Transmission Lines

Skin Effect

It is tendency of AC current to be concentrated on the surface of conductor.

Cause: Non-uniform distribution of magnitude flux linkages Due to skin effect, the effective
area of cross section of conductor decrease and hence resistances increases.
In case of DC, There is no skin effect so
RDC  R AC
 With increase in frequency, skin effect increases.
 With increase in r , skin effect increases.
Inductance of a Transmission line

 Single Conductor
 0 r
Internal inductance
8
External inductance from distance ‘ d1 ’ to ‘ d2 ’
0r  d2 
Lex  ln  
2  d1 
0 r 0 r  d2 
Total inductance   ln  
8 2  r 
   d     d
 0 r ln  1   0 r ln  
2  re 4  2  r  
r  0.7788r = Geometric mean radius (GMR)

 Single phase 2 – wire line

 0 rd
Inductance of single wire  ln  
2  r  
Total inductance = L1  L2
0  d 
Lsys  ln  
  r 
If radius of both wire is not same, assume radius of 1 st wire ra & that of second wire is rb

0  d 

Lsys  ln
  r r 
 a b 
ra  0.7788ra & rb  0.7788rb

If instead of a single conductor per phase we use multiple conductor, then GMR is
replaced by self GND (Geometric Mean Distance) and ‘d’ by mutual GMD.
Self GMD

1
self GMDfwd  D11 D12 ........D1n D21 D22.........D2n  ....... Dn1 Dn2........Dnn  n2

Where Dii  ri  0.7788ri

1
Self GMDbwd  Di 1 ' '  
Di' 2' ........Di'm' .............. Dml' ' ................Dmm 
' '
 m2

Where Dii  ri  0.7788ri

Mutual GMD
1
Mutual GMD  D11' D12' ...........D1m'  ................. Dn1' Dn2' .................Dnm'  
mn

Now, with these terms all the inductance expressions change to

0  d 
Single wire : ln  
2  self GMD 

0  mutual GMD 
1  , 2 wire: ln  
2  Self GMD 

Three – phase Transmission line

Symmetrical configuration

0r  D 
Lph  ln  
2  r 

r  0.7788r
Asymmetrical configurations

If conductors are placed horizontally or vertically.

1
Deq  Dab  Dbc  Dca  3

0r  Deq 
Lph  ln  
2  r 

In case of bundled conductor, more than one conductor per phase

We replace Dab  Dabeq = mutual GMD between a phase & b phase

Similarly, Dbc  Dbceq

Dca  Dcaeq

In place of GMR, Self GMD is used

1

  Self GMD Self GMD 

Self GMD=  Self GMD
3
a b c

Example: Calculate inductance per phase of following circuit?

Between successive conductors, distance = 3m , Radius of each conductor = 1m

Solution
1
Dab eq  Da1b1 . Da1b2 . Da2b1 . Da2b2  4

1
 3  12  12  3 4
 6m
1
Dbc eq  3  6  6  3 4  4.24m
1
Dca eq  6  9  9  6  4  7.348m

Deq = mutual GMD

1
 [Link]  [Link]  [Link]  3

= 5.71m
 1
Self GMD   r  D
a a1a2
 Da2a1  r   4

0.7788  0.012  152 

1
4


= 0.341m
1
Self GMD   r  D
b b1b2
 Db2b1  r   4

= 0.2467m
1
Self GMD  r  D
c c1c2
 Dc2c1  r  4

= 0.1528m
1
Self GMD   Self GMD a Self GMD b  Self GMD  c  3

= 0.2398m
0  GMD 
L ln  
2  GMD Self 

 5.71 
 2  10 7 ln    0.634mH / km
 0.2398 
Remember, Inductance calculated using these formulas is per unit length.

Transposition of Transmission line

The position of different lines are changed after regular intervals to reduce radio interference in
neighboring communication lines.

Capacitance
Single Phase 2 – Wire System
0 r
Cab 
 D 
ln  
 rr 
 12 
Line to neutral capacitance
 20 r 20 r
Can  , Cbn 
D  D 
ln   ln  
 r1   r2 
Three phase single conductor system
20 r
Cph 
 GMD 
ln  
 r 
For bundled conductors
20 0
Cph 
 GMD 
ln  
 Self GMD 
In capacitance calculations, it must always be remembered that there is no concept of r, we
simply use radius in calculating self GMD.
Performance of Transmission line
Classification of lines based on length

1) Short Line
l < 80 km or l*f < 4000 , Where f = frequency

2) Medium Line
80 km < l < 200 km
4000 < l*f < 10000

3) Long Line
l > 200 km
l*f > 10000

Modeling of transmission lines

Transmission lines are modeled as 2 – port network

Vs  AVR  BIR

Is  CVR  DIR

Under no load
Vs
IR  0 , Vs  AVR , VR 
A
 Vs
No Load Voltage  and IR  0 , Is  CVR
A

Vs
 VR
A
Voltage Regulation   100%
VR
This current is called as line charging current and is responsible for as effect is called as “Ferranti
Effect”.

Ferranti Effect
Under no-load or light load conditions receiving end voltage becomes more than sending end
voltage due to presence of line charging current.

Short transmission line

Vs  VR  IR R  jwL 

 VR  IR Z

 Vs  1 z   VR 
 I   0 1   I 
 s   R 

A = D (symmetrical)

AD – BC = 1 (reciprocal)

Approximate Voltage Regulation

For lagging pf
IR
VR=
VR
R cos  R
 X sin R 

load pf=cosR

For leading pf
IR
VR  R cos R  X sin R 
VR
Medium Transmission Line

Normal – T – Model

 YZ   YZ  
 1   Z 1  
 Vs   2   4    VR 
   
 Is    YZ    IR 
Y 1   
  2  

Here all problems are in actual values & not per unit length.

Nominal-π-Model

 YZ 
1 Z 
 Vs   2 V 
    R
 Is   Y  1  YZ  1  YZ   IR 
 4  2 
 

Long transmission Line

Vx  VR cosh X  IR Z c sinh x
VR
IR  IR cosh x  sinh x
Zc
Where Vx & I x are voltage and current at distance ‘x’ from receiving end.

R  jL
Zc  = surge impedance
G  jC

In case of long transmission line, we use all promoters’ per-unit length.

For loss less line, R=G=0
L
Zc 
C
For distribution less line, RC = LG
For sending end, x = l
Vs  VR cosh l  IR Z c sinh l

VR
Is  IR coshl+ sinh l
Zc
 cosh l Z c sinh l
 Vs     VR 
  1   
 Is   Z cosh l  IR 
 c


A = D (symmetric)
AD - BC = 1 (reciprocal)
Power Transfer Equation

Vs Vr A
cos      Vr cos    
2
Pr 
B B

Vs Vr A
sin      Vr sin    
2
Qr 
B B

For Short TL

B  Z   B  Z ; 

A  10  A   A  1, =0
2
Vs Vr Vr
Pr  cos       cos 
Z Z
2
Vs Vr Vr
Qr  sin       sin 
Z Z

If resistance of line is neglected

Z  jX  X and   900

2
Vs Vr Vs Vr Vr
Pr  sin ; QR = cos  
X X X

Remember, the last expression can be applied between any two bases in a power system as long
as transmission line connecting them is loss less.

Wave Propagation

Due to continuous energy transfer between L & C elements of a transmission line we consider
energy propagation from sending to receiving end & hence wave propagation.
Z c = Surge impedance or characteristic impedance.
γ = Propagation constant.

 R  jL G  jC 

For loss less line
R=G=O

  j LC
    j

 = attenuation constant
 = phase constant

In case of loss less line   0 (no attenuation)

   LC
1
Velocity of wave  , Where L & C are per unit length
LC
2 2
Wavelength   
  LC

Surge Impedance Loading

When load impedance = surge impedance

Vr(L
2
L)
PL  = Surge Impedance Loading
ZC

If ZL  ZC
VR  IR Z C

According to long line

VX  VR coshx+VR sinhx  2VRex

So no term containing e yx & hence no reflected wave & hence whenever surge impedance is
connected at load, there is no reflection.
Surge Traversal

Theremin equivalent circuit

When surge voltage ‘ V ’ is induced on the line & line can be represented as Theremin
equivalent circuit shown.
ZC = Characteristic impedance of line

ZL = load impedance or characteristics impedance of second

line connected in series to first.

 ZL 
Transmitted voltage V2  2V   potential divider 
 ZL  Z C 
Incident Voltage V1  V

Reflected voltage  V
V  V  V2 [Voltage continuity]

 Z  ZC 
V  V  L 
 ZL  Z C 
V V V
Reflected current   , Refracted current   2 , Incident current 
ZC ZL ZC

V  ZL  Z C
Reflection coefficient: 
V ZL  Z C

V2 2ZL
Refraction coefficient: 
V ZL  Z C

Voltage Control

 Usually in case of lagging loads, the voltage at receiving end falls below sending end voltage
and to boost the receiving end voltage we connect a shunt capacitor at receiving end.
 Similarly, in case of leading loads, receiving end voltage is higher than sending end voltage
so we connect a shunt reactor to avoid over-voltage.
Usually in GATE, we need to calculate rating of capacitor for voltage control & it is illustrated
through a question shown below:
Example: A three phase overhead lines has a resistance & reactance of 5 & 20 respectively.
The load at receiving end is 30MW, 0.85 pf lagging at 33kv & we connect a compensating
equipment at receiving end to maintain voltage at each end equal to 33 Kv. Find rating of
compensating equipment?
Solution:
Assuming base (MVA) = 30 MVA
Base voltage = 33 kv
30Mw
pu power =  1pu
30MVA
V2
Base impedance =  36.3
S
5  j20
pu impedance =   0.56875.960
36.3
2
VS VR VR
PR 
Z
cos      
Z
cos   Z  0.568 ; =75.96 0 
11 12
1 cos  75.96     cos75.96  cos  75.96     0.81
0.568 0.568

  40.110

VS VR VR 1 1 12
QR  sin       sin   sin  75.96  40.11    sin75.96
Z Z 0.568 0.568

QR = - 0.645 pu

QL  PL tan   1  tan  cos1 0.85 

QL = 0.6197 pu

QR  QL  QC  QC  1.2647pu

QC  1.2647  30 = 37.9 MVAR

So, we can observe the steps involved

Step – 1 : Calculate  from PL as capacitor does not consume any real power.

Step-2 : Calculate QR using  calculated above

Step-3 : QR  QL  QC than Calculate QC

Power Factor Correction

Usually, to improve the supply side power factor we connect a capacitor device like capacitor
bank or synchronous condenser (synchronous motor under over excited condition).
Suppose, initially a load of real power P1 & lagging pf cos 1 is connected & we want to
improve pf to cos 2 lagging  2  1  & we connect a capacitive device which consumes real
power PC  & thus net real power after connection.

P2  P1  PC

Q2  P2 tan 2 ; Q1  P1 tan 1

QC  P1 tan 1  P2 tan 2

In case of capacitor bank, PC  0  P1  P2

If we wish to calculate capacitance per phase

(in both voltage control & pf correction )
QC
QC  3CVph
2
 C
3Vph
2