introduction
* Aim
* Apparatus
* Theory
* Procedure
* Observation Table
* Precaution
* Result
* References
INTRODUCTION
In optics, a prism is a transparent optical element with flat,
polished surfaces that refracts light. The exact angles between the surfaces
depend on the application. The traditional geometrical shape is that of a
triangular prism with a triangular base and rectangular sides, and in
colloquial use “prism” usually refers to this type.
Some types of optical prism are not in fact in the shape of geometric prisms.
Prisms can be made from any material that is transparent to the
wavelengths for which they are designed. Typical materials include glass,
plastic and fluorite. Prism can be used to break light up into its constituent
spectral colors (the colors of the rainbow). Prisms can also be used to reflect
light, or to split light into components with different polarizations.

Before Isaac Newton, it was believed that white light was colorless,
and that the prism itself produced the color. Newton’s experiments
demonstrated that all the colors already existed in the light in a
heterogeneous fashion, and that “corpuscles” (particles) of light were fanned
out
because particles with different colors traveled with different speeds
through the prism. It was only later that Young and Fresnel combined
Newton’s particle theory with Huygens’ wave theory to show that color is
the visible manifestation of light’s wavelength. Newton arrived at his
conclusion by passing the red color from one prism through second prism
and found the color unchanged. From this, he concluded that the colors must
already be present in the incoming light and white light consists of a
collection of colors. As the white light passes through the triangular prism,
the light separates into the collection of colors: red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet. This collection of colors formed by the prism is called
the spectrum. The separation of white light into its spectrum is known as
dispersion.

Dispersion occurs because each color travels through the prism at

different speeds. Violet travels the slowest through the prism; hence we can
see it refracting the most. On the other hand, red passes through at a much
fast rate which makes its angle of refraction less, hence red is too scarce to
be seen.
AIM:
To investigate the dependence, of the angle of deviation on the angle of
incidence, using a hallow prism filled, one by one, with different
transparent fluids.

APPARATUS:
Drawing board, white sheets of paper, hollow prism, different liquids
(water, kerosene oil, etc), drawing pins, pencil, half meter scale, thump
pins, graph papers and a protractor.

THEORY:
Refraction of Light through a Prism –

The refractive index of the liquid is given by the formula:

Where:

μ = refractive index of the liquid

δm = the angle of minimum deviation

r = angle of refraction

i = angle of incidence

A = angle of prism
PROCEDURE:

• Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with help of drawing pins.
• Keep the prism and mark the outline of it as ABC.
• Drop a normal PQ on the side AB.
• Draw the angle of incidence in accordance with the normal PQ and place 2 pins
so that they appear to be in the straight line.
• Place the prism filled with given sample of liquid, on the marked outline ABC.
• Now take the pins and place them on the side AC so that all the 4 pins appears
to be in same line.
• Remove the prism and draw the line joining the points so obtained.
• Mark the diagram as shown in the figure.
• Repeat this with different liquids and different angle of incidence
OBSERVATION TABLE

PRECAUTIONS
• Angle of incidence should lie b/w 35-60 degree.
• Pins should be vertically fixed and should lie in same line.
• Distance b/w two points should not be less than 10mm.
• Same angle of prism should be used for all observation.
• Arrow head should be marked to represent emergent and incident ray.

RESULTS

Refractive indices at room temperature:

• Benzaldehyde
Actual: 1.546
Experimental: 1.504

• Water
Actual: 1.33
Experimental: 1.306

• Dil. Sulphuric acid

Actual: 1.355
Experimental: 1.351
REFERENCES

• [Link]
• [Link]
• [Link] {[Link]}
• [Link]
PROJECT WORK 6
 PHYSICS PROJECT
ON

“To estimate the charge induced on each one of the two identical Styrofoam balls
(or pith balls) suspended in a vertical plane by making use of Coulomb’s law .”
 OVERVIEW

* Abstract
* Objective
* Theory
* Material Required
* Procedure
* Observation
* Result
* References

ABSTRACT
When it is only of interest to know the magnitude of the electrostatic force (and
not its direction), it may be easiest to consider a scalar version of the law. The
scalar form of the Coulomb’s Law relates the magnitude and sign of the
electrostatic force F acting simultaneously on two point charges q1 and q2 as
follows:

where r is the separation distance

ke is Coulomb’s constant.
If the product q1q2 is positive, the force between the two charges is repulsive
if the product is negative, the force between them is attractive.

OBJECTIVE
To estimate the charge induced on each one of the two identical Styrofoam balls
(or pith balls) suspended in a vertical plane by making use of Coulomb’s law:-

THEORY
The fundamental concept in electrostatics is electrical charge. We are all familiar
with the fact that rubbing two materials together - for example, a rubber comb
on cat fur - produces a “static” charge. This process is called charging by friction.
The charged particles which make up the universe come in three kinds: positive,
negative, and neutral. Neutral particles do not interact with electrical forces.
Charged particles exert electrical and magnetic forces on one another, but if the
charges are stationary, the mutual force is very simple in form and is given by
Coulomb’s Law:

where F is the electrical force between any two stationary charged particles with
charges q1 and q2(measured in coulombs), r is the separation between the
charges (measured in meters), and k is a constant of nature (equal to 9x109
Nm2/C2 in SI units).
The study of the Coulomb forces among arrangements of stationary charged
particles is called electrostatics. Coulomb’s Law describes three properties of the
electrical force:
1) The force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
charges, and is directed along the straight line that connects their centres.
2) The force is proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges.
 3) Two particles of the same charge exert a repulsive force on each other, and
two particles of opposite charge exert an attractive force on each other.
Most of the common objects we deal with in the macroscopic (human-sized)
world are electrically neutral. They are composed of atoms that consist of
negatively charged electrons moving in quantum motion around a positively
charged nucleus. The total negative charge of the electrons is normally exactly
equal to the total positive charge of the nuclei, so the atoms (and therefore the
entire object) have no net electrical charge. When we charge a material by
friction, we are transferring some of the electrons from one material to another.
Materials such as metals are conductors. Each metal atom contributes one or
two electrons that can move relatively freely through the material. A conductor
will carry an electrical current. Other materials such as glass are insulators. Their
electrons are bound tightly and cannot move. Charge sticks on an insulator, but
does not move freely through it.

A neutral particle is not affected by electrical forces. Nevertheless, a charged

object will attract a neutral macroscopic object by the process of electrical
polarisation. For example, if a negatively charged rod is brought close to an
isolated, neutral insulator, the electrons in the atoms of the insulator will be
pushed slightly away from the negative rod, and the positive nuclei will be
attracted slightly toward the negative rod. We say that the rod has induced
polarisation in the insulator, but its net charge is still zero.
The polarisation of charge in the insulator is small, but now it’s positive charge is
a bit closer to the negative rod, and its negative charge is a bit farther away.
Thus, the positive charge is attracted to the rod more strongly than the negative
charge is repelled, and there is an overall net attraction. If the negative rod is
brought near an isolated, neutral conductor, the conductor will also be polarised.
In the conductor, electrons are free to move through the material, and some of
them are repelled over to the opposite surface of the conductor, leaving the
surface near the negative rod with a net positive charge. The conductor has been
polarised, and will now be attracted to the charged rod. Now if we connect a
conducting wire or any other conducting material from the polarised conductor
to the ground, we provide a “path” through which the electrons can move.
Electrons will actually move along this path to the ground. If the wire or path is
subsequently disconnected, the conductor as a whole is left with a net positive
charge. The conductor has been charged without actually being touched with the
charged rod, and its charge is opposite that of the rod. This procedure is called
charging by induction.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
• Small size identical balls (pitch or soft plastic)
• Physical balance or electrical balance
• Half meter scale
• Cotton thread
• Small stand
• Glass rod
• Silk cloth

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the mass (m) of each of the two identical pith balls using a physical
balance.
2. Hang the two balls from a rigid support using light silk or cotton threads of
same length ‘l’.
3. Rub the glass tod silk cloth to induce charge on it. Now touch the glass rod
with both the pith balls together so that equal charge is induced on both the
balls.
4. When left freely, the two balls will repel each other. Measure the distance
between the balls when are at rest. Note down the distance.
5. To change the charge on ball, take third uncharged ball touch it to any one of
the two balls and take the third ball away, and repeat step 4.
6. Take other uncharged suspended with other uncharged 4th ball and take the
4th ball away and repeat step 4.

OBSERVATIONS:

Mass of the pith balls m= 200 gm.

Radius of the ball a = 0.2 cm.
Length of thread l = 100 cm.

RESULT:

Let the force between two stationary charges be F

The weight of the ball w = mg
The restoring force on each ball = mg sinθ
From the diagram in the right in triangle ABC
Sinθ = x/2l
Let the charge on each ball be q1, q2 and q3 then at equilibrium
mg sinθ = (kq×q )/x2
Charge on the pith ball =√((mgr3)/2kl)

REFERENCES

● [Link]
● Wikipedia
● [Link]
● [Link]
PROJECT WORK 7
 PHYSICS PROJECT
ON

“To study the factor on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by observing
the effect of this coil, when put in series with a resistor (bulb) in a circuit fed up
by an A.C. source of adjustable frequency.”

SUBMITTED BY:
 OVERVIEW

* Aim
* Apparatus
* Theory
* Circuit Diagram
* Procedure
* Observation
* Precautions
* Source of error
* Result
* References
AIM:-
To study the factor on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by observing the
effect of this coil, when put in series with a resistor/(bulb) in a circuit fed up by an A.C.
source of adjustable frequency.

APPARATUS:-
A coil of large turns, a.c. source of adjustable frequency, an electrical bulb, (6V)
a.c. ammeter of suitable range rheostat, a soft iron rod, one way key, connecting
wires etc.

THEORY:-
Self-inductance is the property of a coil, which opposes the change in current
through it. The self-inductance of a coil (long solenoid) is
2
μ0 μ r N A
L=
l

Where μr = Relative magnetic permeability of magnetic material,

μ
μr =μ 0

N = Total number of turns in solenoid

A = Area of cross-section of solenoid

l = length of solenoid.

Hence, the self inductance depends upon:

1. No. of turns (N) , L α N²

1
2. Geometry of coil, L α A, L α l
3. Nature of core material, L α µ
When an inductor is connected in series with a resistor (bulb) with a variable source of
frequency, then current flowing in the bulb is

I rms =Erms/Z

Where Z=√❑ = Impedence of the a.c. Circuit.

Here

R = Resistance of the bulb

L = Self inductance of coil

𝜔 = 2πf = Angular frequency of a.c. source.

The brightness of bulb i.e., Heat generated in the bulb is

2
H=I rms Zt

H
P= t =I 2
rms Z

2
P=I rms √ ❑

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:-
1. Make all connections as shown in the circuit diagram
2. Switch on the a.c. supply & adjust the current in the circuit by
using the variable resistor ( 𝑅ℎ ).
3. Record the current in a.c. ammeter & see the brightness of bulb.
4. Now, put the soft iron rod inside the conductor core & record the
current in a.c. ammeter & again check the brightness of bulb. The
current & brightness both decreases.
5. Now, switch off the supply & decrease the frequency of a.c. source (say
50 Hz).
 6. Again switch on the supply & adjust the current in circuit at same
constant voltage 6V by using the rheostat. Note the current in ammeter
& brightness of bulb. The current & brightness both will increase.
7. Again insert the iron rod in the core of coil & note the current &
brightness. The current & brightness both decreases.
8. Repeat the steps 5, 6 and 7 for different frequency of a.c. source.

OBSERVATIONS:-

1. Least count of ammeter = 0.05 A.

2. Zero error of ammeter = 0 A.

3. Range of ammeter = 0 – 5 A.

S. Frequenc Current in Current in

NO y of ammeter ammeter
applied without iron with iron rod
voltage rod in coil in

(Hz) (A) coil (A)

1. 6 2.0 1.8
0

2. 5 2.5 2.3
0
 3. 4 2.9 2.6
0

4. 3 3.4 3.2
0 5

5. 2 4.1 4
0

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. The coil should have large number of turns.

2. Current should be passed for a small time to avoid the heating effect.

SOURCES OF ERRORS:-
1. The resistance of circuit may increase slightly due to heating
effect of current.
2. There may be eddy current in soft iron coil.

RESULT:-

1. The current in the circuit decrease on inserting the iron rod in the
core of coil at constant frequency of applied voltage & brightness of
bulb decreases & vice-versa.
2. The current in the circuit increases on decreasing the frequency of
applied voltage & vice-versa. Therefore, the brightness of bulb
increases.
REFERENCES

● [Link]
● Wikipedia
● [Link]
● [Link]
PROJECT WORK 8
 PHYSICS PROJECT
ON

“To study the Earth’s Magnetic field using a compass needle –bar magnet by
plotting magnetic field lines and tangent galvanometer.”

SUBMITTED BY:

OVERVIEW
* Introduction
* Aim of project
* Apparatus
* Theory
* Procedure
* Observation
* Graph
* Precautions
* Application
* Source of error
* Result
* References

INTRODUCTION
The tangent galvanometer was first described in an 1837 by Claude-Servais-
Mathias Pullet, who later employed this sensitive form of galvanometer to verify
Ohm’s law. To use the galvanometer, it is first set up on a level surface and the
coil aligned with the magnetic north-south direction. This means that the compass
needle at the middle of the coil is parallel with the plane of the coil when it carries
no current. The current to be measured is now sent through the coil, and produces
a magnetic field, perpendicular to the plane of the coil and is directly proportional
to the current.
The magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the coil is B; the
magnitude of the horizontal component the Earth’s magnetic field is B’. the
compass needle aligns itself along the vector sum of B and B’ after rotating
through an angle Ø from its original orientation. The vector diagram shows that
tan Ø = B/B’. since the magnetic field of the Earth is constant, and B depends
directly on the current, the current is thus proportional to the tangent of the angle
through which the needle has turned.

AIM OF THE PROJECT

To study the Earth’s Magnetic field using a compass needle –bar magnet by
plotting magnetic field lines and tangent galvanometer
Tangent galvanometer made by Top view of a tangent galvanometer J.H.
[Link] 1890, made about 1950

APPARATUS
* Tangent galvanometer (TG),
* Commutator (C),
* Rheostat (R),
* Battery (E),
* Ammeter (A),
* Key

TANGENT GALVANOMETER PLUG KEY

 BATTERY ELIMINATOR

RHEOSTAT

THEORY
Tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument for small electric
currents. It consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-
magnetic frame. Its working is based on the principle of the tangent law of
magnetism. When a current is passed through the circular coil, a magnetic field (B)
is produced at the center of the coil in a direction perpendicular to the plane of
the coil.
The working of tangent galvanometer is based on the tangent law. It is
stated as when a magnet is suspended freely in magnetic field F and H, the
magnet comes to rest making an angle θ with the direction H such that,
F=Htanθ 🡪(1)
When a bar magnet is suspended in two magnetic fields B and Bh, it comes to rest
making an angle θ with the directions of Bh.
Let a current I be passed through the coil of radius R, having turns N. the
magnetic field produced at the centre of the coil is,
F= μ02 πIN/4 πR 🡪(2)
Let H is the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field and the magnetic needle
comes to rest at angle θ with the direction of H, then according Eq.(1),
Htanθ= μ02 πIN/4πR
Htanθ=10-17*2πIN/R
H=2π*10-17IN/Rtanθ 🡪(3)
By substituting the value of current I, from Eq.(3),
Tanθ/I=( μ0/4π)*( 2πN/RH) 🡪(4)

Radius of coil of galvanometer R, deflection θ and N, the value of H can be

calculated.
PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in the figure given below, where K is the key, E is
the battery, A is the ammeter, R is the rheostat, C the commutator, and T.G is the
tangent galvanometer. The commutator can reverse the current through the T.G
coil without changing the current in the rest of the circuit. Taking the average of the
resulting two readings for deflection averages out, any small error in positioning the
T.G coil relative to the earth’s magnetic field H.

1. Make the circuit connections in accordance with the circuit diagram.

2. Using spirit level, level the base and the compass needle in compass box of
tangent galvanometer by adjusting the leveling screw,
3. Now rotate the coil of the galvanometer about its vertical axis, its image in
the plane mirror fixed at the base of the compass box and the coil, I.e., all
4. These three lie in the same vertical plane. In this setting,
5. The ends of the aluminum pointer should read zero-zero. If this is not so,
rotate the box without disturbing the position of the coil till at least one of
the ends of the pointer stands at the zero marks.
6. By closing the key K, the current flow in the galvanometer. Read the both
ends of the pointer. Now reverse the direction of current by using the
reversing key. When the mean values of both deflections shown by the
pointer in the two cases
 (i.e., before and after reversing the current) differ by more than 10, then turn
slightly the vertical coil until the two values agree. This will set the plane of
the coil exactly in the magnetic meridian.
7. By adjusting the rheostat, bring the deflection in galvanometer around 450.
The deflection should not be outside the range(300-600).
8. Record the readings of the ammeter and the deflection of the compass
needle in the box shown by two ends of pointer on the scale.
9. Reverse the current in the coil of galvanometer and again record the current
and deflection of needle.
[Link] changing the value of current, take four or more set of readings and plot
the graph between I and tanθ. The graph will be a straight line.
[Link] the inner and the outer diameter of the coil with a half meter scale
at least three times.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Range of the ammeter –
2. least count of ammeter -
3. zero error in ammeter -
4. Number of turns used(N) –
TABLE 1. FOR VARIATION OF θ WITH I

[Link] Value of deflection θ (degree) mean tan θ Ammeter

reading
(A)
For direct For reverse
current current

θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 Obs corrected

1. 35 35 35 35 35 0.70 0.15 0.15

2. 49 47 60 64 53.6 1.36 0.20 0.20
3. 36 36 55 58 46.25 1.04 0.25 0.25
4. 50 50 65 68 58.2 1.61 0.30 0.30
5 45 45 64 65 53.8 1.37 0.27 0.27

TABLE 2. FOR RADIUS OF TANGENT GALVANOMETER

[Link] Inner diameter Outer Mean Mean radius
diameter diameter
d1 (cm) (cm)
(cm) d

1. 16.0 x 10-2 16.40 x 10-2 16.20 x 10-2 8.10 x 10-2

2. 16.16 x 10-2 16.08 x 10-2 16.12 x 10-2 8.06 x 10-2

3. 16.06 x 10-2 16.10 x 10-2 16.08 x 10-2 8.04 10-2

 Mean radius of coil R=8.04 x 10-2

GRAPH

Slope of straignt line=BC/AC

m= tanθ /I
Now substitute the m in Eq.(4),
m= (μ0*2πN)/ (4πRH)
Then,
H=7.6867 x 10-8T

PRECAUTIONS
1. The battery should be freshly charged.
2. The magnetic needle should swing freely in the horizontal plane.
3. The plane of coil must be set in magnetic meridian.
4. There should be no parallax in noting down the readings of ammeter and
deflections.
5. All the readings should be adjusted between 300 and 600.
APPLICATIONS
1. T.G can be used to measure the magnitude of the horizontal component of
the geomagnetic field.
2. The principle can be used to compare the galvanometer constants .

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. There may a magnetic material around apparatus.
2. The plane of coil will not be exactly in the magnetic meridian

RESULT
The value of earth’s magnetic field by using a tangent galvanometer is
H=7.6867 x 10-8T
REFERENCES

● [Link]
● Wikipedia
● [Link]
● [Link]