METAR (Meteorological Aerodrome Report)

 Definition: A METAR is an hourly aviation weather observation report providing

current weather conditions at an airport.
 Issued: Every hour (usually 50–55 minutes past the hour), with special reports (SPECI)
issued when significant weather changes occur.
 Contents: Includes information on wind, visibility, runway conditions, weather
phenomena, clouds, temperature, dew point, altimeter pressure, and sometimes remarks.

Explanation:

 OPKC – Karachi International Airport (ICAO Code)

 231100Z – 23rd day of the month, 11:00 UTC
 31010KT – Wind from 310° at 10 knots
 4000 – Visibility 4000 meters
 HZ – Haze
 NSC – No Significant Clouds
 30/22 – Temperature 30°C, Dew Point 22°C
 Q1008 – Atmospheric Pressure 1008 hPa
 NOSIG – No significant weather changes expected

TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast)

 Definition: A TAF is a forecast for an airport providing expected weather conditions

over a specified time period (usually 24 or 30 hours).
 Issued: Four times a day (00Z, 06Z, 12Z, 18Z).
 Contents: Similar to METAR but focuses on future conditions, including wind,
visibility, weather phenomena, and cloud cover.

Explanation:

 OPKC – Karachi International Airport

 231100Z – Issued on the 23rd at 11:00 UTC
 2312/2412 – Forecast valid from the 23rd at 12:00 UTC to the 24th at 12:00 UTC
 31010KT 5000 HZ NSC – Wind 310° at 10 knots, visibility 5000 meters, haze, no
significant clouds
 TEMPO 2315/2317 30012KT 3000 BR – Temporarily between 15:00 and 17:00 UTC,
wind 300° at 12 knots, visibility reduced to 3000 meters due to mist (BR)

Key Differences
 Feature METAR TAF
Purpose Current weather report Weather forecast
Issued Every hour (or SPECI for updates) Four times daily
Validity Snapshot of current conditions 24 to 30 hours
Content Wind, visibility, clouds, temperature, Expected weather conditions over
pressure time

Both reports are crucial for flight planning, takeoff, landing, and en-route decision-making to
ensure safety and efficiency. Let me know if you need help decoding any specific TAF or
METAR!

QFE, QNE, QNH:

 QFE: Height above airport elevation or runway threshold elevation on local station
pressure
 QNE: Altitude above MSL based on standard atmospheric pressure which is 29.92
inches of mercury or 1013.2 hpa
 QNH: Altitude above MSL based on local station pressure

OKTAS:

LAYERS OF CLOUDS

It is a unit to measure cloud coverage. E.g.

1. FEW 01-02 oktas

2. SCATTERED 2-3 oktas
3. BROKEN 5-7 oktas
4. OVERCAST 8-8 oktas

VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range)

 Definition: A ground-based radio navigation system that helps aircraft determine their
position and stay on a specific course using VHF (Very High Frequency) signals.
 Frequency Range: 108.00 to 117.95 MHz.
 Function: Provides radial bearings from the station (360° reference) to help pilots
navigate.
 Types:
o Conventional VOR (CVOR) – Standard VOR.
o Doppler VOR (DVOR) – More accurate and resistant to interference.

How Pilots Use VOR:

1. The aircraft's VOR receiver tunes into a specific station frequency.

2. The system determines the aircraft’s radial (direction) from the station.
 3. Pilots use a CDI (Course Deviation Indicator) or HSI (Horizontal Situation
Indicator) to stay on course.

Example:

 If a VOR station is in Lahore, and a pilot is on the 090° radial, the aircraft is due east of
the station.

DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)

 Definition: A system that provides the slant range distance between an aircraft and a
ground station.
 Frequency Range: Uses UHF (Ultra High Frequency) band (960 – 1215 MHz).
 Function: Measures the distance by calculating the time taken for radio signals to travel
between the aircraft and the DME ground station.
 Works With: Usually paired with VOR (VOR/DME) or ILS (ILS/DME) for
navigation and approach procedures.

How Pilots Use DME:

1. The aircraft’s DME transceiver sends signals to the ground station.

2. The ground station responds with signals.
3. The system calculates the distance based on signal travel time.

Example:

 If an aircraft is flying toward a VOR/DME station and the DME reads 20 NM, the
aircraft is 20 nautical miles away.

ILS (Instrument Landing System)

 Definition: A precision approach system that provides accurate lateral and vertical
guidance for landing.
 Components:
1. Localizer (LOC): Provides horizontal (left/right) guidance.
2. Glide Slope (GS): Provides vertical (up/down) guidance.
3. Marker Beacons: Indicate distance from the runway (Outer, Middle, Inner
markers).
4. DME (sometimes included): Provides distance to the runway.
 Function: Helps aircraft align with the runway centerline and descent path for a safe
landing.
 Frequency:
 o Localizer: 108.10 – 111.95 MHz.
o Glide Slope: 329.15 – 335.00 MHz.

How Pilots Use ILS:

1. The aircraft’s NAV receiver tunes into the ILS frequency.

2. The Localizer helps maintain the correct horizontal alignment.
3. The Glide Slope ensures the aircraft follows the correct descent angle (usually 3°).
4. Marker beacons and DME confirm distance to the runway.

ILS Categories:

Category Decision Height (DH) Runway Visibility (RVR)

CAT I 200 ft 550m (1800 ft)
CAT II 100 ft 300m (1000 ft)
CAT IIIa 50 ft 175m (600 ft)
CAT <50 ft 50m (150 ft)
IIIb
CAT IIIc 0 ft No minimum (full auto land)

Key Differences

Feature VOR DME ILS

Purpose En-route & approach Distance Precision approach for
navigation measurement landing
Signal VHF (108-117.95 MHz) UHF (960-1215 VHF/UHF
Type MHz)
Guidance Direction (radials) Distance (NM) Lateral & vertical (LOC &
GS)
Used For General navigation Distance to station Landing approach

Each system plays a vital role in aviation safety, ensuring accurate navigation, approach
guidance, and smooth landings. Let me know if you need more details!

Alternates:

EN-ROUTE In case of emergency during flight we can divert to that airport

ALTERNATE:
DESTINATION As per policy we have to plan destination one alternate. We can
ALTERNATE plan two alternate, but it depend on weather condition
ETOPS /EDTO To fulfill ETOPS requirement
ALTERNATE
TAKE OFF At the time of departure due any reason, aircraft cannot land
ALTERNATE back at departure aerodrome. In that case we plan one take off
 alternate within one hour of flight time.

 landing minima does not meet

 airport time limitation
 approach climb limit(high elevation)

EMERGENCY /  En-route high Elevation area (continuously checking

CONTIGENCY weather )
ALTERNATE  En-route alternate (without weather checking)

Emergency alternate is Used for unplanned, urgent situations (e.g.,

engine failure, fire, and depressurization) where immediate landing is
required.

Types of Weight:

AIRCRAFT WEIGHT
Name Definition Formula
Basic Operating Empty weight of aircraft with all necessary
A/C weight + Fluids
Weight (BOW) fluids

Dry Operating Weight Basic weight of the aircraft along with crew BOW + Crew/Baggage +
(DOW) their baggage and pantry Pantry

The load for which you have to pay / The load Passenger/Baggage + Cargo
PAYLOAD (PL)
which generates revenue / Mail
Zero Fuel Weight
Weight of the aircraft without fuel DOW + Payload
(ZFW)
Maximum Landing Designed structural weight at which an aircraft
MTOW - Trip Fuel
Weight (MLDW) can land safely.
Maximum Take-off Designed structural weight at which an aircraft
ZFW + TO Fuel
Weight (MTOW) can take off safely

TYPES OF THUNDERSORM

 Air mass thunderstorm

 Line thunderstorm
 Frontal thunderstorm

STAGES OF THUNDERSORM

1. CUMULUS /INITIAL STAGE (continuous updrafts) 20 minutes

2. MATURE STAGE (Greatest intensity)/ (Both updrafts and downdrafts) 20/30 minutes
3. DISSIPATING STAGE (Downdrafts)

Updraft: the upward moving air in a thunderstorm is known as updraft.

Downdraft: the downward moving air in a thunderstorm is known as downdraft