CHAPTER II

WEATHER AND HYDROLOGY

LEARNING OUTCOMES :

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to :

1. explain the fundamental terminology about hydrometeorology and make

relevant calculations.

2. explain the basic terms about solar radiation , temperature, atmosphere

pressure, humidity, wind and cloudiness.

3. calculate basic parameters like the density of dry/ wet air, dew point
temperature and humidity with the given formulations.

2.1 THE ATMOSPHERE, WEATHER AND CLIMATE

2.1.1 Structure of the Atmosphere

 The atmosphere can be considered as a huge covering of gases and

water vapor that surrounds and permeates the earth and that extends
upward with continuously decreasing density, without any sharply
defined upper limit to the air.

 It has a total weight of 5725 x 10 12 tonne and hence, in every square

centimeter of the earth’s surface, there is about 1.05 kg of air.

 The density of air increases towards the ground due to the

gravitational compression of the air from the overlying portions. At
a temperature of 0oC and the pressure of 76 cm Hg, the density of air
at the earth’s surface resulting from this compression is 1.3 kg/m3.

 The lower part of the earth’s atmosphere serves as a temporary

reservoir to hold the moisture evaporated from land and water
surfaces and also as means for transporting this moisture in all
directions, but with a net movement from the sea to the land.

 The different layers (physical stratification) of the atmosphere are as

follows:

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 1. Troposphere – the lowest layer of the atmosphere, which is
important because it contains the bulk of the air. It is
characterized by a nearly uniform decrease in temperature from
the lower to higher altitudes. Most of the weather changes in the
air are limited to this lowest layer, in great part because of the
decrease of temperature with elevation. Although the
troposphere has an average thickness of about 11 km, it is
thickest at the equator and thinnest at the poles. Its lower and
upper boundaries are the earth’s surface and the tropopause,
respectively.

2. Stratosphere – this is the next layer of the atmosphere which lies

above the troposphere. It is characterized by a vertically
isothermal (equal temperature) structure in the lower portion
followed by increasing temperatures in the upper portion. Its
lower and upper boundaries are the tropopause and stratopause,
respectively.

3. Mesosphere – this layer of the atmosphere lying above the

stratosphere, is identified by a strong temperature decrease from
the maximum temperature zone in its lowest portion just above
the stratosphere. Its lower and upper boundaries are the
stratopause and the mesopause, respectively.

4. Thermosphere – the outermost shell of the atmosphere in which

the temperature rises rapidly from an initial constant low value at
about 80 kilometers to a constant high value about 190
kilometers. This layer extends upward until merging with the
solar atmosphere many thousands of miles above the earth’s
surface, is partly ionized throughout much of its extent. In the
lower part of the thermosphere, enriched ion zones exist in the
form of distinct ionized layers used to be called ionosphere. It is
from these ionized layers of the upper atmosphere where long-
distance radio communication is made possible by one or
multiple reflections of short-wave radio beams.

 The region surrounding the stratopause contains a relatively high

proportion of ozone, whose molecular composition is O3 compared
to O2 for oxygen. In thickness, the ozone-rich layer is about 16 to 30
kilometers, the value being approximate because no sharp
boundaries are present.

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  Ozone is a very important layer of the atmosphere because it absorbs
the ultraviolet rays from the sun. Actually, this layer has been
created from oxygen by the effect of this UV rays. Without the
ozone, the effects of concentrated UV radiation should have been
lethal to living things on earth.

2.1.2 Conditions of the Atmosphere

 The condition of the atmosphere at a particular time and place is

termed as weather. It refers to the short-period variations in the
atmosphere. The observed properties of the atmosphere that are
subject to constant change, their state at any time determining the
state of the weather, are (a) temperature, (b) humidity, (c)
cloudiness, (d) atmospheric pressure, and (e) wind.

 Weather elements are closely interrelated. Of them, temperature is

the most basic and fundamental, and its variations cause changes in
the other elements, the results of which we know as weather. It is
well known that warm air can hold more water vapor than cold air.
If warm air is cooled sufficiently, excess water vapor comes out as
liquid water droplets. Thus, temperature changes in the air are the
direct cause of humidity variations, which in turn yield clouds, fog
and precipitation.

 The temperature variations are also responsible for pressure

differences. If a part of the air becomes warmer than the
surrounding air, it will expand, become lighter, and tend to rise from
the earth. Cold air surrounding the warmer air will be relatively
heavy. Consequently, the warm air will have less weight and show
less downward pressure than the surrounding cold air and will
therefore (other things being equal) show lower barometer readings.
Whenever such a condition arises, a flow of air tends to start along
the earth’s surface from the region of higher pressure (heavier air) to
the region of lower pressure (lighter air). This horizontal movement
of air is called wind.

 In the Philippines, the weather condition is reported as follows:

1. Fine Weather – designates a weather condition of few clouds and

no rain.

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 2. Fair Weather – clouds are present and may produce rain in
scattered patches, but the greater portion of the day is sunny or
without rain.

3. Rainy Weather – a weather condition in which rain occurs during

a greater portion of the day, the winds are mostly light to
moderate.

4. Stormy Weather – a weather condition characterized by rains and

strong winds.

 On the other hand, the average condition of the weather in an area

for a period of years is termed climate. In order to describe the
climate of a given region, monthly and seasonal averages are made
of rainfall and such properties of the atmosphere as temperature,
humidity, pressure and wind velocity. Climate has a major effect on
human activities. What people eat and wear as well as how they
earn their livelihoods all depend to some extent on the local climate.
A drastic change in a region’s climate has sometimes contributed to
the migration of large groups of people.

 In the Philippines, climate has been described in terms of rainfall

distribution received in a locality. One such climatic classification is
the Modified Coronas’. With the use of the average monthly
distribution of rainfall at different stations, four types of climate
were defined:

1. Type I: Two pronounced seasons, dry from December to May

and wet from June to November. Maximum rain period is from
June to September. Areas characterized by this climate type are
generally exposed to the southwest monsoon and get a fair share
of the rainfall brought about by the tropical cyclones occurring
especially during the maximum rain period.

2. Type II: No dry season with a very pronounced maximum rain

period in winter. Maximum rainfall generally occur in December
and January, although there is not a single dry month. Areas
characterized by this climate type are generally along or very near
the eastern coast, thus are open to the northeast monsoon.

3. Type III: No very pronounced maximum rain period, with a

short dry season lasting only from one to three months. This type
is intermediate between the preceding two, although it resembles
the first type more closely because it has a short dry season.

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 Areas of this climate type are partly shielded from the northeast
monsoon but are exposed to the southwest monsoon and are also
benefited by the rainfall caused by the tropical cyclones.

4. Type IV: Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed throughout

the year. This is also intermediate between the first and second
types, although it resembles the second more closely since it has
no dry season.

2.2 HEAT ENERGY OF THE ATMOSPHERE

2.2.1 Heat and Solar Radiation

 Heat is the energy transferred to an object to raise its temperature. It

only flows from higher to lower temperatures. Heat can be regarded
as the work done to increase the temperature of a body. Once the
flow of heat stops, the work stops.

 Solar radiation, the earth’s chief source of heat energy, determines

weather and climate. Both earth and sun radiate essentially as
blackbodies (that is, they emit for every wavelength almost the
theoretical maximum amount of radiation for their temperatures).

 Maximum energy of solar radiation is shortwave in the visible range

of the electromagnetic spectrum (Table 2.1), about 0.4 to 0.8
micrometer. The earth converts the visible sunlight into invisible
longer infrared wavelengths, about 10 micrometer (longwave).

Table 2.1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum (Rosenberg et al.,

1983)

Type of Radiation Frequency Wavelength

(cycles/sec) Range (cm)
Electric waves 0 – 104 Inf. – 3 x 106
Radio waves 104 – 1011 3 x 106 – 0.3
Infrared radiation 1011 – 4 x 1014 0.3 – 7.6 x 10-5
Visible radiation 4 x 1014 – 7.5 x 1014 7.6 x 10-5 – 4 x 10-5
Ultraviolet radiation 7.5 x 1014 – 3 x 1018 4 x 10-5 – 10-8
X-ray radiation 3 x 1016 – 3 x 1022 10-6 – 10-12
Gamma radiation 3 x 1018 – 3 x 1021 10-6 – 10-11

 The rate at which solar radiation reaches the upper limits of earth’s
atmosphere on a surface normal to the incident radiation and at
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 earth’s mean distance from the sun is called the solar constant.
Measurements have ranged from 1.89 to 2.05 Ly/min, with a mean
value of 1.97 Ly/min. In power units, this is equivalent to 1350 to
1400 W/m2 since 1 Ly/min equals 697.93 W/m2.

 The Dutch Committee on Plant Irradiation (1953) discussed the

significance to plant growth of the various bands of the spectrum:

1. First Band – radiation with wavelength longer than 1.0 micron.

This is transformed into heat without interfering with
biochemical processes.

2. Second Band – radiation with wavelength between 1.0 and 0.72

micron. This is the region of specific elongating effect upon
plants. The far-red region (0.7 to 0.92 micron) is also important
for photoperiodism, seed germination, control of flowering and
coloration of fruit.

3. Third Band – radiation with wavelength between 0.72 and 0.61

micron. This spectral region is strongly absorbed by the
chlorophyll. It generates strong photosynthetic activity, in many
cases also showing intense photoperiodic activity.

4. Fourth Band – radiation between 0.61 and 0.51 micron.

This is a spectral region of low photosynthetic effectiveness in
the green and of weak formative activity.

5. Fifth Band – radiation between 0.51 and 0.40 micron. This is

essentially the region of strongest chlorophyll and
yellow pigment absorption. It is also a region of strong
photosynthetic activity in the blue-violet, and of strong formative
effects.

6. Sixth Band – radiation between 0.40 and 0.315 micron. This

band produces formative effects; plants become shorter and
leaves thicker.

7. Seventh Band – radiation between 0.315 and 0.28 micron. This

type of radiation is detrimental to moss plants.

8. Eighth Band – radiation with wavelength shorter than 0.28

micron. These wavelengths rapidly kill plants. The UV
radiation (0 – 0.4 micron) also produces significant germicidal
action.

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2.2.2 Solar Radiation at Earth’s Surface

 A large part of the solar radiation reaching the outer limits of the
atmosphere is scattered and absorbed in the atmosphere or reflected
from clouds and the earth’s surface. Scattering of radiation by air
molecules is most effective for the shortest wavelengths. With sun
overhead and clear sky, over half the radiation in the blue range
(short wavelengths about 0.45 micron) is scattered, thus accounting
for the blue sky. It has been estimated that the amount of radiation
scattered to space is about 8 percent of the incident solar radiation
(also known as insolation).

 Clouds reflect much incident solar radiation to space. The amount

reflected depends on the amount of clouds and their albedo. Albedo
is the ratio of the amount of solar radiation (usually the visible
radiation) reflected by a surface to the amount incident upon it,
expressed as percentage. The albedo of clouds varies greatly with
thickness and liquid-water content and inversely with solar elevation.
A high, thin overcast may reflect less than 20 percent of incident
radiation, while a 600 m layer of stratus or stratocumulus clouds may
reflect over 80 percent.

 About half the incident radiation at the outer limits of the atmosphere
eventually reaches earth’s surface. Much of it is absorbed and
transmitted, but some is reflected back to the atmosphere and to
space. The albedo of earth’s surface varies widely, depending on
solar altitude and type of surface cover. It is less for moist soil
surfaces than for dry and tends to be less for high solar altitudes than
for low. The albedo (in percent) ranges from 10 to 20 for green
forests, 15 to 30 for grass-covered plains, 15 to 20 for marshy lands,
15 to 25 for crop-covered cultivated fields, 10 to 25 for dark bare
soils when dry and 5 to 20 when moist, 20 to 45 for dry light sandy
soils, 40 to 50 for old dirty snow and 80 to 95 for pure white snow
(the highest albedo being for fresh, clean, dry snow and low solar
altitude).

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2.2.3 Heating the Earth and the Atmosphere

 Theoretically, there are three processes of heat transmission, as

follows:

1. Radiation. The process of heat transfer in wave form, without

the use or necessity of a transmitting medium. The amount
of radiation emitted increases with the temperature of the
radiating body. The Stefan-Bolzmann Radiation Law relates
temperature and radiation by the formula:

R = K T4 (2.1)

where: K = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-oK4

This law states that “the radiant energy R emitted by a body is

equal to a constant K times the fourth power of its absolute
temperature T.”

2. Conduction. A process of heat transmission through a medium

by contact of the minute particles of which the medium is
composed.

3. Convection. This process of heat transmission by the actual

motion of the heated material.

 The earth is basically heated by the sun through the process of

radiation. The atmosphere is heated by the combination of
conduction and convection referred to as turbulent heat exchange.
The heat from the earth’s surface is conducted to the atmosphere that
is in direct contact with it. Since air is a very poor conductor of heat
energy, only the lower most part of the atmosphere is heated in this
way. However, once the air is warmed, it expands and rises,
transferring the conducted heat to higher levels by the process of
convection. Over oceans and other large water bodies, the air above
it may be warmed by the latent heat transfer (vaporization) that is
released by the water vapor as it condenses. Actually, when water
evaporates from a liquid to gas, about 540 to 600 calories are
absorbed by each gram of water converted to vapor.

 The atmosphere receives all of its natural heat directly or indirectly

from the sun, except for the comparatively insignificant amount of
heat escaping from the earth’s interior due to radioactivity or
volcanism. On the average, the concentration of energy is greatest at

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 the equator and least at the poles. Because of the curvature and
seasonal effect, the polar regions receives no sunlight during winter,
when the earth’s axis is tilted away from the sun. Likewise, as a
consequence of curvature and seasonal variations, low latitude zones
receive more heat than is lost through radiation resulting in a heat
surplus; high latitude regions radiate away more than they receive,
producing a radiation deficit. A balance of heat received from the
sun and heat lost through radiation occurs at 35o latitude. This
inequality of radiation leads to a flow of heat from the warm
equatorial region to the cooler polar regions. In the process of heat
redistribution, the winds of the globe and the storms of the middle
latitudes are generated.

 On the other hand, the earth’s surface radiates at a mean temperature

of about 15 deg C. This emission has been estimated to be about 2.5
times the solar radiation absorbed. This is due to greenhouse effect
wherein the atmosphere reflects back to the earth’s surface about
85% of the emitted radiation. Greenhouse effect is the recycling of
heat between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere keeping the air
somewhat warmer than it would be if it directly absorbed and re-
radiated solar radiant energy. This phenomena maintains the
troposphere at a warmer temperature than –40 deg C, the expected
mean temperature of the earth without greenhouse effect.

2.2.4 Measurement of Radiation

The instruments commonly used in the Philippines to measure

the intensity of radiant energy are the following:

1. Pyranograph (Fig. 2.1) – an instrument for measuring solar

radiation intensity.

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 Fig. 2.1. The pyranograph.

2. Gunn-Bellani Solarimeter (Fig. 2.2) – an instrument which

provides a time-integrated assessment of solar radiation falling
on a black body by measuring the volume of liquid evaporated by
the radiation. The instrument is very simple to operate and is more
durable and less expensive than other solar radiation
instruments; however, only daily solar radiation observation is
recommended.

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 Fig. 2.2. The Gunn-Bellani solarimeter.

3. Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder (Fig. 2.3) – a non-electrical

sunshine duration meter. It operates such that when sunlight is
sufficiently strong, a globe acts as a magnifying glass, focusing the
beam onto a special recording paper which causes a trace to be
burned on this paper as the sun moves through the sky. The trace
indicates the duration of bright sunlight. The depth of the burn is a
rough indicator of solar radiation intensity. This instrument uses
three different cards for the different periods of the year (Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.3. The Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder.

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 Fig. 2.4. The sunshine recorder cards.

2.3 TEMPERATURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

► The continuous flow of solar radiation from the sun into the earth’s surface
causes its temperature to rise. Temperature is the relative hotness or
coldness of a body. It is also technically defined as the measure of the
average energy of molecular motion. When the earth’s surface is already
heated, this in turn heats the atmosphere.

► Temperature is a fundamental weather element. In response to irregular

disposal of the sun’s energy (insolation), the air temperatures show wide
variations. These variations in turn cause other significant weather
changes.

2.3.1 Definition of Temperature Terms

1. Mean daily temperature – is generally taken as the average of

daily maximum and minimum temperatures. The most accurate
practical method is to average hourly temperatures. It can be
computed also by averaging 3- or 6-hr observations.

2. Normal daily temperature – is the average daily mean temperature

for a given date computed for a specific 30-year period.

3. Daily range – is the difference between the highest and

lowest temperatures recorded on a particular day.
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 4. Mean monthly temperature – is the average of the mean
monthly maximum and minimum temperatures.

5. Mean annual temperature – is the average of the monthly means

for the year.

6. Degree-day – is a departure of one degree for one day in the

mean daily temperature from a specified base temperature. Usually,
degree-day values are based on departures below and above 18 deg
C.

2.3.2 Measurement of Temperature

 The temperature of an object is measured by a thermometer, which

is a sealed glass tube having a very small opening – the bore –
running through the center from top to bottom. The bore is greatly
enlarged into a bulb-shaped opening at the bottom. The bulb is filled
with a liquid, usually mercury or alcohol, which rises into the narrow
bore. The space above the liquid is vacuum. Warming temperatures
cause expansion of the liquid up the tube; cooling causes contraction
and a falling of the level of the liquid. The outer glass surface of the
thermometer is etched in the form of a graduated temperature scale.
Hence, the height of the upper surface of the liquid in the bore of the
thermometer indicates the existing temperature.

 In order to measure air temperature properly, thermometers must be

placed where air circulation is relatively unobstructed, and yet they
should be protected from the direct rays of the sun and from
precipitation. Thermometers are placed in white, louvered, wooden
thermometer shelter (Fig. 2.5) through which the air can move
readily. The shelter location must be typical of the area for which
the measured temperatures are to be representative. Because of
marked vertical temperature gradients just above the soil surface, all
shelters should be about the same height above the ground for
recorded temperatures to be comparable.

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 Fig. 2.5. The thermometer shelter.

 The set of instruments housed in an instrument shelter usually

consists of the following:

1. Minimum Thermometer (Fig 2.6) – a thermometer of

alcohol-in-glass type which has an index which remains at the
lowest temperature occurring since its last setting.

2. Maximum Thermometer (Fig. 2.6) – a mercury thermometer

which has a constriction near the bulb which prevents the
mercury from returning to the bulb as the temperature falls and
thus registers the highest temperature since its last setting.

3. Thermograph (Fig. 2.7) – an instrument which records

the temperature continuously. It consists of a substance
which expands and contracts with the temperature variations, a
clock which rotates a cylinder to which a sheet of paper is
fixed and simplifying levers with a pen that writes a curve on
the paper. The record paper is called a thermogram.

25
Fig. 2.6. The maximum and minimum thermometers.

26
 Fig. 2.7. The thermograph.

2.3.3 Thermometer Scales

 Three systems of temperature scales or units are in regular use:

Fahrenheit (F), Celsius (C) or formerly called Centigrade, and
Absolute (K). The first two are in common use while the third in
scientific use. In the Fahrenheit and Celsius systems, the freezing
and boiling points of water are the important criteria. In the
Absolute (K) system, absolute zero, or the temperature at which
random molecular motion ceases, is the starting point. The absolute
zero is 273 deg below the freezing point of water. Hence, the
freezing point in the Absolute System is 273 deg K. This absolute
temperature unit designated K is after the British physicist, Lord
Kelvin.

 To convert temperature readings from one system to another, the

following equations are used:

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 C = 5/9 (F – 32)
(2.2)

F = 9/5 C + 32
(2.3)

K = C + 273
(2.4)

where C, F and K are temperatures in degrees Celsius, Fahrenheit

and Kelvin, respectively.

2.3.4 Vertical Temperature Variation or Lapse Rate

 As one ascends in the atmosphere, especially in the troposphere,

steadily decreasing temperatures are encountered. This decrease of
temperature with higher altitudes in the air is known as lapse rate, or
vertical temperature gradient. This is the rate of change of
temperature with height in the free atmosphere. There are three
essential causes for this decline in temperature, as follows:

1. The major source of heat for air is the earth. Clearly, then, with
increasing distance from the source of heat, the air’s temperature
must decline.
2. The density of water vapor decreases with elevation so that less
heat can held in the air.
3. Temperature decreases result from expansion of air rising from
the earth’s surface.

 Lapse rate varies through a wide range. The greatest variations in

lapse rate are found in the layer of air just above the land surface.
But at a given place the different lapse rate figures observed can be
averaged, giving the normal lapse rate. Although the lapse rate at a
given time and place can be obtained only by observation, the
average or normal rate is about 7 degrees Celsius per kilometer or
3.5 deg F per 1,000 feet.

 Occasionally, at some altitude, the temperature abruptly increases

instead of decreasing. This can occur only if a warm layer of air
overlies a colder layer. The condition in which this abrupt rise
instead of fall in temperature occurs in the air is the so-called
temperature inversion. A temperature inversion may result:

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 1. when the air near the ground cools off faster than the overlying
air because of heat loss to cold land;
2. from an actual warm layer of air passing over a lower cold one;
3. from warming by subsidence or falling;
4. from turbulence.

 The tropopause is a layer of major temperature inversion between

the troposphere, characterized by declining temperatures, and the
overlying isothermal stratosphere.

 In the daytime, there is a tendency for steep lapse rates because of

the relatively high temperatures of the air near the ground. As the
heating continues, the lapse rate in the lower layers of the air
steepens until it may reach the dry-adiabatic lapse rate (1 Celsius
degree per 100 m, or 5.4 Fahrenheit degrees per 1000 ft), which is
the rate of temperature change of unsaturated air resulting from
expansion or compression as the air rises (lowering pressure) or
descends (increasing pressure) without heat being added or removed.

 Air having a dry-adiabatic lapse rate mixes readily, whereas a

temperature inversion indicates a stable condition in which warm
lighter air overlies cold denser air. Under optimum surface heating
conditions, the air near the ground may be heated sufficiently for the
lapse rate in the lowest layers to become superadiabatic (exceeding
1 Celsius degree per 100 m). This is an unstable condition since any
parcel of air lifted dry-adiabatically remains warmer and lighter than
the surrounding air and thus has a tendency to continue rising.

 If a parcel of saturated air is lifted adiabatically, its temperature will

decrease and its water vapor will condense, releasing latent heat of
vaporization. This heat reduces the cooling rate of the ascending air.
Hence, the saturated-adiabatic lapse rate is less than the dry-
adiabatic. Its average value for the lower layers at temperatures
above freezing is roughly half the dry-adiabatic.

 If the moisture in the rising air is precipitated as it is condensed, the

temperature of the air will decrease at the pseudo-adiabatic lapse
rate, which differs very little from the saturated-adiabatic. A layer
of saturated air having a saturated- or pseudo-adiabatic lapse rate is
said to be in neutral equilibrium. If its lapse rate is less than the
saturated- or pseudo-adiabatic, the air is stable; if greater, unstable.

29
2.3.5 Horizontal Temperature Variation

 The most fundamental temperature effect over the earth’s surface is

the gradient (change) of temperature from the equator toward the
poles. This important decrease of temperature with increase in
latitude is a consequence of the increasing slant of the sun’s rays
caused by the curvature of the earth. This lower temperature in the
high latitudes is a result of net heat loss whereas the warmer
temperature in the low latitudes result from net heat gain. However,
despite the net heat gain in low latitudes, this region does not grow
steadily warmer, nor do high latitudes grow steadily cooler despite
their net heat loss. This is mainly due to the transfer of heat from
low to high latitudes to achieve a global heat balance. It is in the
achievement of this heat-transfer process that the atmosphere
produces the primary wind and weather systems of the earth.

 To show the horizontal distribution of air temperature most

conveniently, isotherms are used. Isotherms are lines connecting
points of equal temperature. If the earth were uniform in
composition, isotherms would be straight east-west lines, similar to
parallels of latitude. The isotherms representing the highest
temperatures would be near the equator. The temperature change in
a direction normal to the isotherms is called the horizontal
temperature gradient. For an isotherm to remain on equal
temperature points, it must be deflected away from the equator
during winter when passing from land to ocean, and toward the
equator during summer. This is due to the fact that during winter,
the oceans are warmer while during summer, the oceans are cooler
than the land.

2.3.6 Diurnal and Seasonal Temperature Variations

 If we look into the temperature curve traced by a thermograph, we

will notice that a simple diurnal and rather rhythmic temperature
variation exists. The daily variation of temperature slightly lags
behind the daily variation of solar radiation. Maximum temperature
occurs in early to mid-afternoon and minimum temperature just
before sunrise. The time of minimum temperature follows the
radiation pattern. Throughout the night, the earth’s surface and
atmosphere both radiate heat away. The lowest temperature occurs
about the time of sunrise after which re-heating by the sun occurs.
These observations can be attributed to the fact that from sunrise
until about 3 P.M., the heat gain exceeds the heat loss, causing a rise
of temperature until a maximum value is reached. From 3:00 P.M.

30
 until sunrise the following day, the heat loss exceeds the heat gain,
thus the fall of temperature.

 The daily range of temperature is affected by the state of the sky. On

cloudy days, maximum temperature is lower because of reduced
insolation and the minimum is higher because of reduced outgoing
radiation. The daily range is small over oceans.

 A related pattern holds on an annual basis. On continents, maximum

temperatures occur between one and two months after the summer
solstice and minimum temperatures from one to two months after the
winter solstice. Areas within a continent experience extreme ranges
of temperature from summer to winter. Regions whose climate is
controlled by marine influences, have a smaller average temperature
range.

2.3.7 Geographic Variation

 Surface air temperature tends to be highest at low latitudes and to

decrease poleward. This trend, however, is greatly distorted by the
influence of land and water masses, topography and vegetation.
Temperatures at high elevation are colder than at low levels and
southern slopes have warmer temperatures than the northern slopes.
Forested areas have higher daily minimum but lower daily
maximum temperatures than barren areas.

2.4 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

2.4.1 The Standard Atmosphere

 Gas molecules exert forces on each other and their environment as

they collide. The magnitude of these forces depend upon the
temperature of the gas and the number of molecules involved. These
collision forces are expressed in terms of quantity called pressure.
Pressure differences are principally related to temperature
differences and to the number of molecules exerting pressure forces.
Atmospheric motion results from pressure variations. The
atmospheric pressure on a given surface is the force exerted by an
overlying column of air extending to the outer limit of the
atmosphere per unit area.

 Traditionally, air pressure is expressed in units of length, based on

long use of the mercurial barometer in which fluctuations of the

31
 height of the mercury column are a function of changing pressure in
the atmosphere. To meet the need for a pressure unit involving force
rather than length, the millibar came into meteorological use and
stems from the bar, which is the conventional engineering unit of
pressure.

 The pressure exerted by the entire atmosphere on one square

centimeter is approximately one bar, defined as a force of one
million dynes per square centimeter. However, the standard
atmosphere, with a temperature of 15 deg C and a latitude of 45
degrees, has a normal pressure of 1,013.2 millibars. This is
equivalent to 29.92 inches or 760 mm of mercury. Thus, 1 in. Hg is
equivalent to 33.86 millibars or 25.40 mm Hg.

2.4.2 Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure

To measure atmospheric pressure, the following instruments are

commonly used:

1. Mercurial Barometer (Fig. 2.8) – This is a simple barometer made

by filling a glass tube, 32 inches long, with mercury and inverting it
so that the open end of the tube is below the surface of mercury in a
cistern. The pressure of the outside air then forces the mercury in
the cistern upward into the vacuum chamber within the tube. The
height of the mercury column is measured by sliding a vernier
attached on a scale. To obtain accurate measurements, corrections
are made for temperature expansion of the instrument, gravity and
latitude. Values are read in millibars, millimeters or inches of
mercury.

2. Aneroid Barometer (Fig. 2.9) – This a mechanical device which

registers pressure. It contains a cylindrical vacuum with corrugated
tops and sides known as a sylphon chamber. A strong spring within
the chamber prevents it from collapsing under the air pressure. As
the outside pressure changes, the chamber will either expand or
contract. By means of an intricate system of levers and pulleys this
change is magnified and conveyed to a pointer. The pointer swings
around a dial that is calibrated in the same units as in a mercurial
barometer. The whole is enclosed in a protective brass case with a
glass window. Since air pressure decreases with increase in altitude,
the aneroid is used to make altimeters. On the altimeter, the scale is
marked off in hundreds and thousands of feet or meters above sea
level. The altimeter is a basic instrument in aeronautical stations
and on board an aircraft.

32
 Owing to the tendency of the mechanical parts to stick, this
instrument should be tapped prior to each reading and should be read
with the eye directly in front of the needle pointer to avoid parallax
error. The aneroid is most often used because of its compactness and
ease of mounting and reading. However, of the two, the mercurial is
the standard instrument, being more reliable and accurate.

3. Barograph (Fig. 2.10) – This is a recording aneroid barometer. It

has a pen point that moves up or down by means of a series of levers
attached to aneroid cells in tandem, tracing the pressure curve on a
paper attached to the time-controlled rotating drum. The aneroid
cells in tandem provide a more pronounced response to changes in
atmospheric pressure than would be indicated by a single aneroid of
the same size. A sensitive barograph has been developed which
permits pressure reading directly to one-hundredth of an inch (one-
tenth of a millibar) called microbarograph. The barograph readings
require the same corrections as the aneroid: elevation correction and
instrument correction.

Fig. 2.8. The mercurial barometer.

33
 Fig. 2.9 The aneroid barometer.

Fig. 2.10. The barograph.

2.4.3 Corrections to Barometric Readings

 When barometric readings are used in general weather analysis, they

must show true differences in atmospheric pressure and not
differences resulting from varied circumstances under which the
readings are taken. To do this, all readings must be reduced to
normal conditions of sea level, latitude and temperature because
pressure-measuring stations are not at the same elevation and latitude
and do not have the same prevailing air temperature at the time of
measurement. Furthermore, pressure-measuring instruments are not
identically the same for all stations. Hence, the following
corrections are necessary after the barometer is read: elevation
correction, temperature correction, latitude or gravity correction, and
instrument correction. An observed pressure which includes all
corrections except elevation is termed station pressure.

 For mercurial barometer readings, the following corrections are

needed:
34
 1. Elevation Correction. Unless a barometer is located at sea level,
it will naturally show a lower reading than at that level, since
pressure decreases with elevation. All barometric readings
should be reduced to mean sea level by adding the proper
correction for elevation. The normal pressure is approximately
30 inches Hg. Complete corrections are given in Table 2.2.

2. Latitude or Gravity Correction. Since the earth is flattened at the

poles and bulges at the equator, there will be greater pull on a
mercury column near the poles and a lesser pull at the equator,
producing increased and decreased densities, respectively. This
correction is therefore positive above 45 deg latitude, negative
below, and zero at 45 deg latitude. These correction figures are
found in Table 2.3.

3. Temperature Correction. The mercury in a barometer will

expand or contract just as in a thermometer. Thus, an arbitrary
reference level must be taken; for the mercurial barometer this is
32 deg F or 0 deg C. Hence, when the temperature is above
freezing, the mercury stands too high in the tube, and the
correction is negative and must be subtracted to lower the reading
of the mercury column to normal. If below freezing, the
correction is added in order to raise the reading of the now
contracted mercury column to normal. At freezing, the correction
is zero. Corrections for temperature are listed in Table 2.4.

4. Instrument Correction. This correction varies with the particular

instrument and is found by comparison with a standard
barometer. The National Weather Service will make such
comparisons.

 On the other hand, readings from the aneroid barometer has

essentially two corrections: elevation correction, which is similar to
that of the mercurial, and an instrument correction. All good
aneroids compensate for temperature and obviously, show no gravity
effect. Should the instrument error become too large, the pointer can
be reset after comparison by means of a setscrew on the back of the
case.

35
Table 2.2. Reduction of Barometric Reading to Mean Sea Level (This is
always to be added).

Height Temperature of Air (Dry Bulb), deg F

(feet) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
5 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
10 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
15 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
20 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
25 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

30 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
35 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
40 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
45 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
50 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

55 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
60 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
65 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07
70 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.07
75 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08

80 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08
85 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
90 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09
95 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
100 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10
SOURCE: Meteorology (Fourth Edition) by William Donn.

Table 2.3. Reduction of the Mercurial Barometer to Standard Gravity (45o).

LATITUDE CORRECTION LATITUDE CORRECTION

(degrees) (inches) (degrees) (inches)
0 -0.08 45 0.00
5 -0.08 50 0.01
10 -0.08 55 0.03
15 -0.07 60 0.04
20 -0.06 65 0.05
25 -0.05 70 0.06
30 -0.04 75 0.07
35 -0.03 80 0.08
40 -0.01 85 0.08
45 0.00 90 0.08
SOURCE: Meteorology (Fourth Edition) by William Donn.

36
2.4. 4 Correction of Mercurial Barometer for Temperature.

Temperature Observed Reading (inches) Temperature Observed Reading (inches)

(deg F) 28.5 29.0 29.5 30.0 30.5 (deg F) 28.5 29.0 29.5 30.0 30.5
A D D
0 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 16 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04
1 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 17 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
2 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 18 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
3 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 19 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03
4 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 20 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
5 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 21 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
6 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 22 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
7 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 23 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
8 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 24 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
9 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 25 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 26 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
11 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 27 * * * * *
12 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 28 * * * * *
13 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 29 * * * * *
14 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 30 * * * * *
15 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
SUBTRACT
31 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 66 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
32 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 67 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.11
33 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 68 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.11
34 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 69 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11
35 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 70 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11
36 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 71 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.12
37 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 72 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.12
38 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 73 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
39 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 74 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
40 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 75 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13
41 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 76 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13
42 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 77 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13
43 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 78 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.14
44 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 79 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14
45 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 80 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
46 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 81 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
47 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 82 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15
48 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 83 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15
49 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 84 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15
50 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 85 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16
51 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 86 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16
52 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 87 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16
53 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 88 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16
54 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 89 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.17
55 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 90 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.17
56 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 91 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.17
57 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 92 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.18
58 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 93 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.18
59 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 94 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.18
60 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.09 95 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.18
61 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.09 96 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.19
62 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 97 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.19
63 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10 98 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.19
64 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10 99 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.19
65 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 100 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.20
SOURCE: Meteorology (Fourth Edition) by William Donn.

37
2.4.4 Pressure Variations

 As in the case of temperature, atmospheric pressure also exhibits

important variations vertically, horizontally and periodically.
Pressure variations over the earth’s surface resulted from the non-
uniform heating of the earth’s surface and the air above it.

 The atmosphere is a mixture of gases held to the earth by gravity.

Since gases are compressible, the pressure of overlying air
compresses the lower air considerably and thereby greatly increases
the density of the air near the ground. This compression accounts for
the rapid decrease in pressure with increase in elevation and increase
in pressure with decrease in elevation, or in short, with the vertical
variation of air pressure in the atmosphere. The pressure at any point
in the atmosphere is given by the simple hydrostatic formula
common to fluids in general:

p=hdg
(2.5)

where “h” is the height of air column above the point, “d” is the
average density, and “g” is the acceleration due to gravity.

 The difference in pressure between two points (1 and 2) with a

relatively small vertical separation is also given by:

p1 – p2 = (h1 – h2) d g
(2.6)
or
p = h d g
(2.7)

where h is the change in elevation.

 Horizontal variations in atmospheric pressure are shown in a

pressure field, the horizontal distribution of pressure. An analysis of
the pressure field is the first step towards analyzing prevailing wind
motion. For sea-level analysis, isobars are drawn.

 Isobars are lines drawn through points of equal pressure. The

pressure readings at sea level are entered on maps and points on map
showing the same pressure readings are connected with isobars.
Isobars are usually drawn at pressure intervals of either 3, 4 or 5
millibars. If isobars are lines of equal pressure, then adjacent isobars

38
 indicate a change in pressure from one isobar to another. This
change in pressure with horizontal distance is known as the pressure
gradient. A pressure gradient has both direction and steepness,
measured along the line of greatest pressure change. This is
indicated by the perpendicular distance between isobars; the shorter
the distance between isobars, the steeper the pressure gradient. The
steeper the pressure gradient between points, the more numerous and
more closely spaced will be the isobars. Isobars relatively far apart
show a very slight pressure difference or gradient.

 In the middle latitudes, isobars display characteristic shapes

indicating relatively large areas of alternately high and low pressure.
These areas as shown by isobars are rudely circular or elliptical in
shape and usually cover tens of thousands of square kilometers. An
area which surrounds a point of lowest pressure is termed a low
pressure area or depression whereas an area surrounding a point of
highest pressure is called a high pressure area.

 The atmosphere is not a static body. It has been observed that a

periodic pressure change occurs daily. The air pressure shows two
high and two low points each day. The pressure peaks occurring at
10 A.M. and 10 P.M. while the low points are midway between, 4
P.M. and 4 A.M. This is caused by the solar or thermal tide.

2.5 WATER, WATER VAPOR AND HUMIDITY

2.5.1 Water and Water Vapor

 Water is the most remarkable component of the earth and

atmosphere. It exists in all three states of matter (solid, liquid, gas).
This is so because the temperature at which water changes from one
state to another fall within the normal range of terrestrial
temperatures.

 The dry atmosphere is largely composed of nitrogen, oxygen, argon

and carbon dioxide. However, air may contain up to a maximum of
4% moisture. It has been estimated that, on a global average, there is
1% water vapor in a moist air volume. The distribution of water
vapor in the atmosphere is directly related to the distribution of
temperatures. The horizontal moisture distribution varies according
to the nature of the underlying surface. The decrease of temperature
with elevation decreases the ability of air to retain moisture carried

39
 aloft. Actually, the upper part of the troposphere is nearly devoid of
water vapor.

 Water vapor in the atmosphere is directly responsible for all clouds

and precipitation, and also has an indirect bearing on winds. The
water vapor content of the atmosphere is maintained through the
entire process of the hydrologic cycle. This cycle involves
evaporation (loss of water from surface waters and land surfaces),
transpiration (moisture loss from vegetation), sublimation (the direct
transformation from ice to vapor), condensation (conversion of
airborne water vapor to precipitable form), and precipitation of rain
directly into ocean or it may occur overland, requiring surface
runoff or groundwater seepage to complete the cycle. The combined
loss of water from vegetation-covered land area through the
processes of evaporation and transpiration is technically termed as
evapotranspiration. Air containing some quantity of water vapor, if
cooled continuously, will eventually reach a temperature called the
dewpoint, at which it becomes saturated with water vapor.
Additional cooling forces the water to condense and become visible
as clouds or precipitation.

 Evaporation or vaporization adds heat to the liquid vaporized while

condensation removes heat. The amount of heat added to a unit
mass of substance, without change in temperature, while passing
from the liquid to vapor state is called latent heat of vaporization.
The change of vapor to liquid state releases an equivalent amount of
heat, known as the latent heat of condensation. In the same
manner, the amount of heat required to convert one gram of ice to
vapor at the same temperature without passing through the
intermediate liquid state is known as the latent heat of sublimation.
This is equal to the sum of the latent heat of vaporization and latent
heat of fusion. The latent heat of fusion is that amount of heat
required to convert one gram of ice to liquid water at the same
temperature.

2.5.2 Properties of Water Vapor

 The latent heat of vaporization (Hv) in cal/gram can be

determined accurately up to 40 degrees Celsius by the formula:

Hv = 597.3 – 0.564 T
(2.8)

40
 where: T is the temperature in deg Celsius. For temperatures higher
than 40oC, the latent heat of vaporization may be obtained from
Table 2.5.

 In any mixture of gases, each gas exerts a partial pressure

independent of the other gases. The water vapor exerts a partial
pressure known as vapor pressure. This vapor pressure (e) is the
difference between the pressure of moist air (p) and that of the dry
air (pd). When the maximum amount of water vapor for a given
temperature is contained in a given space, the space is said to be
saturated. The pressure exerted by the vapor in saturated space is
called the saturation vapor pressure (es) and is the maximum vapor
pressure possible at a given temperature. The saturation vapor
pressure at different air temperatures are also presented in Table 2.5.

 The specific gravity of water vapor is 0.622 times that of dry air at
the same temperature and pressure. The density of water vapor (v)
in grams/cm3 is computed by the formula:

v = (0.622e)/(RgT)
(2.9)

where: T is the absolute temperature in deg K and Rg, the specific

gas constant for dry air, equals to 2.87 x 103 cm2/sec2-oK when the
vapor pressure (e) is in millibars.

 The density of dry air (d) in grams/cm3 is computed by the formula:

d = pd/(RgT)
(2.10)

where: pd is the pressure of dry air in millibars.

 The density of moist air (a) is equal to the mass of water vapor plus
the mass of dry air in a unit volume of mixture. If pa is the total
pressure of the moist air, pa – e will be the partial pressure of the dry
air alone. Thus, the density of moist air is computed by the formula:

pa e
a = -------- (1 – 0.378 -----)
(2.11)
Rg T pa

41
Table 2.5. Properties of water in metric units.

Temperature Heat of Vaporization Saturation Vapor Pressure

(oC) (cal/g) mm Hg Millibar
0 597.3 4.58 6.11
5 594.5 6.54 8.72
10 591.7 9.20 12.27
15 588.9 12.78 17.04
20 586.0 17.53 23.37
25 583.2 23.76 31.67
30 580.4 31.83 42.43
35 577.6 42.18 56.24
40 574.7 55.34 73.78
50 569.0 92.56 123.40
60 563.2 149.46 199.26
70 557.4 233.79 311.69
80 551.4 355.28 473.67
90 545.3 525.89 701.13
100 539.1 760.00 1013.25

2.5.3 Indicators of Atmospheric Moisture Content

The indicators of atmospheric moisture content are as follows:

1. Capacity and Saturation. When water vapor is in the atmosphere, it

is referred to as humidity, the most important weather element. At
any given temperature, the maximum amount of moisture is
called the capacity of the air. When the capacity of the air has been
reached, the air is said to be at saturation.

Saturation can be achieved by either increasing the water

content or decreasing the temperature. Increasing the water
content may occur through evaporation or through mixing of
humid and less-humid air bodies. Decreasing the temperature
may occur in a number of ways:

a. The air may be cooled adiabatically by rising and expanding;

b. It may be cooled by contact with a cold surface beneath;

c. The mixing of warm and cold air masses results in lowering of

the temperature of the warmer mass; and
42
 d. Radiation by the air itself results in the cooling of the air.

At anytime, the difference between the capacity of the air and

the actual humidity is called the saturation deficit.

2. Dewpoint. This is the temperature at which air becomes saturated

because further cooling will cause condensation of moisture.
The dewpoint of rising air decreases with altitude at the rate of
about 2 deg Celsius per km (1 deg F per 1000 ft) since the water
vapor concentration per unit volume decreases as the air expands.

 A great value of this dewpoint property of the air is its

constancy. As long as the water content of a given quantity of the
air remains constant, the dewpoint of that air will remain
practically constant.

 Dew point has been found to be highly correlated with the wet-
bulb depression, which is the difference between the dry-bulb
and wet-bulb temperatures. At a certain dry-bulb (air)
temperature, the dewpoint temperature decreased as the wet-bulb
depression increased. The variation in dewpoint temperature
with temperature and wet-bulb depression are shown in Table
2.6.

3. Relative Humidity (f). This is the ratio of the amount of water vapor
in the air to the amount the air can hold at that temperature (or the
capacity of the air). This is also the percentage ratio of the actual
to the saturation vapor pressure. This ratio is always expressed as
in percent.

f = (ea/es) 100
(2.12)

where ea is the actual vapor pressure and es is the saturation vapor

pressure.

 Relative humidity changes whenever the amount of water

vapor in the air changes and whenever the capacity of the air
changes. This also varies inversely with air temperature. A
decrease in temperature decreases the capacity of the air to hold
water vapor. When the temperature, hence the capacity,
decreases such that the relative humidity is 100%, the air will be
saturated, and the temperature at which this humidity is
reached is called dew point.

43
  Just like the dew point temperature, relative humidity has been
found to be highly correlated with the wet-bulb depression.
Table 2.7 shows the variation in relative humidity with
temperature and wet-bulb depression.

2.5.4 Measurement of Relative Humidity

The measurement of humidity is one of the least accurate

instrumental procedures in meteorology. The different types of
humidity instruments are:

1. Non-Recording Types

a. Sling Psychrometer (Fig. 2.11) – This is a device used to

determine the moisture content of the air. It consists of two
ordinary thermometers placed side by side, the dry- bulb and
wet-bulb. The wet-bulb thermometer has its bulb covered with
thin wet muslin cloth. The thermometers are ventilated by
whirling or by use of fan. Because of the cooling effect of
evaporation, the wet-bulb thermometer reads lower than the dry-
bulb. The difference between air (dry-bulb) and wet-bulb
temperatures, known as wet-bulb depression, is highly correlated
with humidity.

The standard psychrometer invites many observational

errors. Using two thermometers double the chance of
misreading. At low temperatures, misreading by a few tenths
of a degree can lead to absurd results. There is always a chance
that readings are not made when the wet-bulb thermometer is at
its lowest temperature. In addition, there are errors with a
positive bias resulting from insufficient ventilation, dirty or too
thick muslin and impure water.

44
 Fig. 2.11. The sling psychrometer.

b. Hair Hygrometer (Fig. 2.12) – This instrument makes use of

the fact that the length of hair varies with relative humidity.
This was invented by De Saussure in 1783. This instrument
has a bundle of hairs, the upper end of which is fixed to a
frame and the lower end to a weight. The weight is connected
by amplifying levers to compensating cams which, in
turn, are connected to a pointer that moves across a
scale and the relative humidity is indicated.

When the air is dry, the cells in the hair are close
together, but when the air is humid, the space between the
cells absorbs water vapor, and the hair thickens and lengthens.

Any instrument using a hair element is subject to

error. The quality of hair may change. The hair
expands with increasing temperature and its response to
changes in humidity is very slow, the lag increasing with
decreasing temperature until it becomes almost infinite at
about –40 deg Celsius.

45
 Fig. 2.12. The hair hygrometer.

2. Recording Types

a. Hygrograph (Fig. 2.13) – This is a self-recording hygrometer.

It operates a pen marking a trace on a chart.

Fig. 2.13. The hygrograph.

b. Hygrothermograph (Fig. 2.14) – This instrument

combined the features of both the hair hygrograph
and thermograph, and records both relative humidity and
temperature on one chart.

46
 Fig. 2.14. The hygrothermograph.

2.5.5 Geographic and Temporal Variation

 Atmospheric moisture tends to decrease with increasing latitude,

but relative humidity, an inverse function of temperature, tends to
increase. Atmospheric moisture is greatest over oceans and
decreases with distance inland. It also decreases with elevation and
is greater over vegetation than over barren soil.

 Atmospheric water vapor is at a minimum in winter and at a

maximum in summer. Unlike actual water vapor, relative humidity
is at a minimum in summer and at a maximum in winter.

 The diurnal variation of atmospheric moisture is normally small,

except where land and sea breezes bring air of differing
characteristics. Near the ground surface, condensation of dew at
night and re-evaporation during the day may result in a minimum
moisture content near sunrise and a maximum by noon. Relative
humidity is maximum in early morning and minimum in the
afternoon.

47
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

1. A soil sampler has a length of 8 cm, an outside of 50 mm, and a wall

thickness of 2 mm. Using this soil sampler, a soil sample was obtained from a
soil known to have a particle density of 2.63 g/cm3. If the dried mass of the soil
sample is 654.32 grams, what is the porosity (%) of the soil

Given :

l = 8 cm.
do = 50mm = 5 cm
t = 2 mm = 0.20 cm
ρ s = 2.63 g/cc
ms = 654.32 g

Required: n = porosity

Solutions :

ρb
n=(1- )
ρs

ms
ρb =
Vt

π
Vt = (do -2t)2l
4

π
Vt = ( 5 cm – 2(0.2cm)2 (8cm)
4

Vt = 132.95 cm3

ms
ρb =
Vt

654.32
=
132.95

= 4.92g/cm3

Therefore:

4.92
n = (1 - ) 100
2.63

n = - 0.87%

48
 2. If the bulk density is 0.75g/cm3 less than the particle density of the soil and the
particle density is found to be 2.57 g/cm3, what is the porosity of the soil?

Given :

ρb = ρ s – 0.75

ρ s = 2.57 g/cm3

Required:
n = porosity

Solution :

ρb
n=(1- ) 100
ρs

ρb = 2.57g/cm3 – 0.75

ρb = 1.82 g/cm3

Substitute:

ρb
n=(1- ) 100
ρs

1.82 g /cc
n=(1- ) 100
2.57 g /cc

n = 29.2 %

3. The soil sample has a mass moisture content, dry basis of 22.4% and a dried mass
of 192 grams. What is its mass moisture content wet basis.

Given :

ρwdb = 22.4%
ms = 192 g (dry mass)

Required :

ρwwb = ? ( mass moisture content wet basis)

Solution :

49
 mw
ρwdb = x 100
ms

22.4 % mw
=
100 192 g

mw = 43 g

to solve for the moisture content wet basis:

mw
ρwwb = x 100
ms +mw

43 g
ρwwb = x 100
192 g+ 43 g

ρwwb = 18.3%

4. The soil sample has a mass moisture content wet basis of 22.4% and a fresh mass
of 224 grams. What is its mass moisture content dry basis?

Given:

ρwwb = 22.4%

Fm = ms + mw = 224 g ( fresh mass)

Required :

ρwdb

Solution :

mw
ρwwb = x 100
ms +mw

ρwwb
(ms + mw) = mw
100

22.4
mw = (224)
100

mw = 50.176g = 50.2 g

ms = 224 – 50.2 g

ms = 173.8 g

50
 to solve mass moisture content dry basis

mw
ρwdb = x 100
ms

50.2 g
ρwdb = x 100
173.8 g

ρwdb = 28.88%

5. The air temperature is 360C and the dewpoint temperature is 290C. What is the
relative humidity (%) of the air?

Given :

Ta = 360C

Tdp = 290C

Required:

Relative Humidity (f)

Solution:

Using Table 2.6 with Ta = 360C and Tdp = 290C

WBD(Wet Bulb Depression) = 5.50C

From Table 2.7 with WBD = 5.50C and Ta = 360C

Humidity f = 67%

6. The relative humidity of air having a temperature of 200C is 57%. What is its dew
point temperature.

Given :

f = 57%

Ta = 200C

Required :

Tdp

51
 Solution:

From Table 2.7 with Ta = 200C and f = 57%

Wet Bulb Depression WBD = 5.250C

By interpolation

f WBD
59 5
2 x
8 57 5+x 1

51 6

x 2
= x = 0.25
1 8

@ f = 57 WBD = 5+x = 5+ 0.25 = 5.25

WBD Tdp

5 12
5.25 12-x 2
6 10

x/2 = 0.25/1; x = .5 Tdp = 11.50

2.6 WIND AND WIND OBSERVATIONS

2.6.1 What is Wind?

Wind is the horizontal motion of the air past a given point. It is

measured in terms of direction and speed. It is a very influential factor
in several hydrometeorological processes, such as evaporation,
transpiration and snowmelt. In the desert areas, wind is an important
52
 agent of erosion. It is also important in the production of precipitation,
since it is only through sustained flow of moist air into a storm that
precipitation can be maintained.

2.6.2 Wind Observations

 Wind is observed in terms of three important parameters, as follows:

1. Wind run is the total run of wind in 24 hours, expressed in

kilometers and tenths of kilometer.

2. Wind direction is the direction from where the wind is blowing

or comes. The direction that is frequently recorded through the
observation is termed as prevailing wind direction. The terms
used to describe the wind direction are north, east, south and
west. In terms of angular displacement, said directions are
indicated as 360, 90, 180, and 270 degrees from the true north
(zero point), respectively. Simply, the east, south, west and
north directions can be written in tens of degrees as 09, 18, 27,
and 36, respectively. Hence, an east wind has a direction of 90
degrees (09) while a north wind has a direction of 360 degrees
(36). In common parlance, the wind directions are referred to as
compass points, such as N, S, SW, etc., or in old records, they are
expressed in terms of degrees (Table 2.8).

It is recommended that the 16 compass points be used for

surface winds only while the degrees or tens of degrees should be
used for winds aloft.

3. Wind speed is the apparent motion of the air measured in m/sec

or km/hr. However, the absence of apparent motion in the air is
termed as calmness. In taking wind speed observations, the
observer should not take measurements during a peak or lull in
gusty winds or squalls. Gusts are sudden intermittent increases in
speed with at least 9 knots (1 knot = 1.85 km/hr) variation
between peaks and lulls. Squalls are sudden increases in speed,
with a peak speed of 8 m/sec or more sustained over a period of
two or more minutes. Squall is indicative of turbulent
atmosphere. Wind shifts are wind disturbances associated with
the passage of cyclones, Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
and thunderstorms. It is a definite change in wind direction that
takes place in less than 15 minutes.

53
 Table 2.8. Wind direction by compass points and in tens of
degrees.

COMPASS TENS OF DEGREES COMPASS TENS OF

DEGREES
POINTS DEGREES POINTS DEGREES
355-004 N 36 175-184 S 18
005-014 01 185-194 19
015-024 NNE 02 195-204 SSW 20
025-034 03 205-214 21
035-044 04 215-224 22
045-054 NE 05 225-234 SW 23
055-064 06 235-244 24
065-074 ENE 07 245-254 WSW 25
075-084 08 255-264 26
085-094 E 09 265-274 W 27
095-104 10 275-284 28
105-114 ESE 11 285-294 WNW 29
115-124 12 295-304 30
125-134 13 305-314 31
135-144 SE 14 315-324 NW 32
145-154 15 325-334 33
155-164 SSE 16 335-344 NNW 34
165-174 17 345-354 35
SOURCE: Manual of Instructions: Meteorological and Phenological Observations in
Agriculture and
Forestry by the Technical Working Group on Agrometeorology (PCARRD Book
Series No. 84)

 The most common wind measuring instruments in meteorological

stations in the Philippines are the following:

1. Totalizing Anemometer – is the instrument used to measure the

total run of wind per day from which the wind speed is
calculated. The WMO standard installation of this instrument is
at evaporation pan level (about 20 cm above the rim), however, it
is also installed 2 meters above the ground. For various
applications, if wind data is not observed at 2 meters height, a
correction factor is used to calculate the wind speed at 2 meters
height, as follows:

Observation Height (m) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Correction Factor 1.35 1.15 1.06 1.0 0.93 0.88 0.85 0.83

54
 There are several types of this instrument:

a. Three or Four-Cup Anemometer (Fig. 2.15). This

anemometer has three or four cups which are rotating
horizontally around a vertical axis of rotation. This instrument
is easy to operate. However, it tends to register too high a
mean speed in a variable wind because the cups accelerate
faster than they lose speed. Vertical currents (turbulence) tend
to rotate the cups and cause over registration of horizontal
speeds. Most cup anemometers will not record speeds below
1 or 2 mi/hr because of starting friction.

Fig. 2.15. The totalizing cup anemometer.

b. Propeller Anemometer (Fig. 2.16). This is an anemometer

which has propellers rotating around a horizontal axis.

Fig. 2.16. The propeller anemometer.

2. Wind Vane (Fig. 2.17) – is an instrument used to indicate the

direction of wind.

55
 Fig. 2.17. The wind vane.

3. Aerovane Wind System (Fig. 2.18) – is an instrument used to

measure wind speed and direction simultaneously. It consists of
two recording components, the dials and the recorder. The dials
only indicate instantaneous wind speed and direction, but the
recorder records the data in the chart. The WMO standard
installation is 10 meters above the ground.

Fig. 2.18. The aerovane wind system.

 If there is no equipment to measure wind direction, this is

determined by observing the movement of twigs, leaves, flags, wind
cone, trees and other materials/things which flutter with the wind. If
instrument is not available to measure wind speed, then this may be
estimated using the Beaufort Scale (Table 2.9).

56
 Table 2.9. Wind Equivalent-Beaufort Scale.

BEAUFORT SPEED INTERNATIONAL DETAILED

NUMBER (km/hr) DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION
0 <1 Calm Calm; Smoke rises vertically
1 1-5 Light Air Direction of wind shown by smoke drift but not by
wind vanes
2 6 - 12 Light Breeze Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; vanes moved by
wind
3 13 - 20 Gentle Breeze Leaves and small twigs in constant motion; wind
extends light flags
4 21 - 30 Moderate Raises dust, loose paper; small branches moved
5 31 - 39 Fresh Small trees begin to sway; crested wavelets form
on inland water
6 40 - 50 Strong Large branches in motion; whistling heard in wires;
umbrellas used with difficulty
7 51 - 62 Near Gale Whole trees in motion; inconvenience felt in walking
against wind
8 63 - 75 Gale Break twigs off trees; impedes progress in walking
9 76 -88 Strong Gale Slight structural damage occurs
10 89-102 Storm Trees uprooted; considerable damage occurs
11 103-116 Violent Storm Widespread damage
12 117-133 Hurricane
SOURCE: Manual of Instructions: Meteorological and Phenological Observations in Agriculture
and Forestry by the Technical Working Group on Agrometeorology (PCARRD Book
Series No. 84)

2.6.3 Wind Variation With Height

 Wind speeds are reduced and directions deflected in the lower layers
of the atmosphere because of friction produced by trees, buildings,
and other obstacles. This lower layer, referred to as the friction
layer, extends up to 600 meters above the ground. In this friction
layer, the wind speed varies significantly with height above the
ground surface. This variation of wind speed with height is known
as wind profile. Such variation is usually expressed by one of the
two general relationships, namely, the logarithmic velocity profile
and the power law profile.

 There are two common forms of the logarithmic velocity profile as

follows:

1. A convenient form of the logarithmic velocity profile for relating

mean wind speed vh at some height zh to the measured mean
wind speed vsh taken at some standard height zsh is expressed by

vh/vsh = [ln(zh/zo + 1)]/[ln(zsh/zo + 1)] (2.13)

where “zo” is the roughness length of the underlying surface (see

Table 2.10). Roughness length is defined as that height above
the ground surface at which wind speed becomes zero.

57
 2. Another convenient form for computing mean wind speed v2 at
some intermediate height z2 when mean wind speeds v1 and v3 at
height z1 and z3, respectively, are known is expressed by

v2 = v3 – (v3 – v1)[ln(z3/z2)/ln(z3/z1)]
(2.14)

 On the other hand, the power law profile is usually expressed as

vh/vsh = (zh/zsh)k
(2.15)

where vh, vsh, zh and zsh are as defined in Eq. 2.13 and “k” is an
exponent whose value varies with surface roughness and
atmospheric stability, usually ranging from 0.1 to 0.6 (please see
Table 2.11).

` The logarithmic law has been found generally more representative of

the wind profile in the lowest 5 to 8 meters above the ground when
the atmospheric temperature lapse rate was adiabatic or near
adiabatic. The power law profile is considered to be more applicable
of the wind profile in the layer from several meters to about 100
meters above the ground.

Table 2.10. Roughness length of various land surfaces.

TYPE OF Height of Wind Speed at 2 Roughness

SURFACE Plants (cm) meters height (m/s) Length (cm)
Open water 2.10 0.001
Smooth mud flats 0.001
Wet soil 1.80 0.020
Desert 0.030
Mown grass 1.5 0.200
3.0 0.700
4.5 2.00 2.400
4.5 6.00-8.00 1.700
Alfalfa 20-30 1.90 1.400
30-40 1.90 1.300
Long grass 60-70 1.50 9.000
60-70 3.50 6.100
60-70 6.20 3.700
Maize 90.0 2.000
170.0 9.500
300.0 22.000
Sugarcane 100.0 4.000
200.0 5.000
300.0 7.000
400.0 9.000
Brush 135.0 14.000

58
 Orange orchard 350.0 50.000
Pine forest 500.0 65.000
2,700.0 300.000
Deciduous forest 1,700.0 270.000
SOURCE: Hydrology for Engineers (Third Edition) by Linsley, Kohler & Paulhus.

Table 2.11. Values of “k” for different representative surfaces at

various temperature lapse rates.

Type of Height Temperature Lapse Rate

Surface (meters) Super-adiabatic Neutral Stable Inversion
Meadows 10-70 0.25 0.27 0.61
Flat field 11-49 0.16 0.20 0.25 0.36
Grass field 8-120 0.14 0.17 0.27 0.32-0.77
Airfield 9-27 0.09 0.08 0.18
Desert 6-61 0.15 0.18 0.22
Near wooded area 11-124 0.19 0.29 0.35
SOURCE: Hydrology for Engineers (Third Edition) by Linsley, Kohler & Paulhus.

2.6.4 Temporal and Geographic Variation of Wind

 In winter, surface winds tend to blow from the colder interior of land
masses toward the warmer oceans. Conversely, in summer, the
winds tend to blow from the cooler bodies of water toward the
warmer land (monsoon winds).

 Wind speeds are highest and most variable in winter, whereas middle
and late summer is the calmest period of the year. The diurnal
variation of wind is significantly only near the ground and is most
pronounced during summer. Surface wind speed is usually at a
minimum about sunrise and increases to a maximum in early
afternoon. At about 300 meters above the ground, the maximum
occurs at night and the minimum in the daytime.

2.7 CLOUDINESS

2.7.1 Clouds and Their Formation

59
  A cloud is a visible body of minute water droplets and ice crystals
suspended in the atmosphere. These minute water droplets, or ice
crystals have a diameter of few thousandths of an inch. They
actually float or remain suspended in the atmosphere at varying
distances above the ground. So small are the particles comprising a
cloud that even the slightest movement of air is usually sufficient to
keep them afloat.

 Clouds are important component of the daily weather condition of a

place. They indicate the prevailing and past conditions in the
atmosphere and, more importantly, the probable future atmospheric
conditions. For making short-period forecasts from local
observations alone, clouds are one of the two most important criteria
available (the other criterion is wind direction).

 Nearly all clouds are the products of temperature and humidity

changes in rising and adiabatically cooling air. Which cloud genera
form depends on the method by which the air is set in vertical
motion and on the height at which the air cools to the dew point.
Clouds are usually formed by the following processes:

1. Surface heating which results in air rising vertically over the

heated surface, usually over a rather limited area.
2. Topography, which causes the air to steeply rise.
3. Fronts, which can produce either gently or steeply rising air
depending on the frontal type.
4. Convergence, which usually results in air rising steeply over a
broad area.

2.7.2 Amount of Cloudiness

 Normally, the amount of cloudiness is either stated in the number of

tenths of the sky obscured by clouds or described verbally. The use
of specific decimal fractions to indicate cloud coverage will of
course give a more specific indication of this amount. The decimal
point is usually omitted when writing numerical designations. Thus,
7 indicates that seven-tenths of the sky is covered.

 If described verbally, two sets of descriptive terms are often used.

These are given in Table 2.12.

Table 2.12. States of the Sky.

60
 DESIGNATION AMOUNT OF CLOUDINESS
Clear Clear Less than 1 tenth, or 1
Scattered Partly cloudy 1 to 5 tenths inclusive, or 1 – 5
Broken Cloudy 6 to 9 tenths inclusive, or 6 – 9
Overcast Overcast More than 9 tenths, or more than 9
SOURCE: Meteorology (Second Edition) by William Donn.

2.7.3 Classification of Clouds

 In accordance with the 1956 International Cloud Atlas of the World

Meteorological Organization, clouds are classified into 10
characteristic forms or genera which are mutually exclusive.
Variations within most genera are recognized.

 Three basic cloud forms are recognized: cirrus, cumulus and

stratus. All the other standard types are either these pure form or
modifications and combinations of them at different elevations,
where varying air and moisture conditions are responsible for their
form. Much more water vapor is available at lower than at higher
levels. Clearly then, the higher a cloud, the thinner it will usually be;
the lower the cloud, the denser and darker will it appear. The
description of the basic cloud forms are as follows:

1. Cirrus. This form embraces very high, thin, separated, or

detached clouds that develop delicate patches or long extended
fibers, frequently with a feathery appearance and always white in
color.

61
2. Cumulus. This form always exhibits flat-based individual cloud
masses, with a pronounced vertical doming, and frequently a
cauliflower-like structure.

3. Stratus. This name implies an extended sheet or layer like cloud

covering all or large portions of the sky. This type is usually
continuous cloud deck and may show minor rifts, but no definite
individual cloud units.

62
 If a basic cloud form (except for cirrus) occurs above its normal
level, the cloud will be thin and the prefix alto precedes the name. If
any cloud is associated with precipitation, the word nimbus (Latin
for rain) is often introduced in combination with the name.

 The description of the very common cloud types are as follows:

1. Cirrus (Ci). This cloud type, being the highest of all the clouds,
usually form above 10,000 meters. They are detached, delicate,
white cloud units appearing in all seasons. Often, they are
feathery, fibrous, or tufted in appearance, indicating the well-
known “mare’s tails.”

2. Cirrostratus (Cs). These clouds form typically as a thin whitish

veil or sheet, often covering all or a good portion of the sky.
They may be very thin, giving the sky a slight milky white or
veiled appearance, or they may form a definite white sheet. The
very thin appearance of these clouds indicates the great height at
which they commonly occur, which is the same as for cirrus.

3. Cirrocumulus (Cc). These clouds form as small, white, flaky or

scaly globular masses covering small or large portions of the sky
and have no shading. The delicate groups of this type of cloud
often appear to be rippled, or, at other times, they may be
arranged in bands crossing the sky. It is this banded arrangement
of the delicate white cirrocumulus packs that has resulted in the

63
 application of “mackerel sky” to these clouds. They are the least
common of the cloud types.

4. Altostratus (As). These clouds are uniform bluish or grayish-

white cloud sheets, covering all or large portions of the sky and
sometimes occurring in uniform broad bands. The sun may be
totally obscured or may shine through in a weak, watery
condition. The typical watery sun is characteristic of altostratus.
Just how thick these clouds are depends on the height at which
they form. If very high, they may grade into cirrostratus. The
lower they form, the heavier and denser they become. These
clouds yield a large percentage of precipitation, particularly in the
middle and high latitudes, being composed of both water and ice
particles.

5. Altocumulus (Ac). These clouds form as elliptical globular units

occurring individually or in groups. When in groups,
altocumulus may form as confused, and more or less closely
grouped, masses or in definite bands, with clear sky alternating.
Altocumulus may have gray shading on their undersurfaces.
Individual altocumulus clouds are frequently elongated elliptical
or lenticular units distinguishable from the cumulus by their
height and absence of vertical doming. The wavy or parallel
bands of altocumulus are particularly characteristic of this cloud
type.

6. Status (St). This is a uniform gray cloud sheet or layer. This

cloud has no particular form or structure and usually completely
cover the sky. The uniform cloud sheet may sometimes appear
partly broken into elongated patches. This is normally thicker
and darker than the higher altostratus which may be overlying.
These clouds frequently become broken and wind-blown, being
more or less formless ragged patches which are then called
fractostratus or scud clouds.

7. Nimbostratus (Ns). These clouds are thick, dark gray, shapeless

cloud sheets with irregular broken clouds beneath and
surrounding them. They are the common associates of steady
precipitation, whether rain or snow. They have a poorly defined
“wet” undersurface in contrast to the “dry” undersurface of
stratus clouds, and frequently are underlain by ragged
fractostratus with which they may merge.

64
8. Stratocumulus (Sc). These clouds may form large, heavy rolls
or elongated globular masses arranged in long, gray parallel
bands that usually cover all or most of the sky. They often form
from the flattening of cumulus clouds which may be arranged in
bands, or may develop as a continuation of altocumulus occurring
at low altitudes. In this latter case, the stratocumulus will appear
darker, lower and heavier than the related altocumulus.

9. Cumulus (Cu). These clouds are the majestic, billowing, white

clouds so prominent in the summertime. But, they may occur at
any season. They are typically flat-based, with a pronounced
vertical thickness which extends upward as a domed or
cauliflower or turreted mass. They are for the most part fair-
weather clouds. Frequently, after a storm has passed, a
continuous train of small flat cumulus, with relatively small
vertical doming exhibited, will float across the sky. Irregular
wind-torn patches of cumulus, formed by wind action on larger
cumulus clouds, are called fractocumulus.

10. Cumulonimbus (Cb). These clouds arise from cumulus that

have developed into tremendous towering clouds with a vertical
range, from base to top, of 3.2 to 8 kilometers. When grown to
this height, such clouds yield rain or showers. When thunder and
lightning develop, the cumulonimbus clouds are referred to as
thunderstorm clouds or a thunderhead.

65
 Nimbus

Nimbostratus Stratocumulus

66
LEARNING ACTIVITIES

DIRECTION : Analyze carefully what is required in the problem and present

your solution clearly and neatly.

1. A parcel of moist air at 15 deg C initially at 500 meters, mean sea level, is forced to
pass over a mountain ridge at 3,000 m, mean sea level, then descends to its original
elevation. Assuming that a rise of 1,500 m produces saturation and precipitation and
that the average pseudo-adiabatic lapse rate is one-half of the dry-adiabatic, what is
the final temperature of the parcel ?

2. What is the heat of vaporization (kJ per gram), for water at 20 deg C ? How much
heat is needed to evaporate water at the same temperature from a circular bowl that
is 5 cm deep and has a diameter of 30 cm ?

3. What is the density, kg per cubic meter, of (a) dry air at 20 deg C and a pressure of
100 kPa, and (b) moist air with relative humidity of 70% at the same temperature and
pressure ?

4. The density of moist air is 1.357 x 10 -5 g/cc. If the air temperature is 30 oC and the
relative humidity is 60%, what is the total pressure of moist air (mbar) ?

5. What is the density of water vapor in the air when the air temperature is 35 deg C
and its relative humidity is 60% ? What is the relative humidity of air if the air
temperature increased by 5 deg C while the density did not increase ?

6. The air temperature is 36oC and the dew point temperature is 29 oC, What is the
relative humidity (%) of the air ?

7. The relative humidity of air having a temperature of 20 oC is 57%. What is its dew
point temperature ?

8. The dew point temperature is – 10 deg C and the wet bulb depression is 14 deg C.
What is the relative humidity of the air ?

9. What is the corrected reading in a station which is 10 meters above mean sea level,
at latitude 25 deg South, the prevailing air temperature is 50 deg F, and the
instrument correction is – 0.2 in Hg, if the observed reading is 28.5 in Hg ?

10. The corrected reading for a mercurial barometer in a lighthouse, 50 ft above mean
sea level, is 29 in Hg. The lighthouse is at latitude 40 deg North and the prevailing
air temperature is 60 deg F. Estimate the instrument correction if the observed
reading is 28.5 in Hg ?

11. The wind speed measured at a standard height of 2 meters above the ground was
20 kph. At an elevation of 4 meters, the wind speed measured was 35 kph. If the
power law profile is applicable to this station, what is the value of “k” ?

12. At 5 meters and 10 meters height, the measured wind speed are 25 mph and 40
mph, respectively. What is the estimated wind speed (mph) at 8 meters height ?

67