ANM 301 AGRICULTURAL NEMATOLOGY 1+1

[Link], Professor

THEORY

Introduction – Brief history and development of Nematology in India and abroad –

Position of nematodes in animal kingdom – Importance of nematodes to man,

animals and plants – Economic loss is crop plant – Morphology and Anatomy of

nematodes (cuticle, cephalic region, alimentary, excretory, reproductive and

nervous system, sense organs) – Taxonomy of plant parasitic nematodes –

Classification, of plant parasitic nematodes based on feeding habits – Beneficial

nematodes. (entomopathogenic nematodes – Steinernema and Heterorhabditis).

Symptoms of nematode damage – interaction with other microorganisms (fungi,

bacteria and viruses) – Biology and ecology of important plant parasitic

nematodes (Meloidogyne, Heterordera, Rotylenchulud, Tylenchulus and

Radopholus) – Principles of nematode management (physical methods; cultural

methods – deep ploughing, fallowing, solarization, crop rotation, antinemic

plants; host – plant resistance to nematodes; biological control – nematode

trapping fungi, egg – parasitic fungi, obligate parasites, rhizosphere bacteria and

predators; chemical control – soil fumigants and nematode management – Major

nematode parasites and management in cereals (rice and wheat), millets

(sorghum, and maize), pulses (redgram, blackgram, greengram and

cowpea),oilseeds (castor and gingellY), fibre crops (cotton), vegetables (tomato,

brinjal, bhendi, chilli and potato), fruits (banana, citrus, grapevine and papaya),

spices and plantatin crops (turmeric, pepper, betelvine and coconut), flower

crops (crossandra, jasmine and tuberose) and medicinal and aromatic plants,

(diascorea, geranium and patchouli)

PRACTICAL

Soil and root sampling – Extraction of active nematodes and cysts from soil and

roots (Cobb’s sieving technique, Baermann funnel technique, conical flask

technique, Sugar floatation technique, Fenwick can method, Incubation and

Blender technique) – Nematode processing techniques (preservation, slow and

rapid method of processing, making semi permanent and permanent slides) –

Morpholoy of orders Tylenchida (Hoplolaimus), and Dorylaimida (Xiphinema) –

Identification of important nematodes (Tylenchorhynchus, Helicotylenchus,

Pratylenchus, Hirschmanniella. Hemicriconemoides / Criconema Heterodera /

Globodera, Tylenchulus, and Aphelenchoides) – Life stages of Meloidogyne,

Rotylenchulus and Radopholus – symptoms of important nematode diseases –

Nematicides and their application – Biocontrol agents.

LECTURE SCHEDULE
THEORY

1. Introduction – Brief history and development of nematology in India and

abroad.
2. Position of nematodes in animal kingdom – Importance of nematodes
(human being, animals and plants) – Economic loss in crop plants.
3. External morphology of nematode.
 4. Anatomy of nematodes – Digestive, excretory and nervous system and
sense organs.
5. Anatomy of nematodes – Reproductive system.
6. Taxonomy of plant – parasitic nematodes of the Secernentea and
Adenophorea.
7. Classification of plant – parasitic nematodes based on feeding habits –
Beneficial nematodes.
8. Symptoms of nematode damage.
9. Mid semester examination.
10. Interaction of nematodes with other micro-organisms.
11. Biology and ecology of Meloidogyne, Heterodera, Tylenchulus,
Rotylenchulus and Radopholus.
12. Principles of nematode management (Legislative, physical, cultural,
biological and chemical).
13. Integrated nematode management.
14. Nematode parasites of cereals and millets.
15. Nematode parasites of pulses, oilseeds and fibre crops.
16. Nematode parasites of vegetables and fruit crops.
17. Nematode parasites of spices and plantain crops, flower crops and
medicinal and aromatic plants.

PRACTICAL

1. Soil and root sampling. Extraction of nematodes by Cobb’s sieving

method; Baermann funnel Technique and modified Baermann funnel
technique.
2. Extraction of nematodes by sugar flotation technique; Extraction of cysts
by conical flask technique and fenwick can method.
3. Extraction of nematodes from roots and staining of roots infested with
endoparasitic and semi – endoparasitic nematodes.
4. Preservation of nematodes and preparation of temporary and permanent
slides.
 5. Observing morphology of the order Tylenchida (Hoplolaimus) and
Dorylaimida (Xiphinema, Longidorus).
6. Identification of nematodes – Tylenchorhynchus, Helicotylenchus.
7. Identification of nematodes – Pratylenchus, Hirschmanniella.
8. Identification of nematodes – Hemicriconemoides – Criconema,
Heterodera – Globodera.
9. Identification of nematodes – Tylenchulus, Aphelenchoides.
10. Study of life stages of Meloidogyne
11. Study of life stages of Rotylenchulus.
12. Study of life stages of Radopholus.
13. Nematodes diseases of rice (White tip and rice root nematode)
14. Damage caused by root – knot and reniform nematodes indifferent crops.
15. Symptoms of damage caused by citrus nematode ; the lesion nematode
and the burrowing nematode of banana.
16. Study of types of nematicides, application methods and calculation o
dosages; study of biocontrol agents.
17. Practical examination.

REFERECE BOOKS
1. Bhatti, D.S. and R.K. Walia. 1992. Nematode pests of crops, CBS
Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.p.381.
2. Goodey, J.B., Technical Bulletin No.2, 1963, Laboratory methods for work
with plant and soil nematodes, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food,
London,p.72.
3. Gopal Swarup and Dasgupta, D.R. 1986, Plant parasitic nematodes of
India – Problems and progress, ICAR, New Delhi. P.76.
4. Maggenti, A. 1981. General Nematology – Springer Verlag, New York Inc.,
p.372.
5. Nickle, W.R. 1984. Plant and Insect Nematodes, Marcel Dekker Inc., New
York, p.925.
 6. Parvatha Reddy, P. 1986. A Treatise on Phyto Nematology, Agricole
Publishing Academy, New Delhi, p.381.
7. Singh, R.S. and K. Sitaramaiah. 1993. Hand Book of Economic
Nematology, Cosmo Publication, New Delhi, p.386.
8. Thorne, G. 1971. Principles of nematology, McGraw Hill Book Co., New
York, London, p.553.
9. Webster,J.(Ed.), 1972. Economic Nematology, Academic Press,
London,P.396.

BIO DATA

1. Name and Designation : Dr. [Link]

with discipline Associate Professor, Nematology

2. Dept./Office and Station in : Department of Nematology

which working Centre for Plant Protection Studies
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore−641 003

3. Date of Birth : 07.04.1957

4. Details of appointment in :
each category
Details R.A./
Instructor / Asst. Asst. Assoc.
Res. Asst. Prof. Prof. Prof. &
Associate / Prof. (Senior (Selectio Professo
Regular scale) n Grade) r
appoint
a. Date of - 12.3.198 23.6.199 - 28.2.1996
Joining 0* 2
b. Present - - - - 16.1.2002
basic
pay
* Transferred employee

5. Scheme in which working : Nematology (Main)

6. Highest academic : Ph.D.

qualification acquired
7. Date of obtaining [Link]./Ph.D.: [Link]. (Ag.) : 16.04.1990
Degree Ph.D. : 08.09.1995

8. Number of years of experience :

Teaching
Research Extension
UG PG
9 ½ years 11 years 23 years 23 years
9. Number of publication*
Origin Resear Seminar Popula Teachin Any
Abstrac
al ch symposiu r Books g and other
ts
article notes m paper articles (6) Lab item
(3)
(1) (2) (4) (5) manuals (specify)
Technica
l Bulletin
1+4 - 2 Radio
31 15 8 3 26 -
chapters talk - 2
as
follows
(List of publications and one set of artilce is enclosed)
( Radio talk From 1997 onwards)

[Link] of awards/medals obtained etc.

Training Fellowship
Awards Medals Any other
participated obtained
5 6 item
1 2
a. Learning and -- Awarded [Link] Rolling Participatory
teaching (sponsoring Shield and Medal for the certificates
agency TNAU,
Coimbatore – 3)
best extension worker in in Agri-Index
1 – 3.9.92 Plant Protection in the year 2000, 2001
1998-99

b. Undergone six -- Awarded -- --

months training Fellow of
(4.1.2000 to 3.7.2000)
on Educational
Society of
Exchange programme at Plant
the Division of Protection
Nematology, IARI, New Science in
Delhi under TNAU- the year
AHRDP on Biological
control of nematodes (on
2001
Sabbatical leave)
[Link] course and summer institute :

S. Title Date Duration

No.
1. Summer Institute on Recent Advances in the October 10 – Three weeks
integrated management of pests and diseases 30, 1996
of coconut organised by the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research and held at Central
Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional
Station, Kayangulam, Kerala
2 Short course on Recent Advances for August 3 – 12, 10 days
economic management of phytonematodes in 1998
Agriculture in Nematology – at Department of
Nematology, B.A. College of Agriculture,
Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat

Signature of applicant
Introduction

Nematology is an important branch of biological science, which deals with

a complex, diverse group of round worms known as Nematodes that occur
worldwide in essentially all environments. Nematodes are also known as
eelworms in Europe, nemas in the United States and round worms by
zoologists. Many species are important parasites of plants and animals,
whereas others are beneficial to agriculture and the environment. Nematodes
that are parasites of man and animals are called helminthes and the study is
known as Helminthology. The plant parasitic forms are called nematodes and
the study is known as Plant Nematology. The name nematode was derived
from Greek words nema (thread) and oides (resembling).

Annual crop losses due to these obligate parasites have been estimated
to be about $ 78 billion wordwide and $ 8 billion for U.S. growers. The
estimated annual crop loss in Tamil Nadu is around Rs. 200 crores.

The soils in a hectare of all agroecosystem typically contain billions of

plant parasitic as well as beneficial nematodes. The damage to plants
caused by nematodes is often overlooked because the associated symptoms,
including slow growth, stunting and yellowing, can also be attributed to
nutritional and water related disorders.

Importance of Nematodes in Agriculture

In the United States, the nematodes are known to cause six per cent loss
in field crops, ($ 100 million / year), 12 per cent loss in fruits and nuts ($ 225
million / year), 11 per cent loss in vegetables ($ 267 million / year) and 10 per
cent loss in ornamental ($ 60 million / year).

In India, the cereal cyst nematode, Heterodera avenae causes the ‘molya’
disease of wheat and barley in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. The loss due to this nematode is about
 32 million rupees in wheat and 25 million rupees for barley in Rajasthan State
alone.
Economic annual losses due to nematodes for selected world crops.

Food and
Agriculture
Number of Estimated yield
Organization
Crops estimates per losses due to
production
crop Nematodes (%)
estimates (1000
MT)
Banana 78 2 097 19.7
Barley 49 171 635 6.3
Cassava 25 129 020 8.4
Citrus 102 56 100 14.2
Cocoa 13 1 660 10.5
Coffee 36 5 210 15.0
Corn 125 449 255 10.2
Cotton (lint) 85 17 794 10.7
Field bean 70 19 508 10.9
Oat 37 43 355 4.2
Peanut 69 20 611 12.0
Potato 141 312 209 12.2
Rice 64 469 959 10.0
Sorghum 53 71 698 6.9
Soybean 91 89 893 10.6
Sugar beet 51 293 478 10.9
Sugarcane 65 935 769 15.3
Sweet potato 67 117 337 10.2
Tea 16 2 218 8.2
Tobacco 92 6 205 14.7
Wheat 89 521 682 7.0

The examples are only a small portion of nematode problem in India.

Besides this direct damage, they also associate with bacteria, fungi and viruses
to cause complex diseases.

HISTORY OF PLANT NEMATOLOGY

In light of the high population numbers of nematodes. N.A. Cobb (1915)

who is considered to be the father of American Nematology, provided a dramatic
description of the abundance of nematodes. He stated, “If all the matter in the
universe except the nematodes were swept away, our world still would be dimly
recognizable we would find is mountaintops, valleys, rivers, lakes and oceans
represented by a film of nematodes. The statement “ sowed cockle, reaped no
corn” in Shakespeare’2 “Love’s Labour’s List”’ act4, scene 3, as suggested by
throne (1961) possibly the first record of plant parasitic nematodes in 1549. The
nematode that Throne suspected to be in that reference actually was described
by Needham in 1743. Subsequently, discovery of microscope and developments
in various disciplines of science led to the discovery of plant parasitic nematodes
and the disease caused by them. Some of the important milestones on the
history of plant nematology are listed below in chronological order.

1743 – Needham – Discovery of wheat seed gall nematode Anguina tritici, the
first plant parasitic nematode to come to the attention of the early
investigators.
1855 - Berkeley – Determination of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. to
cause root galls on cucumber plants in greenhouse in England.
1857 - Kuhn – Reported the stem and bulb nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci
infesting the heads of teasel.
1859 - Schacht - Report of sugarbeet cyst nematode, Heterodera schachtii from
Germany.
1873 - Butschli – Descriptions of the morphology of free –living nematodes.
1884 - deMan – Taxonomic monograph of soil and fresh water nematodes of the
Netherlands.
1889 – Atkinson and Neal – Publication about the root-knot nematodes in the
United
States.
1892 – Atkinson-Report of root-knot nematode and Fusarium complex in
vascular wilt of cotton.
1907 - [Link] – joined the USDA and considered to be the Father of
American Nematology.
1914 – [Link] – Contributions to the Science of Nematology.
1918 – N.A. Cobb – Development of methods and apparatus used in
Nematology.
1933 – T. Goodey – Book on “Plant parasitic nematodes and the diseases they
cause”
1934 – Filipjev – Book on “Nematodes that are importance for Agriculture”
translated from Russian to English in 1941 by [Link] uner the title
“A Manual of Agricultural Helminthology”.
1943 – Carter-Description of nematicidal value of D-D which is used in the era of
soil fumigation.
1945 – Christie – Description of the nematicidal value of EDB.
1948 – Allen – Taught the World’s first formal university course in Nematology at
the University of California, Berkeley.

1950 – Oostenbrink – Wrote a Book of on “The Potato Nematode, A dangerous

parasite to Potato Monoculture”.
1951 – Christie and Perry – Role of ectoparasites as plant pathogens. [Link]
– Wrote a book on “Soil and fresh water nematodes”. Food and
Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations organized the first
International Nematology course and Symposiumheld at Rothamstead
Experiment Station, England.
1955 – European Society of Nematologists founded.
1956 – Nematologica – The first journal published entirely for Nematology papers
from The Netherlands.
1961 – Society of Nematologists founded in the United States.
1967 – Organization of Tropical American Nematologists founded.
1969 – Journal of Nematology was first published by the Society of
Nematologists, USA.
1973 – Nematologa Mediterranea – published from Italy.
1978 – Revue de Nematologie published from France
1930s – 1990s – Barron, Duddington, Mankau, Linford, Sayre and Zuckerman –
they provided an insite on the Biological control of plant – parasitic
nematodes. Enhanced understanding of antagonists and related biology
enhancing the potential for practical biocontrol.
1940-s – 1990s – Triantaphyllou – Provided advancement in Cytogenetics,
modes of reproduction/sexually – and information data base for
genetics/molecular research. Enhanced understanding of evolution and
taxa interrelationships.
1950s – 1990s – Caveness, Jones, Oostenbrink, Sasser and Seinhorst –
International programme such as International Meloidogyne project – They
expanded educational base of nematologists world wide and provided
ecological – taxonomic data base.
1960s- 1990s – Nickle, Poinar and Steiner – Biological control of insects with
nematodes.
1960s- 1990s – Brenner, Dougherty and Nicholas – Caenorhabditis elegans
developmental biology and genetics – model system – provided
fundamental information on cell lineage, behaviour, gene function ageing
and overall genome for this model biological system.
In addition to the above, now the research advancement are in progress in the
following areas in USA from the year 1990.
Molecular markers for resistance genes, which provide efficiency of breeding for
resistance.
Cloning of resistance genes- Elucidation of the molecular fundamental
knowledge on mechanisms of pathogenesis.
Cloning of resistance genes- Elucidation of the molecular mechanism of
resistance.
Transgenic host resistance to plant parasitic nematodes – Great potential, but
limitied model system to date.
 HISTORY OF NEMATOLOGY IN INDIA

Nematology as a separate branch of Agriculture Science in India has been

recognized only about 37 years back. The history and development of
Nemtology in India have been listed below in chronological order.
1901 –Barber reported root – knot nematode on tea in Devala Estate, Tamil
Nadu, South India.
1906 – Butler reported root – knot nematode on black pepper in Kerala.
1913,1919 – Butler reported Ufra disease on rice in Bengal due to the infestation
of Ditylenchus angustus.
1926, 1933 – Ayyar reported root – knot nematode infestation on vegetable and
other crops in India.
1934, 1936 – Dastur reported white tip disease of rice caused by Aphelenchoides
besseyi in Central India.
1959 – Prasad, Mathur and Sehgal – reported cereal cyst nematode for the first
time from India.
1961 – Nematology laboratory established at Agricultural College and Research
Institute, Coimbatore, with the assistance of Rockfeller Foundation and
Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
1961 – Nematology unit established at the Central Patato Research Institute,
Simla.
1963 – Laboratory for potato cyst nematode research established at
Uthagamandalam with the assistance of Indian Council of Agriculture
Research
1964 – First International Nematology course held at IARI., NEW Delhi.
1966 – Nair, Dass and Menon reported the burrowing nematode on banana for
the first time from Kerala.
1966 – Division of Nematology established at IARI, New Delhi
1968 – First South – East Asian Post – Graduate Nematology course held in
India.
1969 – Nematological Society of India founded and first All India Nematology
Symposium held at IARI, New Delhi.
!969 – 1970 – Third South – East Asian Nematology course conducted at New
Delhi.
1969 – 1970 – Third South – East Asian Nematology course conducted at New
Delhi.
!971 – Indian Journal of Nematology published
1971 – Fourth South – East Asian Nematology course at New Delhi.
1972 – First All India Nematology Workshop held at IARI, New Delhi
1973 – Fifth South – East Asian Nematology Course at New Delhi.
1975 – Sixth South – East Asian Nematology Course at New Delhi.
1976 – Summer Institute in Phytonematology held at Allahabad.
1977 – Department of Nematology established at Haryana Agriculture Unviersity,
Hisar.
1977 – All India Co-ordinated Research Project (AICRP) on nematode pests of
crops and their control started functioning in 14 centres in India with its
Project Co-ordinator at IARI, New Delhi.
1979 – [Link]. (Ag.) Plant Nematology course started at Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore.
1979- All India Nematology Workshop and Symposium held at Orissa University
of Agricultural University, Coimbatore
1979 – All India Nematology Workshop and Symposium held at Orissa University
of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar
1979 – Seventh South – East Asian Nematology course at New Delhi.
1981 – Department of Nematology established at Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore.
1981 – All India Nematology Workshop and Symposium held at Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
1982 – Department of Nematology established at Rajendra Agriculture
University, PUSA, Bihar
1983 – All India Nematology Workshop and Symposium held at Solan, Himachal
Pradesh.
1985 – All India Nematology Workshop and Symposium held at Udaipur,
Rajasthan.
1986 – National Conference on Nematology held at IARI, New Delhi
1987 – All India Nematology Workshop at Govt. Agriculture College, Pune.
1987 – Group Discussion on Nematological problems of Plantation crops held at
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore.
1992 – Silver Jubilee Celebration of Division of Nematology, IARI, New Delhi.
1992 – Summer Institute on “ Management of Plant Parasitic nematodes in
different crops” organized by ICAR at Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar.
1995 – All India Nematology Workshop and National Symposium on Nematode
problems of India held at IARI, New Delhi.
1997 – Summer School on “Problems and Progress in Nematology during the
past one decade” was organized by ICAR at IARI, New Delhi.
1998 – Afro – Asian Nematology Conference held during April 1998 at
Coimbatore.
1999 – National seminar on “ Nematological Research in India: Challenges and
preparedness for the new millennium” at C.S. Azad University of
Agriculture and Technology,
Kanp[Link]
2000 – National Nematology Symposium on “ Integrated Nematode
Management” held at OUAT, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa.
2001 – National Congress on “ Centenary of Nematology in India : Appraisal and
Future plans” at IARI, New Delhi.

MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF NEMATODES

Even though nematodes occupy nearly every habitat on earth, they are
remarkably similar in morphology and life stages. Despite their structural
complexity, certain basic principles are common to all nematodes. Nematodes
are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented, Pseudocoelomate,
vermiform and colourless animals. The plant parasitic nematodes are slender
elongate, spindle shaped or fusiform, tapering towards both ends and circular in
cross section. The length of the nematode may vary from 0.2 mm
(Paratylenchus) to about 11.0mm (Paralongidorus maximus). Their body width
vary from 0.01 to 0.05 mm. In few genera, the females on maturity assume pear
shape (Meloidogyne), globular shape (Globodera), reniform (Rotylenchulus
reniformis) or saccate (Tylenchulus semipenetrans). The swelling increases the
reproductive potential of the organism. Radially symmetric traits (triradiate,
tetraradiate and hexaradiate) exist in the anterior region. The regions of
intestine, excretory and reproductive systems show tendencies towards
asymmetry. The nematodes have one or two tubular gonads which open
separately in the female and into the rectum in the male which also have the
copulatory spicules.

The free living saprophytic nematodes are generally larger in size. The
animal and human parasitic helminthes may have length of few centimeters to
even a meteer or more. The helminth parasitising whale fish is about 27 feet
long. The study on these animal and human parasites are known as
Helminthology.

The following are some examples of Helminths

1. Filarial worm - Wucheria bacrofti
2. Guinea worm - Dracunculus medinesis
3. Round worm - Ascaris lumricoides
4. Tape worm - Taenia solium

The nematode body is not divided into definite parts, but certain sub – divisions
are given for convenience. The anterior end starts with the head, which consists
of mouth and pharynx bearing the cephalic papillae or setae. The portion
between the head and the oesophagus is known as the neck. Beginning at the
anus and extending to the posterior terminus is the tail.
 Longitudinally the body is divided into four regions as dorsal, right lateral,
left and ventral. All the natural openings like vulva, excretory pore and anus are
located in the ventral region. The nematode body is made up of several distinct
body systems. They are the body wall, nervous system, secretory – excretory
system, and digestive system and reproductive system. Nematodes do not
posses a specialized circulatory or respiratory system. The exchange of gases is
thought to occur through the cuticle and circulation proceeds through the
movement of fluids within the pseudocolelom and by simple diffusion across
membranes.

The following are the characteristics of members of the phylum Nemata.

1. Inhabit marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments as free – livers and
parasites.
2. Bilateraly symmetrical, triploblastic, unsegmented and pseudocoelomates.
3. Vermiform, round in cross – section, covered with a three – layered
cuticle.
4. Growth accompanied by molting of juvenile stages, usually four juvenile
stages.
5. Oral opening surrounded by 6 lips and 16 sensory structures.
6. Possess unique cephalic sense organs called amphids.
7. Body wall contains only longitudinal muscles connected to longitudinal
nerve chords by processes extending from each muscle.
8. Unique excretory system containing gland cells or a set of collecting
tubes.
9. Longitudinal nerve cords housed within the thickening of the hypodermis.

Genera of the most common plant parasitic nematodes’

1. Awl nematode Dolichodorus spp.
2. Cyst nematode Globodera spp. and Heterodera spp.
3. Dagger nematode Xiphinema spp.
4. Foliar nematode Aphelechoides spp.
5. Lance nematode Hoplolaimus spp.
6. Lesion nematode Pratylenchus spp.
7. Needle nematode Longidorus spp.
8. Pin nematode Paratylenchus spp.
9. Reniform nematode Rotylenchus spp.
10. Ring nematode Criconemella spp.
11. Root – knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.
12. Sheath nematode Hemicycliophora spp.
13. Spiral nematode Helicotylenchus spp.
14. Sting nematode Belonolaimus
15. Subby – root nematode Paratrichodorus spp and
Trichodorus spp.
16. Stunt nematode Tylenchorhynchus spp.

The nematode body is divided into three regions. They are the outer body
tube or body wall, inner body tube and body cavity or pseudocoelome.

The outer body tube

The outer body tube or body wall includes the cuticle, hypodermis, and
somatic muscles. The body wall protect the nematode from the harsh
external environment, serves as the exoskeleton and provides the
mechanism for movement of the organism through the soil and plant tissue.
The body wall also contains much of the nervous and secretory – excretory
systems, and it plays a role in the exchange of gases.

The cuticle or exoskeleton

The cuticle is a non living, non cellular, triple – layers covering that is
secreted by the underlying hypodermis. The cuticle is flexible. It covers the
entire body and lines the oesophagus, vulva, anus, cloaca, excretory pore
and sensory organs. The feeding stylet and copulatory spicules are formed
from cuticle.

The composition and from of the cuticle is highly variable. In general, the
cuticle is composed of three primary zones viz., the cortical layer, median
layer and basal layer.

The cuticle of may nematodes have markings on the surface. They are
varied and complex and have been often used by taxonomists to assist in the
identification of various species. The cuticular markings are categorized into
different types. I. Punctuation ii. Transverse marking or striations and iii
Longitudinal markings.

i. Punctuations
These are minute, round dots arranged in a pattern. They act as
structures for strengthening the cuticle rather than as pore canals through
which cuticular proteins may be transported. In the perineal pattern of
Meloidogyne hapla these punctuations can be seen.

ii. Transverese marking or Striations

There are transverse lines present on the surface of the cuticle. These
markings exhibit distinct variations among the plant parasitic nematodes and
often used by the taxonomists for identification. The transverse markings
cause a pattern of ridges and furrows right from head to tail and these
markings gives the false appearance as if the nematode is segmented.
These markings are well pronounced in some families such as
Criconematidae, Tylenchidae and Heteroderidae. In Criconematids, the
annulations are clearly visible and known as scales and spines. The perineal
pattern in the posterior body region of Meloidogyne females, as well as rugse
wall pattern of Heterodera cysts, are considered to be the modifications of
transverse markings.
 iii. Longitudinal markings
These markings are the lines on the cuticle, which runs longitudinally
throughout the length of the nematode body. These markings are divided into
a) lateral lines or incisures and b) longitudinal ridges.
a) Lateral lines or Incisures
These are lines running longitudinal to the body axis of nematode but they
are confined to the lateral field in area just on top of lateral hypodermal
chords on either side of the nematode body running throughout the length.
The number of lateral lines or incisures is an important taxonomic character
as it shows stability within the genus.

b) Longitudinal ridges
Longitudinal ridges are raised lines present on cuticle running longitudinal
to nematode body axis but are confined in the area other than lateral field.
The number of these ridges is used by taxonomists for species identification.
A part from this, alae also present. They are thickening or projections of
the cuticle which occur in the lateral or sublateral region. There are 3 types of
alae. I. Caudal alae ii. Cervical alae and iii. Longitudinal alae.

I. Caudal alae
These are found in the posterior region and restricted to males as
copulatory bursa.
ii. Cervical alae

These are confined to the anterior part of the nematode body. Cervical
alae are found in some species of marine nematodes.

iii. Longitudinal alae

 The longitudinal alae delimit the later fields and are known as lateral alae.
Their form varies in different species. They are transversed by striations or
furrows varying in number from 1 to 12. Functionally, they probably assist in
locomotion and may permit slight changes in the width of nematodes.

The functions of cuticle

Cuticle gives definite shape and size to the body, acts as an exoskeleton,
helps in movement, being semipermeable, it regulates permeability and provides
important taxonomic characters for identification of nematodes.

Platymyrian
A flat type of cell with contractile elements limited in places to the base
lying close to the epidermis.

Coleomyarian
‘U’ shaped cells in which muscle fibre are adjacent and perpendicular to
the hypodermis and extend along the sides of the muscle cell of varying
distances.

Circomyarian
This type of muscle cells are almost round and the muscle fibres
completely surround the cytoplasm

The platymyarian muscle cell is considered primitive which might have

modified into coelomyarian type of narrowing and upward elongation of the
fibrillar zone. Muscle cells are connected to each oither by means of cytoplasmic
bridges and have nerve connections.

Inner Body Tube

Digestive system
 The digestive system of nematodes include the stoma, oesophagus,
intestine and posterior gut. The inner body tube is divided into 3 main regions.
1. Stomodeum : which constitute the stoma, oesophagus and cardia
2. Mesenteron : which constitute the intestine
3. Proctodeum : which is the posterior –most region comprising rectum and
anal opening.

1. Stomodeum
Stoma is the portion of the inner body tube lying between the oral opening
and oesophagus. The stomatal opening is small and slit like and is surrounded
by six lips. Two subdorsal, two subventral and tow lateral. Plant parasitic
nematodes are armed with a protrusible stylet which is usually hallow and
functions like a hypodermic needlw. In, Secernentea, the stylet is thought to be
derived from fusion of the stomatal lining and therefore called as stoimatostylet.
The stamatostylet consists of a anterior cone, a cylindrical shaft and three
rounded basal knobs. In Adenophrea, the stylet is thought to be derived from a
tooth and, therefore, it is called as odontostylet. The flanges that serve as points
of attachment for the stylet protractor muscles. In some plant parasitic
nematodes like Trichodorous and Paratrichodorus the odontostylet is dinstinctly
curved ventrally, lacks flanges and it is not hallow. In functions to pierce the cell
wall of the root. The nematode secrets a hallow tube out of its stoma that
connect it with the plant. This feeding tube serves as the interface between the
nematode and the plant.

Oesophagus or pharynx
The oesophagus is a muscular pumping organ attached to the posterior
portion of the stylet and lines with cuticle. In Adenophorea, the oesophagus is
divided into a narrow anterior procorpus and a broad posterior corpus. Three to
five oesophageal gland cell empty into the lumen ( one dorsal and two to four
subventral in position in Secernentea the oesophagus is divided into distinct
regions, such as narrow procorpus, followed by a broad muscular median bulb or
pump, a narrow isthmus and gland lobe. The gland lobe may overlap the
intestine in some genera and contain three to six gland cells (One dorsal and tow
dub – ventral). The oesophagus has valve (cordia) at the posterior end which
prevent the regurgitation of food.

Mesenteron or intestine
The nematode intestine is a simple, hallow, straight tube consisting of a
single layer of epitherlial cells. The intestine is generally divided anterior or
ventricular region, the midintestinal region and the posterior or prerectal region.
The microvilli are finger like projection of the plasma membrane projecting in to
the intestinal regions. They increase the surface area of the intestine and are
both secretary and absorbtive in funtion. The whole intestine is separated from
the pesducoelom by a basement membrane. The food moves in the intestine by
the ingestion of more food and also by locmotory activity of the nematode.

Protodeum

Proctodeum comprises rectum and anus. The intestinal tube is connected

with a narrow small tube at the posterior end, through a valve known as rectum.
It regulates the flow of undigested food material which is to be passed outside
the nematode body through a ventrally located aperture known as anus.

In male nematode, the rectum joins with the hind part of the testis forming
a common opening known as cloaca. In female, there is a separate opening.
Glands
Oesophageal and rectal glands are present in nematodes. The oesophageal
gland enter the stomodeum and rectal gland enter proctodeum.

Oesophageal glands
 Three uninucleated oesophageal glands. One gland on dorsal and other
tow ventro lateral or sub ventral in position. These gland connect with the lumen
of the oesophagus by means of ducts, often by means of a terminal swelling or
ampulla.

The oesophageal glands have important role in hatching host penetration

and also establishment of host parasitic relationship.

Rectal glands
Are responsible for the copious production of gelatinuous
mucopolysacccharide matrix in which eggs are deposited as a mass. It protects
the eggs from adverse environmental conditions.

Function of digestive system

Digestive juices secreted from dorsal oesophageal glands are injected into the
host plant cell by means of the stylet. During feeding a distinct zone develop
around the feeding site in the host cell . There are two feeding phases. 1.
Injection phase or saliavation phase and 2. Ingestion phase.

Injection phase or Salivation phase

During this phase, the flow of salivary juices into the host cell occurs due
to contraction of lateral muscle of the median bulb.

Ingestion phase
During this phase rhythmical contraction of the posterior part of the
oesophagus associated with the median bulb occurs.

Reproductive System
 The nematodes are generally dioecious. Majority of plant parasitic
nematodes do not exhibit any differences as far as body shape. Both sexes are
vermiform. However, sexual dimorphism is observed in some genera viz.,
Meloidogyne, Heterodera, Globodera, Rotylenchulus, Tylenchulus and
Nacobbus. The females of these genera become enlarged and assume different
shapes after attaining maturity.

Female Reproductive System

Present in nematodes having single ovary as observed in the genera
Pratylenchus and Ditylenchus. The uterus opens outside to a ventrally located
vulval opening through a tube known as vagina, which is a cuticularised
structure. In plant parasitic nematodes the number of ovary may be one or two.
When there is one ovary that condition is known as monodelphic and when the
number is tow, the condition is called as didelphic.

In monodelphic condition, the ovary is always, anteriorly directed, i.e

Prodelphic. In case of didelphic ovaries, if both the ovaries are anteriorly
directed and vulva is terminal in position then the condition is known as didelphic
prodelphic as found in the case of Meloidogyne, Heterodera and Globodera. In
som nematodes, two ovaries are opposite to one another, such that one is
anteriorly directed and the condition, as found in the case of Tylenchorhynchus,
Hoplolaimus and Helicotylenchus etc.

The vulval opening is a trasverse slit and not covered with any flap, but in
Agelenchus and Coslenchus vulva is covered with a membranous flap known as
vulval flap. The vaginal tube in Hoplolaimus and Cosaglenchus are provided
with a cuticular sclerotised structure encircling the tube known as epiptygma.
Ovary in most of the plant parasitic nematodes is always straight and does not
curve back. Such ovaries are called as outstretched ovaries as in the case of
Tylenchorhynchus, Radopholus and Hirschmanniella etc. In Dorylaimid
nematodes, the tip of the ovary is curved back. It is known as reflexed ovary. If
the ovary is single and posteriorly directed,m then it is known as monodelphic
ophisthodelphic condition and such conditions are rarely seen. ([Link]
spp.)

Further, and ovary is called hologenic if it produced oocytes throughout its

length and telogenic if producing oocytes only at its distal end.

Male Reproductive System

The production of sperms takes place in testis. In nematodes, whenever

the number of testis is one, it is known as monarchic conditions and when they
are tow in number, the condition is known which moves forward and backward
with help of specialized muscles attached with its head region. Spicule is
narrower at its tip. A cuticularised structure lying beneath the pair of spicule is
known as guberrnaculum which helps and gives support in movement of the
spicule. At the tail end, two filamentous cuticular expansions are found and they
are known as bursa helps to hold the female during copulation. Plant parasitic
nematodes can reproduce sexually where male and female copulate and give
rise to off – springs. Sexual reproduction is also called as amphimetic
reproduction. Parthenogenetic reproduction is also common phenomenon in
Meloidogyne and Tyelchulus semipenetrans.

Inter sexes
In genera like Meloidogyne and Ditylenchulus inter sexes are found. In
such cases one reproductive system act as male gonad and other one as female
gonad.

Excretory System
The excretory system is not well developed in nematodes. The excretory
pore is located in the anterior midventral line close to the nerve ring. The
position of excretory pore may vary in different genera and even in different
stages of the same species. In T. semipentrans the excretory. It secrets
gelatinous matrix. The excretory system in nematodes are of two types. 1.
Glandular type 2. Tubular type.

Glandular type
The glandular type consists of a single specilalised cell known as renette
cell. It has a posteriorly located enlarged gland known as excretory gland or
ventral gland. This gland is connected to the excretory pore by a duct tat
terminates in a pouch like structure known as ampulla. This type is found in
members of the class Adenophorea.

Tubular type
The tubular type of excretory system consists of four – cuticularised
canals. Two are anterior and another two are posterior canals. There is a pouch
like structure in the middle which connects both the lateral canals. It is known as
excretory pore. There are four types in tubular system.
1. Asymmetrical or Tylenchid type
2. Inverted ‘U’ shaped or Ascarid type
3. Rhabditid type
4. Simple’H’shaped or Oxyurid type.

Asymmetrictrical or Tylenchid type : Majority of the plant parasitic nematodes

which fail under the order Tylenchida have this asymmetrical tubular type
excretory system. In this type a single tube runs throughout the nematode body
length and found in either of the lateral hypodermal chords. In the middle of the
single canal, the lumen enlarges to form excretory sinus which is a nucleated
structure. It opens through the anterior canal by separating as a small branch
tube.
The nervous system: In plant parasitic nematodes, the nervous system is not
well developed. Though they posses very primitive type of nervous system, they
also respond to different stimuli.

The nervous system in plant parasitic nematodes is of two types

1. Peripheral Nervous System
2. Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

Located in the periphery which mainly includes body cuticle and also the
cephalic and caudal regions. The parts of nervous system located are well
connected with the nerve ring (circum oesophageal commisure) which encircles
the thumus region of esophagus and are considered to be the most important
part of the nervous system (brain of nematode). The peripheral nervous system
includes the sensory organs such as cephalic paillae; amphids cephalids,
hemizonid, hemisonions, deirids, phasmids and caudalids.

Cephalic paillae
Located on the cephalic region and are 16 in number, two each in – two
sub – dorsal lips and sub – ventral lips; one each in two lateral lips in outer circle
; and one each in all the six lips in inner circle. These paillae are supplied with
neurons or nerve fibres arising from the nerve ring. The papillae act as
chemoreceptors. They are believed to take part in movement of nematode
governing directions and also in differentiating between host and non – host
plants

Amphids
A pair of amphids is located on both the lateral sides. The amphidial
opening is pore – like and labial in position. The amphids are also connected
with the nerve ring, hence they are sensory in nature.
Cephalids
These are found in cephalic region. A pair of cephalids is found, of which
one is anterior and toher is posterior in position. The exact functions of cephalids
are not known. It is believed that they take part in transmitting massages to the
centrally located nerve ring.

Hemizonid and Hemizonion

They are highly refractive, biconvex, semi – circular and may be anteriror
or posterior to the excretory pore. Hemizonids is anterior to the excretory pore.
Hemizonions are smaller than Hemizoinids and are located posterior to
hemizonid. Hemizonoid and hemizonion are believed to be involved in
nuerosecretion.

Deirids
These are a pair of small protuberance, one each in lateral side in the
middle of the lateral field. These are located in the region of oesophagus at the
region of excretory pore. They are also sensory organs.

Phasmids

Phasmids are also sensory organs located in the posterior half of the
nematode paired one ach in lateral side of nematode and present in middle of
lateral field. They open outside through a minute pore. The presence and
absence of phasmids is of immense diagnostic value having phasmids. When
size of phasmids are bigger then these are called as scutella. They are present
in Scutellonema. Main functions of phasmids are chemoreception,
mechanoreption and thermoreception.
Caudalids
Caudalids are present in front of the tail. It is believed that they may take
part in transmitting massages from tail to the nerve ring.

Central Nervous System

Central nervous system comprise the nerve ring. Associated with this
nerve ring are a small dorsal gangalion. Six or eight longitudinal nerves run
posteriorly from these ganglion. Six nerves pass forward from the nerve ring and
supply the lips and associated sense organs.

A pair of nerves runs forward from the lateral ganglion to the amphids at
the anterior end of the nematode. The dorsal nerve is said to be chiefly motor
and lateral nerves mainly sensory in function. The sub – median and the ventral
nerves are partly motor and partly sesory.

BIOLOGY OF PLANT PARASITIC NEMTODES

The life cycle of nematode has six stages. The egg state, J1 or first stage
larva, J2 or second stage larva, J3 or third stage larva, J4 or fourth stage larva
and the adult stage. The first four stages are the immature stages and are
known as juvenile stages. The female lays eggs in soil or in plant tissues, singly
or in groups as egg mass that hatchout into larvae which are almost similar to
adults in appearance. The first moult occurs within the egg shell and the second
stage juvenile comes out by rupturing the egg shell as J2. In case of Xiphinema
index, the larvae are reported to emerge from the egg before the first moult. The
larval cuticle is shed after each moult.

Root – knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)

The root – knot nematodes are sedentary endoparasites of underground
plant parts. The eggs are retained in a gelantinous matrix, which normally
protrudes out of the host tissues. About 200 to 300 oval eggs are found in a
single egg mass which makes its size larger than the female body.

The life cycle starts from the egg usually in the one-celled stage deposited
by the female. Development of the embryo starts within hour of deposition,
resulting in two, four, eight cells, etc., The embryo and the first stage larva move
with in the egg but not very active.

After the first moult, the second stage infective juvenile is formed within
the egg. Larval hatch occurs under suitable physical condition but not depending
on host root exudates or hatching factor. The emerging second stage larvae
are found free in the soil. They attack new host root tissue in the region behind
the root tip (meristamatic zone) . The larvae which develop into females
establishes feeding site in the pericycle region and become sedentary.
Subsequently three moults occur and the larvae develop into females with
spherical body embedded in the host tissue. The neck region is unaltered.

During feeding the larvae pierce the cell wall with secretions cause
enlargement of cells in the vascular cylinder and increased cell division in the
pericycle. The nematode feeding stimulates the development of a typical nurse
cell system called ‘Syncytium’ or ‘ Giant cell’. These cells are multinucleate
which contain dense cytoplasm and enlarged nuclei with several mitochindrial
and golgi bodies and are metabolically active.
The larval which develop into adult males are initially parasitic. After
moulting three times they leave the host as a worm like from and come closer to
the females for copulation. Parthonogenesis is reported to be common in
Meloidogyne. For development of a mature female it takes around 30 days
which may vary depending upon the species of the host and parasite and
environmental factors like temperature and soil type.
Cyst nematodes (Globodera spp. and Heterodera spp.)
Second stages larvae usually penetrate the root just behind the growing
point. These larvae grow rapidly and thee moults occur in the host. In about 5
–6 weeks after penetration , the white cysts are clearly visible which protrude
from the root surface. These young cysts are packed with eggs and upon death
the body wall hardens due to quinone tanning into a tough resistant brown
covering known as cysts. The cysts get separated from the root and fall into soil.

Larval emergence from cysts is often in response to rot exudates from a

host plant. The best emergence of juveniles occurs as a result of a rise in
temperature after a period of low temperature. Maximum emergence of larvae
from cysts under Indian condition takes place at a temperature of 20 -22°C. The
cysts continue to release eggs over a period of 3 –4 years at the rate of 50 per
cent viable eggs per year. There is only one generation of the nematode in a
year.

Multiplication of nematode is favoured by soil texture. Migration of second

stage juveniles is favoured by light textured soils. The host cells close to the
head region of the sedentary female being to modify and finally enlarge to form
multinucleate syncytium with a thick outer boundary. The female feeds from this
nurse cell system and grows. The swollen adult female protrudes out of the root
tissues and later changes into brown cysts.
Although cyst nematodes induce giant cell formation, gall formation is not
distinct. Each syncytium is associated with only one nematode in the case of
cyst nematodes unlike the root – knot nematodes where one or more nematodes
are associated with a syncytium. Nuclei is enlarged in the syncytium caused by
the root – knot nematode but in cyst neamtode nuclei is relatively small. The
syncytia are bound by the vascular elements especially xylem which develops
specific wall in growths. There is enlarged nucleoli and irregular nuclei.
Abundant m,itochondria, golgi bodies, protoplasts and dense endoplasmic
reticula are also found in the syncytia.
Citrus nematode ( Tylenchulus semipenetrans)
Citrus nematode is a sedentary semi – endoparasite of the Citrus root.
Females are most commonly found on thick and stunted rootlets to which a layer
of soil particle is clinging. These particles are held in place by a gelatinous
muscus secreted by the female. The muscus and adhering soil particles protect
the females and eggs deposited by them from their natural enemies. The egg
laying young females can be seen in groups clinging to rootlets with their head
and neck buried in the root cortex, wwhereas the posterior body region found
outside the root surface.

Larva hatches from egg in 12 – 14 days. Mature males develop within a

week after 3 moults and one moult having occurred within the egg. The long
slender individuals fail to develop unless they feed on a root. The second stage
female larva requires about 14 days to locate the host root and feed on
epidermal cells until ready for moulting. Fourth stage females and young
females are seen in about 21 days after the entry into roots. At maturity the
females excrete the gelations matrix in which eggs are deposited. Egg laying
occurs in about 40 days. The complete cycle from egg requires six to eight
weeks at 25°C. Reproduction occurs without the help of males.

The feeding zone developed by this nematode is termed as nurse cell,

which consists of uincucleate but not enlarged discrete parenchyma cells which
are located in the cortex. Syncytium is not formed. This type of nurse cells
system is characteristic for this nematode. Feeding of the citrus nematode in
cortical cells results in necrosis. The injury does not extend to the stellar region
of the root.
The population of the citrus nematode is closely related to the stage of
decline of the trees. The nematode infestation is severe in sandy loam soil.
Reniform Nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis)
The adult female is an obligate, sendentary, semi-endoparasite of roots
while the males are non – parasitic. The species is bisexual and reproduction is
by amphimixis.

The species has an unusual life cycle. Although a newly hatched second
stage larva have well developed stylet, they do not feed. They soon pass
through three super imposed moults to become young females and adult males.
The young females force their way through cells of root cortex until they partially
or completely become embedded in this tissues. During the process they feed
on cortical cells. Three days after feeding, a slight swelling of the posterior body
is seed and eight days later eggs are deposited in a gelatinous matrix outside the
root tissue. When these eggs are placed in water they promptly begin to hatch.
The life cycle is completed in about 25 days provided the young females have
found the host immediately. The nematode as a semi- endoparasite of sedentary
nature, induces a specialized nurse cell systems for continuous food supply. The
system involves wall expansion of several cells at the feeding site, partial wall
dissolution, fusion of neighbouring cell protoplasts and finally establishment of a
multinucleate syncytium. These syncytia are mostly confined to the pericycle.
Other pericycle cells are metabolically stimulated but they remain discrete and
uninucleate.

The young infective females destroy the exterior cortical cells o roots and
the damage increase when the nematode move towards the phloem.

Burrowing Nematode (Radopholus similis)

Females and all juvenile stages are infective. Males are non-parasitic and
morphologically degenerate (without stylet). Penetration occurs mostly near the
root tip. The nematode penetrates within 24 hours and the cells around the site
of penetration becomes brown. After entering the roots, the nematodes occupy
intercellular position in the cortical parenchyma where they feed on the
cytoplasm of nearby cells causing cavities which coalesce to form tunnels.
Nematodes do not enter the stellar portions of the root. The nematode
completes its life cycle within 24 – 30 days at a temperature range of 21 - 32°C.
Females lay eggs within infested tissues with an average of 4 –5 eggs for two
weeks. Eggs hatch after 8 – 10 days and the juvenile stages are completed in 10
–13 days. A low soil temperature, adequate soil moisture and availability of fresh
tender roots help in the build up of population.

TAXONOMY OF PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES

Nematodes are placed in the group invertebrata, Kingdon Animalia.

Under separate phylum, Nemata / Nematoda, which consist of two classes,
Secernentea and Adenophorea.

Diagnostic characters of class Secernentea and Adenophorea

Secernentea (Phasmida) Adenophoreea (Aphasmida)
Amphidial opening is on the head Amphids open behind the head i.e.
near the lip region. post labial
Lateral canals open into the excretory Lateral canals and excretory duct end
duct in a cell
Oesophagus is divided into Oesophagus is cylindrical with an
procorpous, median bulb, isthmus enlarges glandular base
and basal bulb.
Male tail with bursa (Caudal alae) Male tail lacks bursa but posses
genital paillae.
Glands are absent Phasmids are Caudal glands are present Phasmids
present are absent
The mesenterial tissues are less The mesenterial tissues are well
developed developed
The plant parasitic nematodes are included in the orders Tylenchida of
class Secernentea and Dorylaimida of class Adenophorea.
Order : Tylenchida
Stoma armed with a protrusible spear or stomatodtylet. Oesophagus
consists of a procorpus, media bulb with selerotized valvular apparatus, nerve
ring encloses the narrow isthmus and with a basal bulb. It consists of two
superfamilies namely Tylenchoidea with Tylenchida and Aphelenchina as
suborders and Criconematoidea.

Differences between Tylenchoidea and Criconematoidea

Character Tylenchoidea Criconematoidea
Labial region Lips are hexaradiate, Labial region is poorly
Labial frame work developed, labial plate
present is present
Stylet Conus, shaft and knobs ‘Criconematoid’ type
are variable in shape stylet long and anchor
and size shape knob which lies in
base of metacarpus
Oesophagus Narrow procarpus, Pro and metacarpus
round metacarpus with amalgamated to a single
value, isthmus followed unit, short isthmus, the
by glandular basal bulb post carpus reduced,
appears as ‘set-off’
smaller than pro and
metacarpus
Deirids Present (2 pair) Absent
Female gonad Single or two ovary; Single ovary with
post uterine sac (PUS) posterior vulva; PUC
is present absent
Male gonad Single testis, caudal Single testis; caudal
alae is present alae rare
Phasmid Erratically present in tail Not known
region
* The key characters of the families in the super family Tylenchoidea are
furnished in page number ninety eight.

Difference between Tylenchina and Aphelenchina

Character Tylechina Aphelenchina

Lip Varying in shape Set- off
Annules Faint to strong annules Faint annules
Stylet Well developed; one dorsal and Weekly developed; no
two subventral knobs stylet knobs
Oesophagus Three parted Three parted with
square shaped median
bulb
Gland bulb Abutting, dorsal, ventral or dorso – Only dorsal over
ventral overlapping on intestine loapping
Gland opening Behind the stylet knob in Opens in the median
procorpous bulb
Female One or two; vulval position vary Single ovary; vulva
posterior
Male Bursa present Bursa rare
Spicule Weak to strong sclerotization is Rose thorne shape
seen with gubernaculums spicule present

Order : Dorylaimida

The labial region is set off from body contour. The stoma is armed with a
movable mural tooth or a hallow axial spear. Oesophagus is divided into a
slender, muscular anterior region and an elongated or pyriform glandular
posterior region. Females have one or two reflexed ovaries; males have paired
equal spicules, gubernaculums rare. The order is divided into three sub orders
namely Dorylaimina, Diptherophodrina and Nygolaimina. The former two
suborders containing the plant parasitic nematodes.

Suborder

Dorylaimina Diptherophodrina

Style with flangers or guiding ring, Teeth like spear, solid, short
long and straight and ventrally curved.

Family : Longidoride
Genus : Longidorus: amphids pouch like, slit like opening, spear
extension without flanges, guiding ring located near the
spear tip.
Genus : Xiphinema : amphids funnel shaped wide opening, spear
extension with flanges, guiding ring located near the
spear base.
Family : Trichodoridae

Genus : Trichodorus” Long curved onchiostylet, female rectum runs

parallel to the longitudinal body axis and the anus lies subterminally. Male tail
curved, bursa absent, vaginal sclerotization strong, lateral pores present near
vulva.

Ecological classification of plant parasitic nematodes

I. Above ground feeders

a. Feeding on flower buds, leaves and bulbs.
i. Seed gall nematode : Anguina tritici
ii. Leaf and bud neamtode : Aphelenchoides
 iii. Stem and bulb nematode : Ditylenchus

b. Feeding on tree trunk

i. Red ring nematode : Rhadinaphelenchus cocphilus
ii. Pine wilt nematode : Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

II. Below ground feeders

Endoparasite Semiendoparasite Ectoparasite

Sedentary Migratory
i. Cyst nematode i. Lesion nematode
Heterodera spp Pratylenchyus spp
Blobodera spp [Link] nematode
ii. Root – knot nematode Radopholus similes
Meloidogyne spp Hischmanniela spp.

i. Citrus nematode
Tylenchulus semipenetrans
ii. Reniform nematode
Rotylenchulus reniformis

Sedentary Migratory
i. Sheath nematodes i. Needle nematode : Longidorus sp.
Hemicriconemoides spp. ii. Dagger nematode : Xiphinema sp.
Hemicycliphora spp. Cacopaurus spp. iii. Stubby nematode : Trichodorus sp.
iv. Pin nematode : Paratylenchus sp.
According to feeding habits, the nematodes can be divide into
1. Ectoparasitic nematodes,
2. Semi endoparasitic nematodes and
 3. Endoparasitic nematodes

1. Ectoparasitic nematodes : These nematode live freely in the soil and move
closely or on the root surface, feed intermittently on the epidermis and root hairs
near the root tip.
A. Migraotory ectoparasite : (e.g.) Criconemoides spp. Paratylenchus spp., and
Trichodorus sp., etc., These nematodes spend their entire life cycle free in the
soil . When the roots are disturbed they detach themselves.

B. Sedentary ectoparasites : (eg.) Hemicycliphora arenaria and Cacopaurus

pestis etc., In this type of parasitism the attachment of nematode to the root
system is permanent but for this, it is similar to the previous one.

2. Semi – endoparasitic nematodes : (e.g.) Rotylenchulus renifomis and

Tylenchulus semipenetrans. The anterior part of the nematode, head and neck
being permanently fixed in the cortex and the posterior part extents free into the
soil.
3. Endoparasitic nematodes : The entire nematode is found inside the root and
the major portion of nematode body found inside the plant tissue.
a. Migratory endoparasite : (eg.) Hirschmanniella spp., Pratylenchus spp and
Radopholus similes etc., These nematodes move in the cortial parenchyma of
host root. While migrating they feed on cells, multiply and cause necrotic lesions.
b. Sedentary endoparasite : (eg.) Heterodera spp and Meloidogyne spp. The
second stage larvae penetrate the root lets and become sedentary through out
the life cycle, inside the root cortex.

Nematode Disease symptoms on crop plants

Most of the plant parasitic nematodes affect the root portion of plants
except Anguina spp., Aphelenchus spp., Aphelenchoides spp.,Ditylenchus spp,
Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Nematodes
suck the sap of the plants with the help of stylet and causes leaf discolouration,
stunted growth, reduced leaf size and fruits and lesions on roots, galls, reduced
root system and finally wilting.

Symptoms of nematode diseases can be classified as

I. Symptoms produced by above ground feeding nematodes
II. Symptoms produced by below ground feeding nematodes

I. Symptoms produced by above ground feeding nematodes

1. Leaf discolouration : The leaf tip become white in rice due to rice white tip
nematode Aphelenchoides besseyi, yellowing of leaves oin Chrysantyhemum
due to Chrysanthemus foliar nematodes, A. ritzembasoi.
2. Dead or devitalized buds : In case of straw berry plants infected with A.
fragariae, the nematodes affect the growing point and kill the plants and result
in blind plant.
3. Seed galls : In wheat, Anguina tritici larva enter into the flower primordium
and develops into a gall. The nematodes can survive for longer period (even
upto 28 years) inside the cockled wheat grain.
4. Twisting of leaves and stem : In onion, the basal leaves become twisted
when infested with D. angustus.
5. Crinkled or distorted stem and foliage: The wheat seed gall nematode.
A tritici infests the growing point as a result distortions in stem and leaves
take place.
5. Necrosis and discolouration : The red ring disease on coconut caused
by Rahadinaphelenchus cocophilus. Due to the infestation, red coloured
circular area appears in the trunk of the infested palm.
6. 7. Lesions on leaves and stem: Small yellowish spots are produced on
onion stem and leaves due [Link], and the leaf lesion caused by A.
ritzemabosi on Chrysanthemum.

II. Symptoms produced by below ground feeding nematodes

 The nematodes infest and feed on the root portion and exhibit symptoms
on below ground plant parts as well as on the above ground plants parts and
they are classified as
a. Above ground symptoms
b. Below ground symptoms

a. Above ground symptoms

1. Stunting : Reduced plant growth, and the plants can not able to withstand
adverse conditions. Patches of stunted plants appears in the field. (eg.) in
potato due to Globodera rostochiensis, in gingelly, due to Heterodera cajani and
in wheat by Heterodera avenae.
2. Discolouration of foliage : Patchy yellow appearance in coffee due to
Pratylenchus coffeae, G. rostochiensis infested potato plants show light green
foliage. Tylenchulus semipenetrans induce fine mottling on the leaves of orange
and lemon trees.
4. Wilting : Day wilting due to Meloidogyne spp. i.e. In hot weather the root –
knot infested plants tend to droop or wilt even in the presence of enough
moisture in the soil. Severe damage to the root system due to nematode
infestation leads to day wilting of plants.
B. Below ground symptoms
1. Root galls or knots : The characteristic root galls are produced by root – knot
nematode, Meloidogyne spp. False root galls are produced by Nacobbus
batatiformis on sugar beet and tomato. Small galls are produced by
Hemicycliophora arenaria on lemon roots. Ditylenchus radicicola cause root
galls on wheat and oats. Xiphinema diversicaudatum cause galls on rose roots.
2. Root lesion : The penetration and movement of nematodes in the root causes
typical root lesions eg. Necrotic lesions induced by Pratylenchus spp on
crossandra; the burrowing nematode, Radopholus similes in banana. Similarly
Pratylenchus coffeae and Helicotylenchus multicinctus cause reddish brown
lesion on banana root and corm. The rice root nematode also cause brown
lesions on rice root.
3. Reduced root system : Due to nematode feeding the root tip growth is
areested and the root produce branches. This may be of various kinds such as
coarse root, stubby root and curly tip.
a. Coarse root : Paratrichodorus spp. infestation arrest the growth of lateral
roots, and leads to a open root system with only main roots without lateral
roots.
b. [Link] roots : The lateral roots produce excessive rootless
([Link])
c. Curly tip : In the injury caused by Xiphinema spp. the nematode retard
the elongation of roots and cause curling of roots known as “Fish book’
symptom.
4. Root proliferation : Increase in the root growth or excessive branching due to
nematode infestation. The infested plant root produced excessive root hair at the
point of nematode infestation. (eg.) Trichodorus christei, Nacobbus spp.,
Heterodera spp. Meloidogyne hapla and Pratylenchus spp. etc.
5. Root – rot : The nematodes feeds on the fleshly structure and resulting in
rotting of tissues (eg.) Yam nematode scutellonema bradys and in potato
Ditylenchus destructor cause root rot.
6. Root surface necrosis : The severe injury caused by T. semipenetrans on
citrus leads to complete decortications of roots and results in root necrosis.
7. Cluster of sprouts on tubers : On the tubers, clusters of short and swollen
sprouts are formed due to D. dipsaci infestation in many tuber plants.

INTERACTION OF NEMATODES WITH MICRO-ORGANISMS

Plant parasitic nematodes favour the establishment of secondary
pathogens viz., fungi, bacteria, virus etc. The nematodes alter the host in such a
way that the host tissue becomes suitable for colonization by the secondary
pathogens. Even though the nematodes themselves are capable of causing
considerable damage to the crops, their association with other organisms
aggravate the disease. The nematodes cause mechanical wound which favours
the entry of micro organisms. In some cases, the association of nematode and
pathogen breaks the disease resistance in resistant cultivators of crop plants.

Nematode – fungus Interaction

Nematode – fungus interaction was first observed by Atkinson (1892) in
cotton. Fusarium wilt was more severe in the presence of Meloidogyne spp.
Since then the nematode – fungus interaction had received considerable
attention on important crop like banana, cotton, cowpea, brinjal, tobacco and
tomato. Some examples of nematode – fungus interaction are given in the
following table.
Crop Name of the Nematode Fungus Role of
disease nematode
Cotton Damping off Meloidogyne Rhisctonia Assists
incognita solani
acrita M. Pythium Pythium
incognita
acrita
debaryanum

Vascular wilt M. incognita Fusarium Assists

acrita Osysporum
F.
vasingectum

Rotylenchulus F. Assists
Reniformis oxysporium
Belonolaimus gracicilis [Link]
Vasinfectum
B. longicaudatus [Link] Assists
[Link]
Blank shank M. incognita Pytophtora Assists
(vascular wilt) acrita Parasitica var
nicotianae

Nematode – bacterium interactions

Nematode – bacterium interactions are comparatively fewer than the
nematode – fungal interactions. Some examples of nematode – bacteria
association are presented.

Name of the
Crop Nematode Bacterium Role of nematode
disease
Wheat Tundu A. tritici C. tritici Essential Assists
Vascular wilt M. incognita Pseudomonas
solanacearum

Nematode – Virus Interaction

In nematode – virus complex, nematode serves as a vector. Numerous
virus – nematode complexes have been identified after the pioneer work by
Hewit, Raski and Goheen (1958) who found that Xiphinema index was the vector
of grapevine fan leaf virus. Xiphinema spp., Longidorus spp., and
Paralongodorus spp. tansmit the ring spot viruses which are called “NEPO”
derived from Nematode transmitted polyhedral shaped particles. Teichodorus
spp. and Paratrichodorus spp. transmit the rattle viruses and called “NETU”
derived from Nematode transmitted tubular shaped particles. All these
nematodes have modified bottle shaped oesophagus with glands connected by
short ducts directly to the lumen of the oesophagus. This actually of nematodes.
Certain examples of the viral diseases and the nematode vectors are given in the
following table.
Viruses Nematode
NEPO – virsus
Arabis mosaic Xiphinema diversicaudatum
Arabis mosaic, grapevine fan leaf X. paraelongatum
Arabis mosaic, Grpevine

NETU VIRUSES
Tabacco rattle Paratrichodorus pachydermus
[Link],[Link],
[Link],[Link]
Trichodorus christei
[Link], [Link],
T. hooperi
Pea early browning [Link], [Link],
[Link],[Link].

Nematodes acquire and transmit the virus by feeding, which requires as

little as one day. Once acquired, the virus persists for longer period in the
nematode body than in vitro. For example, the grapevine fan leaf virus will exist
for as many as 60 days in X. index. Two types of mechanisms are observed in
virus transmission (i) retention through close biological association between virus
and vector as in Xiphinema; (ii) retention of virus mechanically as in Logidours.
Virus is retained in the inner surface of the guiding sheath of Longidorus, cuticle
lining of the lumen of oesophagus in Trichodorus and Paratrichodrous, cuticle
lining of style t extension and oesophagus in Xiphinema. The virus particles are
released into plant cell with the help of oesophagus.

NEMATODE PESTS OF FIELD CROPS

RICE
Plant parasitic nematodes cause serious damage to rice crop. Thirty two
species belonging to 13 genera were observed in association with the crop.
Among them few are considered to be important. They are the rice white – tip
nematode (Aphelenchoides besseyi), rice stem nematode (ditylenchus
angustus), rice root nematode (Hirschmanniella oryzae), root – knot nematode
(Meloidogyne graminicola) and the cyst nematode (Heterodera oryzicola)

The white tip nematode (Aphelenchoides besseyi)

The yield loss due to the white – tip nematode is estimated to be as such
as 17.4 to 54 .1 per cent. The nematode is distributed in India, Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka, Japan, Indonesia, Taiwan, USSR, Italy Cuba and Madagascar.

NEMATODE PESTS OF FRUIT CROPS

Host parasitic relationship
The second stage larvae penetrate the roots which are 4 to 5 weeks old
and feed on them. The young females penetrate deeper and become
established at a depth of several cortical cells. A feeding site is developed
around the head which consists of 6 to 10 nurse cells. These nurse cells are
cortical cells which have thickened walls, enlarge nucleus and nucleolus and
devoid of vacuole.

Symptoms
The characteristic symptoms are stunted growth, k yellowing if leaves and
day wilt even with a adequate moisture in soil, Infested plant roots are
malformed due to severe root galling.
Rotating papaya crop with marigold helps to reduce the nematode
incidence for the next crop

NEMATODE PESTS OF VEGETABLE CROPS

POTATO
Potato is one of the most important vegetable crop grown in India. It thrives best
in cool climate. Therefore it is a summer crop in the hills and a winter crop in
plains.
Cyst nematodes (G. rostochiensis and G. pallida)
In India the cyst nematode menace on potato was first reported by
Dr. Jones during 1961 from Nilgiri Hills.
The vegetable crops like bhendi, brinjal, tomato,c arrot, radish, chillies,
cauliflower, cabbage, bitter goured and garden beans are often infected by this
nematode.
The second stage larvae penetrate the young roots behind the root cap
and migrate to cortex region and fix a feeding site. At the feeding site 4 -5 giant
cells are formed which provide nourishment to the developing larvae. The giant
cells are bigger in size and multicnucleate with dense cytoplasm. AT the feeding
site proliferation of cells occurs due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia. Due to
pressure in the cortical tissue, galls are formed on the roots. The gall formation
leads to the destruction of xylem vessels which in turn affects conduction of
water and the nutrients to the above ground parts. The adult female lays 200 –
300 eggs in gelsyinoud matrix which usually protrudes outside the roots. The life
cycle is normally completed in 25 - 30 days depending upon the host and other
ecological factors.

Reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis)

Reniform nematode is a semi – endoparasite and causes damage to
beans, cabbage,carrot, cauliflower cucmber, brinjal pea, cowpea. Radish,
behndi and lettuce. The preadult females are parasitic. The nematode initiate
infection by destroying the epiderma cells and cause necrosis. Distintergration of
phloem cells occur in the stellar region of plants. Juveniles of female survive for
six months in desiccate soil and for several month in moist soil. The fourth stage
larvae are better adapted to adverse condition. The adult females are reniform in
shape with their head and neck inside the roots whereas the posteror reniform
shaped body seen outside the root. The female lays 150 – 200 eggs in gelations
matrix.
Stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus spp.)
The stem nematode commonly attack beansm, peas,c arrot, potato, onion and
garlic. D. dipsaci commonly feeds on stems, leaves and bulbs and very rarely
found in soil.

Stunt nematode (Tylenchorhynchus spp.)

The most common species of stunt nematode is T. brassicae which cause
damage to cabbage and cauliflower in Utter Pradesh. The seedlings growth is
very much reduced due the nematode. The nematode is mostly an ectoparasite
and rarely observed in the stellar region. The multiplication of the nematode
takes place in a wide range of temperature. ( 15 - 35˚C).

Management
The nursery needs to be raisedin nematode free soil. Nematode infested
seedling should not be used for planting. Soil solarisation in nursery beds using
polythene sheets during summer reduces the soil infestion of nematodes.
Rotation of crops like , brinjal , bhendi and chilli with non hosts crops like
mustard, sesame, maize, wheat and rice.

Use of organic amendments: Incorporation of decomposed farm yard

manure, poultry manure and green leaf manures reduce the nematode
infestation by promoting the predacious nematodes and other antagonistic fungi
which checks the parasitic nematodes. During decomposition of organic matter,
several organic acids, ammonia and other nematode toxic compounds are
released in soil.

Chemical treatment: Nursery beds can be treated with carbofuran 3G @

3gai/m2. In main field, carbofuran or phorate can be applied spot treatment @
1.5 kg ai/ha on 15 days after transplanting.
 Host plant resistance: The use of resistant varieties provide an effective,
economical and friendly means of nematode control. Hissar – Lalit and NDTR
are resistant tomatoes against Meloidogyne spp. Pusa Jwala is a resistant chilli
variety against M. incognita.

NEMATODE PESTS OF COMMERCIAL FLOWER CROPS

Crossandra (Crossandra undulaefolia) is one of the important
commercially grown flower crop in Tamil Nadu. In recent years there is a marked
decline in the cultivation of this crop in Madurai, Dindugal, Coimbatore, Salem,
Thiruvannamalai and Tiruchirapalli districts. The common problem with the crop
is death of plants in patches during the second and third year. This is due to the
nematode – fungal complex disease in the crop.

Investigations revealed the association of root – knot nematode,

Meloidogyne spp. And the root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus delattrei with crop
along with fungal pathogen, Fusarium solani.

Root – Knot nematode

Both M. incognita and M. javanica are reported to cause damage and yield
loss to the crop. The affected plants exhibit stunted growth, yellowing of leaves
and also have chlorotic symptoms. The nematode in association with R. solani
cause serious damage to the crop. The infested plants show root galls.

Root – lesion nematode

The root – lesion nematode, P. delattrei cause serious damage to the crop
and prevalent in all the localities where the crop is continuously cultivated. This
is a migratory endoparasite and cause damage to the cortical parenchyma cells
in the root. The infested root show brown to back colour lesion varying in length
and intensity.
 The affected plant leaves exhibit mottled appearance and pink colouration
which ultimately turn yellow and wither.

Nematode fungal complex disease

The association of the nematode and wilt disease pathogen Rhizoctonia
and Fusarium leads to mortality of plants. The disease incidence will be more if
both the nematode and the pathogen are found together in the crop field.

Management of the nematode fungal complex disease

Planting nematode free healthy seedlings in the main field
Treating the nursery bed with phorate 10G @ 5g/m2
Application of neem cake @ 100g/m2 in the nursery
The nursery beds needs to be drenched with 0.1% carbendazim solution one
week after nematicide application
In the main field spot application of phorate 10G@ 1g/plant on 30 days after
transplanting and one week after nematicide application; spot drenching with
varendazim at 0.1% is done to manage the nematode fungal complex disease in
the crop.

Tuberose
Tuberose (Polianthes tuberose) are valued commercial flower crop for
their prettiness, elegance and sweat pleasant grangrance. It has got a great
economic potential for cut flower trade and essential oil industry. It is cultivated
o=in the tropical and subtropical countries of the world. The flowers are used for
artistic garlands, floral ornaments, bouquets and buttonholes . The flowers emit
a delightful fragrance and are the source of tuberose oil. In India, it is cultivated
in West Bengal, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharastra.
Many plant parasitic nematodes are reported from the rhizosphere of
tuberose. Among them the root – knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and M.
javanica are commonly associated with the crop and cause serious damage. The
infested plants show yellowing and drying up of leaves. Stunting of plants also
occur in patches. In case of severe infestation the spike emergence is
suppressed resulting in loss of flower yield. Emergence of side shoots from
bulbs were also seen in some plants. The infested plant root have characteristic
root galls of varying size.

Management
Summer ploughing and exposing the field to sunlight during the month of
May for a period of one month prior to planting the bulbs, minimize the initial
nematode load in the soil. Spot application of phorate 10G or carbofuran 3G @
kg a.i./ha. Addition of farm yard manure @ 30t/ha enhance the multiplication of
predacious nematodes and antagonistic fungi which in turn checks the plant
parasitic nematodes in the crop.

JASMINE
Jasmine (Jasminum sambac) is an important commercial flower crop
grown mainly in countries like India, China and Malaysia. The natural oil of
jasmine is used in high grade perfumes. The crop is grown in an area of 1025 ha
in Tamil Nadu.

Many plant parasitic nematodes are reported from the rhizosphere of the
crop. Among them few are very important. The root knot nematode,
Meloidogyne incognita the lesion nematode, Pratylenchus delattrei and the spiral
nematode, Helicotylenchus spp. are often associated with the crop.

The root knot nematode infested jasmine plant root show characteristic
galls. The second stage juvenile of the nematode penetrate the growing root tip
and invade the cortical parenchyma cells. The nematode fix feeding site inroot
cortex and develop to become adult. The adult female lays 200 – 300 eggs. The
life cycle is completed in 25 – 30 days.
 The lesion nematodes are migratory endoparasite invading the roots and
destroy the cortical cells. This leads to dark lesions on the root surface and
subsequently rotting of roots occur and then the nematode migrate to invade
fresh healthy roots. The infested plants show stunted growth and yellowing of
leaves. The jasmine plants of more than 2 years age are commonly infested by
these nematodes.

Nematode fungal complex disease

Soil borne fungal pathogen (Fusarium spp.) easily enter the root through
the injuries caused by the nematodes. Thus the nematode act a pre-disposing
factor for the severe wilt disease in jasmine crop.

Summer ploughing and exposing the filed to sunlight during the month of
May for a period of one month prior to planting the bulbs, minimize the initial
nematode and soil borne fungal pathogen in soil. Spot application of phorate
10G 5g/plant or carbofuran 3G @ 15g/plant. Addition of farm yard manure @ 5
kg / plant to enhance the multiplication of predacious nematodes and
nematophagous fungi which in turn checks the plant parasitic nematodes in the
crop. Spot after nematicide application. The granule and carbendazim treatment
have to be given once in every six month in order to arrest the nematode and
pathogen multiplication.

NEMATODE PESTS OF SPIES AND PLANTATION CROPS

BLACK PEPPER
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is indigenous to the tropical forests of
western ghats of South India. The crop is grown in Kerala, Karnatak, Tamil
Nadu, Andra Pradesh and Assam.

The root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and the burrowing

nematode, Tadopholus similes are important pests of this crop. The root knot
nematodes infested vines show yellowing of lower leaves and the leaves loose
natural luster. The yellowing of leaves gradually progress upwards. The affected
vine leaves become flaccid and wither. The infested plant root show root galls of
varying sizes.

The burrowing nematode also cause serious damage to the vine. Var der
Vecht (1950) first reported slow wilt in this crop due to R. similes infestation in
Indonesia. The nematode in association with Fusarium and Rhizoctonia cause
serious damage to the crop.

Management
Treat the plants in the nursery with carbofuran 3G 1.5 kg a.i./ha. In the main field
the vines can be treated once in 6 months with carbofuran @ 1.5 – 2.0 kg ai./ha.
Application of neem cake @0.5 to 1 kg / vine also reduce the nematode damage.

Turmeric
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is grown in the states of Andhra Pradesh,
Maharastra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala andBihar. It is a herbaceous perennial
with a thick underground rhizome giving rise to primary and secondary rhizomes
called fingers.
The root – knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. is widely prevalent in all the
turmeric grown areas. The nematodes spread through the rhizomes. In case of
severe infestation stunting and yellowing of plant appear in patches. The
infested plant root show severe root galls and there will be poor development of
fingers.

Management
Application of crbofuran 3G or phorate 10G @ 1 – 1.5 kg ai/ha. Neem
cake application @ 1t/ ha also reduces the nematode incidence.
Betelvine
Betelvine is cultivated in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Karnataka, Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
About 40 species of plant parasitic nematodes are associated with the crop in
India. Among them, the most important and frequently observed nematodes are
Meloidogyne incognita, Rotylenchulus reniformis and Helicotylenchus incisus.
The root – knot nematode cause typical root galls in the betelvine root.

The reniform nematode, R. reniformis is a semi – endoparasite and cause

lesion on the root. This nematode also enhance the wilt disease in association
with Phytopthora spp. The adult female can be seen in the infested root. The
reniform shaped females protrude their posterior body outside where as the head
and neck are embedded inside the root tissue.

The spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus incisus is an ectoparasite and feed

on the growing root tip. They cause lesions on the root.

Management
Application of farm yard manure @ 30t/ha. Application of neem cake @ 3 t /ha in
three split doses at 45 days interval along with manures.
Spot application of the parasitic fungus, Paecilomyces lilacinus inoculated
neem cake @ 500 kg / ai/ha at the rhizosphere of the vine at quarterly interval
was found to be very effective in controlling the root - knot and reniform
nematodes.

NEMATODE CONTROL
Plant parasitic nematodes can be controlled by several methods. The
nematode control aims to improve growth, quality and yield by keeping the
nematode population below the economical threshold level. The control
measures to be adopted should be profitable and cost effective. It is essential to
calculate the cost benefit ratio before adopting control measures.
The nematode control methods are
1. Regulatory (Legal) control
2. Physical control
3. Cultural control
4. Biological control
5. Chemical control.

Regulatory control
Regulatory control of pests and diseases is the legal enforcement of
measures to prevent them from spreading or having spread, from multiplying
sufficiently to become intolerably troublesome. The principle involved in enacting
quarantine is exclusion of nematodes from entering into an area which is not
infested, in order to avoid spread of the nematode

Quarantine principles are traditionally employed to restrict the movement

of infected plant materials and contaminated soil into a state or country. Many
countries maintain elaborate organizations to intercept plant shipments
containing nematodes and other pests. Diseased and contaminated plant
material may be treated to kill the nematodes or their entry may be avoided.
Quarantine also prevent the movement of infected plant and soil to move out to
other nematodes free areas.

Plant Quarantine in India

The Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914 (DIP) was passed by the
Government of India which restricts introduction of exotic pests and disease into
the country from abroad.

The agricultural pests and disease acts of the various states prevent
interstate spread of pests within the country. The rules permits the plant
protection advisor to the government of India or any authorizes officer to
undertake inspection and treatments.
 Strict regulations have been made against G. rostochiensis, the potato
cyst nematode and Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus, the red ring nematode of
coconut. Domestic quarantine regulations have also been imposed to restrict the
movement of potato both for seed and table purposes in order to present the
spread of potato cyst nematode from Tamil Nadu to other states in India.

Physical control
It is very easy to kill the nematodes in laboratory by exposing the
nematodes to heat, irradiation and osmotic pressure etc., but it is extremely
difficult to adopt these methods in field conditions. These physical treatments
maybe hazardous to plant or the men working with the treatments and the
radiation treatments may have residual effects

Heat
Heat treatment of soil
Sterilization of soil by allowing steam is a practice in soil used in green
house, seed beds and also for small area cultivation. Insects, weed seeds,
nematodes,bacteria and fungi are killed by steam sterilization. In such cases
steam is introduced into the lower level of soil by means of perforated iron pipes
buried in the soil. The soil surface needs to be covered during steaming
operation. Plastic sheets are used for covering.

In the laboratory and for pot culture experiments autoclaves are used to
sterilize the soil.

Hot water treatment of planting material

Hot water treatment is commonly used for controlling nematodes. Prior to
planting the seed materials such as banana corms, onion bulbs, tubers seeds
and roots of seedlings can be dipped in hot water at 5 0 – 55 ˚C for 10 minutes
and then planted.
Irradiation
Irradiation also kills the nematode. Cysts of G. rostochiensis exposed to
20,000 Ỵ contained only dead eggs and at 40, 000 Ỵ exposure, the eggs lost
their contents. Ditylenchus myceliphagus in mushroom compost exposed to Ỵ
rays between 48,000 to 96,000 Ỵ inactivated the nematodes. UV light also kill the
nematodes. But these irradiation is not practically feasible under field conditions.

Osmotic pressure
Feder (1960) reported 100% nematode mortality when sucrose or
dextrose were added to nematode infested soil @ 1 to 5% by weight. But these
methods are not practical and economical.

Washing process
Plant parasitic nematodes are often spread by soil adhering to potato
tubers, bulbs and other planting materials. Careful washing of such planting
material helps to avoid the nematodes in spreading in new planting field.
Washing apparatus for cleaning potato and sugarbeet tubers are commercially
developed and are being used in many countries.

Seed cleaning

Modern mechanical seed cleaning methods have been developed remove the
seed galls from normal healthy wheat seeds.

Ultrasonics
Ultrasonic have little effect on Heterodera spp. The use of this ultrasonics
is not practically feasible.

CULTURAL CONTROL
Cultural nematode control methods are agronomical practices employed in
order to minimize nematode problem in the crops.
Selection of healthy seed material

In plants, propagated by vegetative means we can eliminate nematodes

by selecting the vegetative part from healthy plants. The golden nematode of
potato, the burrowing, spiral and lesion nematodes of banana can be eliminated
by selecting nematode free plant materials. The wheat seed gall nematode and
rice white tip nematode can be controlled by using nematode free seeds.

Adjusting the time of planting

Nematode life cycle depends on the climatic factors. Adjusting the time of
planting helps to avoid nematode damage. In some cases crops may be planed
in winter when soil temperature is low ad at that time the nematodes cannot be
active at low temperature. Early potatoes and sugar beets grow in soil during
cold season and escapes cyst nematode damage since the nematodes are not
that much active, to cause damage to the crop during cold season.

Fallowing
Leaving the field without cultivation, preferably after ploughing helps to
expose the nematodes to sunlight and the nematodes die due to starvation
without host plant. This method is not economical.

Deep summer ploughing

During the onset of summer, the infested field is ploughed with disc plough
and exposed to hot sun, which in turn enhances the soil temperature and kills the
nematodes.

For raising small nursery beds for vegetable crops like tomato and brinjal
seed beds can be prepared during summer, covered with polythene sheets which
enhances soil temperature by 5 to 10˚C which kills the nematodes in the seed
bed. This method is very effective and nematode free seedling can be raised by
soil solarization using polythene sheets.
Manuring
Raising green manure crops and addition of more amount of farm yard
manure, oil cakes of neem and castor, pressmud and poultry manure etc
enriches the soil and further encourages the development of predacious
nematodes like mononchus spp. and also other nematode antagonistic microbs
in the soil which checks the parasitic nematodes in the filed.

Flooding
Flooding can be adopted where there is an enormous availability of water.
Under submerged conditions, anaerobic condition develops in the soil which kills
the nematodes by asphyxiation. Chemicals lethal to nematodes such as
hydrogen sulphide and ammonia are released in flooded condition which kills the
nematodes.

Trap cropping
Two crops are grown in the field, out of which one crops is highly
susceptible to the nematode. The nematode attacks the susceptible crop. By
carefull planning, the susceptible crop can be grown first and then removed and
burnt. Thus the main crop escapes from the nematode damage. Cowpea is
highly susceptible crop can be grown first and then removed and burnt. Cowpea
is highly susceptible to root – knot nematode and the crop can be destroyed
before the nematodes mature.

Antagonistic crops
Certain crops like mustard, marigold and neem etc have chemicals or
alkaloids as root exudates which repell or suppress the plant parasitic
nematodes.

In marigold (Tagetes spp.) plants the α – terthinyl and bithinyl compounds

are present throughout the plant from root to shoot tips. This chemical kills the
nematodes.
 In mustard allyl isothiocyanate and in pangola grase pryrocaterchol are
present which kills the nematodes.

Such enemy plants can be grown along with main crop or included in crop
rotation.

Removal and destruction of infected plants

Early detection of infested plants and removal helps to educe nematode
spread. After harvest the stubbles of infested plants are to be removed. In
tobacco, the root system is left in the field after harvest. This will serve as a
inoculum or the next season crops. Similarly in D. angstus the nematode
remains in the left out stubbles in the field after harvest of rice grains. Such
stubbles are to be removed and destroyed and land needs to be ploughed to
expose the soil.

Use of resistant varieties

Nematode resistant varieties have been reported from time to time in
different crops. Use of resistant varieties is a very effective method to avoid
nematode damage. Nemared, Nematex, Hisar Lalit and Atkinson are tomato
varieties resistant to M. incogntia . The potato variety Kufri swarna is resistant to
G. rostochiensis.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Biological control aims to manipulate the parasites, predators and
pathogens of nematodes in the rhizosphere in order to control the plantparasitic
nematodes. Addition of organic amendments such as farm yard manure, oil
cakes, green manure and pressmud etc encourages the multiplication of
nematode antagonistic microbes which inturn checks the plant parasitic
nematodes.
The addition of organic amendments acts in several ways against the
plant parasitic nematodes. Organic acid such as formic, acetic propionic and
butric acids are released in soil during microbial decomposition of organic
amendments. Ammonia and hydrogen sulphide gases are also released in soil
during decomposition. These organic acids and gases are toxic to nematodes.

Nematode antagonistic microbes multiply rapidly due to addition of

organic matter.
Organic amendements improve soil conditions and helps the plants to
grow. The organic matter also provides nutrition for the crps plants.

Predacious fungi
Most of the predacious fungi comes under the order moniliales and
phycomcetes. There are two types of predacious activities among these fungi.
They are nematode trapping fungi and endozoic fungi.

Non-constricting rings
The trap is formed similar to the constricting ring. It is a non – adhesive
trap. The reing becomes an infective structure and kills the nematode eg.
Daclylaria candida.

In addition to formation of traps and adhesive secretions, the predacious fungi

may also produce toxin which kills the nematodes.

Endozoic fungi

The endozoic fungi usually enter the nematode by a germ tuber that
penetrates the cuticle from a sticky spore. The fungal hyphae ramify the
nematode body, absorb the contents and multiply. The hyphae then emerge
from dead nematode. Catenaria vermicola often attacks sugarcane nematodes.
 Pasteuria penetrans was found to be very effective against the root –knot
nematodes in many crops. The P. penetrans infested J2 of root knot nematodes
ca be seen attached with spores throughout the cuticle.

History of chemical control

Kuhn (1881) first tested CS2 to control sugarbeet nematode in Germany
and he could not get encouraging results. In South Carolina State, U.S.A.
Bessey (1911) treated CS2 or the control of root – knot nematodes but the
method proved impractical. Latter on the chemicals like formaldehyde, cyanide
and quick line were observed to have nematicidal properties, but all these
chemical were found to be highly expensive.
Mathews (1919) observed the effect of chloropicrin (tear gas) against plant
parasitic nematodes in England. Carter (1943) an entomologist of Hawai,
Pineapple Research Institute, reported the efficacy of 1,3 dichoropropene 1,2
dichloropropane (DD) mixture@ 250 1b/acre, against the plant parasitic
nematodes. In 1944, scientists from California and Florida states of USA
reported the efficacy of ethylene dibromide (EDB). In the same year the Dow
Chemical company, USA introduced the chemical as a soil fumigant for the
management of nematodes. The introduction of these two nematicides viz., DD
and EDB paved way for the chemical control of nematodes.

Description of some important nematicides

Ethylene dibromide (EDB) : 1.2 Dibromonehane. It is a colourless liquid and the

gas in non- inflammable. It is available ad 83% liquid formulation containing 1.2
kg active ingredient per litre and as 35% granules. It is injected or dibbled into
the soil for the control of nematodes at 60 to 120 1 or 200 kg ai/ha but it is not
very effective against cyst nematodes. Heterodera spp. and soil fungi. Crops like
onion, garlic and other bulbs should not be planted after soil treatment with EDB.
It is available as Bromofume and Dowfume.
Dibromochloropropane : (DBCP) 1,2 – dipromo – 3 – chloropropane. It is a straw
coloured liquid, a litre of it weighing 1.7 kg. It can be used s soil treatment
before planting, at the time of planting or as post when the soil temperature is
above 20˚C. It is applied as a sprinkle depending upon the crop and stage.
Certain crops like tobacco and potato are sensitive due to high bromine content
in the chemical. It functions more efficiently than other fumigant at high soil
temperature due to its high boiling point (195.6˚C). trade names are Nemagon
and fumazone.

DD mixture
It is the trade name of the mixture of compounds, chief of them contain
thecis and the trans isomers in equal quantities of 1,3 – dichloropropene 30.35%,
and a few other chlorinated compounds up to about 5%. Of these,
dichloropropene is the most toxic compounent and among its two isomers, the
transisomer is twice as toxic as the cis-isomer. It is a black liquid of 100%
formulation and a litre of it contains approximately 1kg of technical compounds.
It is used in the control of soil insects and nematodes and injected into the soil at
a depth of 15 -20 cm at 25 x 30 cm spacing. It is a fungicide a very high
diseases. Since it is highly phytotoxic, it is used for preplant soil application at
least 2 -3 weeks before planting. It is used for preplant soil application at least
2 -3 weeks before planting. It is used as such at 225 – 280 1/ha, but in clay and
peaty soils a higher dosage is required. It taints potato tubers and carrots grown
in treated soil. Dichloropropence is available under the trade name Telone andin
mixture with dibromoetane under the name Dorlane.

Methylbromide or Bromomethane

It boils at 4.5˚C. At ordinary temperatures it is a gas and therefore,

confined in containers under pressure as a liquid. The gas is 1.5 times as heavy
as air. Its insecticidal properties were described by Le Goupil in 19 -32. Its
power of penetration into packed foodstuffs such as flour is remarkable. As it
kills insects slowly a longer period of exposure to gas may be required. For
control of stored grain pests it is used at 24 – 32 g.m3, exposure period being 48
h. In tent fumigation for the control of termites and powder post beetles, the
dosage recommended is 32 0-64 g/ m3. For fumigating live plants, the dosage is
16 -32. Some plants are likely to be injured. In soil application for the control of
nematodes.

Phorate : 0,0 – diethyl S – (ethylthiomethyl) phosphorodithioate. Trade name is

Thimet. It is systemic insecticide cum nematicide, available as 10% granule. It
has got both contact and fumigant action. It does not persist for a longer period
and gets metabolically oxidized yielding for rat: oral 16 – 3.7; dermal 2.5 to 6.2.

Aldicarb : 2 – methyl – 2 (methilthio) propinaldehyde 0 (methylcarbomy) oxime.

Trade name is Temik. The sulphur atom in the molecule is oxidized to sulfoxide
and then to sulfone. It is a systemic 10% granule. The residues remain in plants
for 30 -35 days as a lethal dose. It also acts as repellent, contact nematicide and
interferes with reproduction of the nematodes by way of sex reversal.

Carbofuran: C12 H15 No3. It is 2,3 – dihydro – 2, 2, dimethyl 7 benzofuranyl

methyl carbamate. Trade name Furadon. It is a systemic insecticide cum
nematicide. It is formulated as 3% granule and also as 40F. The residual effect
last for 30 – 60 days. It has also got phtotonic effect. This systemic chemical
has got acropetal action and applied @ 1 -2 kg ai. /ha.