Analogue Versus Digital

There are two basic ways of representing the numerical values of the various physical quantities
with which we constantly deal in our day-to-day lives. One of the ways, referred to as analogue,
is to express the numerical value of the quantity as a continuous range of values between the two
expected extreme values. For example, the temperature of an oven settable anywhere from 0 to
100 °C may be measured to be 65 °C or 64.96 °C or 64.958 °C or even 64.9579 °C and so on,
depending upon the accuracy of the measuring instrument. Similarly, voltage across a certain
component in an electronic circuit may be measured as 6.5 V or 6.49 V or 6.487 V or 6.4869 V.
The underlying concept in this mode of representation is that variation in the numerical value of
the quantity is continuous and could have any of the infinite theoretically possible values
between the two extremes. The other possible way, referred to as digital, represents the
numerical value of the quantity in steps of discrete values. The numerical values are mostly
represented using binary numbers. For example, the temperature of the oven may be represented
in steps of 1 °C as 64 °C, 65 °C, 66 °C and so on.
To summarize, while an analogue representation gives a continuous output, a digital
representation produces a discrete output. Analogue systems contain devices that process or
work on various physical quantities represented in analogue form. Digital systems contain
devices that process the physical quantities represented in digital form.

Number Systems
Different characteristics that define a number system include the number of independent digits
used in the number system, the place values of the different digits constituting the number and
the maximum numbers that can be written with the given number of digits. Among the three
characteristic parameters, the most fundamental is the number of independent digits or symbols
used in the number system. It is known as the radix or base of the number system.

Decimal Number System

The decimal number system is a radix-10 number system and therefore has 10 different digits or
symbols. These are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. All higher numbers after ‘9’ are represented in
terms of these 10 digits only. The process of writing higher-order numbers after ‘9’ consists in
writing the second digit (i.e. ‘1’) first, followed by the other digits, one by one, to obtain the next
10 numbers from ‘10’ to ‘19’. The next 10 numbers from ‘20’ to ‘29’ are obtained by writing the
third digit (i.e. ‘2’) first, followed by digits ‘0’ to ‘9’, one by one. The process continues until we
have exhausted all possible two-digit combinations and reached ‘99’. Then we begin with three-
digit combinations. The first three-digit number consists of the lowest two-digit number followed
by ‘0’ (i.e. 100), and the process goes on endlessly.

As an illustration, in the case of the decimal number 3586.265, the integer part (i.e. 3586) can be
expressed as

3586 = 6×100 +8×101+5×102 +3×103 = 6+80+500+3000 = 3586

And the fractional part can be expressed as

265 = 2×10−1+6×10−2 +5×10−3 = 0.2+0.06+0.005 = 0.265
We have seen that the place values are a function of the radix of the concerned number system
and the position of the digits. We will also discover in subsequent sections that the concept of
each digit
having a place value depending upon the position of the digit and the radix of the number system
is equally valid for the other more relevant number systems.

Binary Number System

The binary number system is a radix-2 number system with ‘0’ and ‘1’ as the two independent
digits.
All larger binary numbers are represented in terms of ‘0’ and ‘1’. The procedure for writing
higher order binary numbers after ‘1’ is similar to the one explained in the case of the decimal
number system.
For example, the first 16 numbers in the binary number system would be 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101,
110, 111, 1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110 and 1111

A significant advantage of this number system is that all kinds of data could be conveniently
represented in terms of 0s and 1s. Also, basic electronic devices used for hardware
implementation could be conveniently and efficiently operated in two distinctly different modes.

Again circuits required for performing arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, etc., become a simple affair when the data involved are represented in
the form of 0s and 1s.

The decimal equivalent of the binary number (1001.0101)2 is determined as follows:

• The integer part = 1001
• The decimal equivalent = 1 × 20 + 0 × 21 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 23 = 1 + 0 + 0 + 8 = 9
• The fractional part = .0101
• Therefore, the decimal equivalent = 0 × 2−1 + 1 × 2−2 + 0 × 2−3 + 1 × 2−4 = 0 + 0.25 + 0.0625 =
0.3125
• Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (1001.0101)2 = 9.3125

Octal Number System

The octal number system has a radix of 8 and therefore has eight distinct digits. All higher-order
numbers are expressed as a combination of these on the same pattern as the one followed in the
case of the binary and decimal number systems. The independent digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and
7. The next 10 numbers that follow ‘7’, for example, would be 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20
and 21.
As an example, the decimal equivalent of the octal number (137.21)8 is determined as follows:
• The integer part = 137
• The decimal equivalent = 7 × 80 + 3 × 81 + 1 × 82 = 7 + 24 + 64 = 95
• The fractional part = .21
• The decimal equivalent = 2 × 8−1 + 1 × 8−2 = 0.265
• Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (137.21)8 = (95.265)10
 Hexadecimal Number System
The hexadecimal number system is a radix-16 number system and its 16 basic digits are 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F. The place values or weights of different digits in a mixed
hexadecimal number are 160, 161, 162 and so on (for the integer part) and 16−1, 16−2, 16−3 and so
on
(for the fractional part). The decimal equivalent of A, B, C, D, E and F are 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and
15 respectively.
The hexadecimal number system provides a condensed way of representing large binary numbers
stored and processed inside the computer.

The decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal number (1E0.2A) 16 is determined as follows:

• The integer part = 1E0
• The decimal equivalent = 0 × 160 + 14 × 161 + 1 × 162 = 0 + 224 + 256 = 480
• The fractional part = 2A
• The decimal equivalent = 2 × 16−1 + 10 × 16−2 = 0.164
• Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (1E0.2A) 16 = (480.164)10

Conversion from decimal to binary

Find the binary equivalent of (13.375)10.
Solution
• The integer part = 13

Divisor Dividend Remainder

2 13 —
2 6 1
 2 3 0
2 1 1
— 0 1
• The binary equivalent of (13)10 is therefore (1101)2

• The fractional part = .375

• 0.375 × 2 = 0.75 with a carry of 0
• 0.75 × 2 = 0.5 with a carry of 1
• 0.5 × 2 = 0 with a carry of 1
• The binary equivalent of (0.375)10 = (.011)2
• Therefore, the binary equivalent of (13.375)10 = (1101.011)2

Decimal-to-Octal Conversion
The process of decimal-to-octal conversion is similar to that of decimal-to-binary conversion.
The progressive division in the case of the integer part and the progressive multiplication while
working on the fractional part here are by ‘8’ which is the radix of the octal number system

Find the octal equivalent of (73.75)10

Solution
• The integer part = 73
Divisor Dividend Remainder
8 73 —
8 9 1
8 1 1
— 0 1
• The octal equivalent of (73)10 = (111)8
• The fractional part = 0.75
• 0.75 × 8 = 0 with a carry of 6
• The octal equivalent of (0.75)10 = (.6)8
• Therefore, the octal equivalent of (73.75)10= (111.6)8

Decimal-to-Hexadecimal Conversion
The process of decimal-to-hexadecimal conversion is also similar. Since the hexadecimal
number system has a base of 16, the progressive division and multiplication factor in this case is
16.
Determine the hexadecimal equivalent of (82.25)10
Solution
• The integer part = 82
Divisor Dividend Remainder
16 82 —
16 5 2
— 0 5
• The hexadecimal equivalent of (82)10 = (52)16
• The fractional part = 0.25
• 0.25 × 16 = 0 with a carry of 4
• Therefore, the hexadecimal equivalent of (82.25)10 = (52.4)16

Binary–Octal and Octal–Binary Conversions

An octal number can be converted into its binary equivalent by replacing each octal digit with its
three-bit binary equivalent. We take the three-bit equivalent because the base of the octal number
system is 8 and it is the third power of the base of the binary number system, i.e. 2. A binary
number can be converted into an equivalent octal number by splitting the integer and fractional
parts into groups of three bits, starting from the binary point on both sides.

Let us find the binary equivalent of (374.26)8 and the octal equivalent of (1110100.0100111)2
Solution
• The given octal number = (374.26)8
• The binary equivalent = (011 111 100.010 110)2= (011111100.010110)2
• Any 0s on the extreme left of the integer part and extreme right of the fractional part of the
equivalent binary number should be omitted. Therefore, (011111100.010110)2=
(11111100.01011)2

• The given binary number = (1110100.0100111)2

• (1110100.0100111)2 = (1 110 100.010 011 1)2
= (001 110 100.010 011 100)2 = (164.234)8

Hex–Binary and Binary–Hex Conversions

A hexadecimal number can be converted into its binary equivalent by replacing each hex digit
with its four-bit binary equivalent. We take the four-bit equivalent because the base of the
hexadecimal number system is 16 and it is the fourth power of the base of the binary number
system. All we have then to remember is the four-bit binary equivalents of the basic digits of the
hexadecimal number system. A given binary number can be converted into an equivalent
hexadecimal number by splitting the integer and fractional parts into groups of four bits, starting
from the binary point on both sides.

Find the binary equivalent of (17E.F6)16 and the hex equivalent of (1011001110.011011101)2.
Solution
• The given hex number = (17E.F6)16
• The binary equivalent = (0001 0111 1110.1111 0110)2
= (000101111110.11110110)2
= (101111110.1111011)2
• The 0s on the extreme left of the integer part and on the extreme right of the fractional part
have been omitted.

• The given binary number = (1011001110.011011101)2

= (10 1100 1110.0110 1110 1)2
• The hex equivalent = (0010 1100 1110.0110 1110 1000)2 = (2CE.6E8)16
Hex–Octal and Octal–Hex Conversions
For hexadecimal–octal conversion, the given hex number is firstly converted into its binary
equivalent which is further converted into its octal equivalent. An alternative approach is firstly
to convert the given hexadecimal number into its decimal equivalent and then convert the
decimal number into an equivalent octal number. The former method is definitely more
convenient and straightforward. For octal–hexadecimal conversion, the octal number may first
be converted into an equivalent binary number and then the binary number transformed into its
hex equivalent. The other option is firstly to convert the given octal number into its decimal
equivalent and then convert the decimal number into its hex equivalent. The former approach is
definitely the preferred one. Two types of conversion are illustrated in the following example.

Find the octal equivalent of (2F.C4)16 and the hex equivalent of (762.013)8

Solution
• The given hex number = (2F.C4)16.
• The binary equivalent = (0010 1111.1100 0100)2 = (00101111.11000100)2
= (101111.110001)2 = (101 111.110 001)2 = (57.61)8.
• The given octal number = (762.013)8.
• The octal number = (762.013)8 = (111 110 010.000 001 011)2
= (111110010.000001011)2
= (0001 1111 0010.0000 0101 1000)2 = (1F2.058)16.