COMMUNICATION, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Let us begin our discussion, by defining the words: communication, media,

culture and society. What is communication and why do we communicate? In
its simplest definition, communication is the exchange of information and
meaning. We are constantly communicating in a wide range of different
contexts such as with each other (interpersonal communication), with
different cultural groups or subgroups (intercultural communication), or to
large audiences (mass communication), just to name a few.

Objectives:

Topic 2: Cost Structures and Financial Challenges

 Reading: “The Economics of the Media Industry” by Robert G. Picard (Chapter 6: Cost
Structures)
 Activity: Group discussions on the financial challenges faced by traditional vs. digital
media platforms.
Topic 3: Market Competition in Media
 Reading: “Media Competition and Coexistence: The Theory of the Niche” by John W.
Dimmick (Chapter 3: Competitive Dynamics)
 Activity: Research project on competitive strategies of leading media companies,
with a focus on recent market trends.
Topic 4: Media Ownership and Consolidation
 Reading: “Media Ownership and Concentration in America” by Eli M. Noam (Chapter
2: Ownership Patterns)
 Activity: Debate on the pros and cons of media consolidation and its impact on
content diversity.
Topic 5: Business Strategies for Media Enterprises
 Reading: “Strategic Management in the Media: Theory to Practice” by Lucy Küng
(Chapter 4: Strategic Planning)
 Activity: Workshop on developing business strategies for a hypothetical media
startup, considering ethical and public service aspects.
Additional Learning Activities
 Guest Lectures: Invite media industry professionals to share insights on the business
aspects of media operations.
 Reflection Papers: Students will write reflection papers on how business decisions in
media impact content and public perception.
Module 1 : COMMUNICATION MEDIA, TYPES, APPLICATIONS, AND
EXAMPLES

Media on the other hand, has been defined by the oxford dictionary as the
main means of mass communication (broadcasting, publishing, and the
internet) regarded collectively. In [Link], it defines Culture as a
term is widely used in academic as well as in daily speech and discourse,
referring to different concepts and understandings. While the term originally
stems from ancient Greek and Roman cultures (Latin: cultura) it has various
dimensions today built from the different needs and uses of each field, be it
anthropology, sociology or communication studies. For communication
studies, we might start by defining culture as a set of learned behaviors
shared by a group of people through interaction.

What is Communication Media?

Communication Media refers to the various channels or means through

which information is transmitted, shared, and received. It includes a broad
range of platforms and tools that enable communication between individuals,
groups, and organizations.
Here are some of the key objectives of this form of Media:
 a) Connecting people: Communication Media bridges the geographical
gaps, allowing individuals from different locations to connect, interact,
and build relationships.

b) Disseminating information: Communication Media serves as a

powerful tool for sharing news, knowledge, and insights, reaching a wide
audience and keeping people informed.

c) Facilitating the exchange of ideas: Communication Media creates

platforms and spaces where ideas can be shared, discussed, and debated.
As a result, it fosters innovation and intellectual growth.

From traditional methods to modern digital platforms, Communication Media

has evolved significantly, revolutionizing the way we interact, collaborate,
and share knowledge.

Various types of Communication Media

Communication Media has played a significant role in delivering information,

entertainment, and connecting people across the globe. From traditional
forms to digital platforms, the evolution of Communication Media has
revolutionized the way we exchange ideas, disseminate news, and engage
with diverse audiences.

Here, we will analyze its rich landscape exploring its different types and their
unique characteristics. By understanding the wide range of mediums
available, we can appreciate their immense impact on society and how they
shape our interactions and experiences. Let us explore the different types
of Communication Media:
Verbal Media Communication
When Communication is performed using words, be it written or via spoken,
it is considered Verbal Communication. It can be classified into two
different types, and let’s explore them below:

a) Oral Communication:
Any Communication that happens via speaking can be considered oral
Communication. Whether it's two people having a conversation on the
phone or debating on a stage, it all comes under oral Communication. It is
an extremely effective form of Communication as there will be very few
misunderstandings when compared to others. Other than that, you get
feedback from your listener instantaneously without any delays. Let’s
explore some examples of oral Communication:

1) Telephone: Telephonic Communication is a form of oral

Communication that has many advantages. Both the speaker and listener
don’t have to be present in the same location, and all you need is your
voice and tone to pass information.

2) Presentation: Presentations are one of the most popular forms of oral

Communication, used almost every day. It is typically done in a
professional or formal setting with the goal of sharing knowledge, raising
awareness or presenting ideas. The goal of the presenter is to convey
their ideas on a specific topic to the audience in a clear and concise
manner.

3) Public speech: Public speech is yet another popular form of oral

Communication, and unlike presentations, it can happen both in a formal
as well as informal settings. From entertainers to politicians, public
speech is used by many people across the world. It is a very powerful tool
as it has the power to shape human lives forever.

4) Interview: In general, interviews are performed in a formal setting

with a few exceptions. This method of Communication is used for hiring
talents, and it involves an interview panel of one to five members
interviewing a person. Candidates are evaluated based on many metrics
like Communication, technical knowledge and problem-solving abilities.

5) Meeting: Meeting is another popular form of Communication and

generally involves at least two or more persons. Similar to a speaker in a
public speech, most meetings have a head who addresses the
 participants to deliver key information. It can happen both in formal and
informal settings. The meetings happen in a formal setting and will
involve written Communication, such as documentation or reports.

b) Written Communication:

Written Communication is another type of Verbal Communication.

Although they are both the two sides of the same coin, they differ from each
other extremely when it comes to how the information is passed through.
This form of Communication is very effective in some areas, as it can ensure
clarity and accuracy. It has many advantages compared to oral
communication as it is dictated by the speaker. In written Communication,
the reader can read through the subject at their own pace and can take
breaks. However, it could greatly benefit when used along with oral
communication as the combination of both can give more credibility. Here
are a few examples of written communication:

1) E-mails: Although e-mails have been around for a couple of decades,

they are still the most popular and preferred method of Communication in
the professional world. Whether it’s Communication with your peers or
negotiating business deals with your clients, e-mails are the go-to choice.
You can use it to send reports, job applications, and business proposals.

2) Proposals: Business proposals play a very important role in reshaping

the future. It is generally used to get projects or secure capital and
investments. A well-drafted business proposal has to clearly describe the
goal as well as the processes involved to increase their chances of
success.

3) Reports: When it comes to written Communication, reports are at the

top of the chart. They are generally used to describe the tasks performed
as well as their outcome. They play a key role in bridging the link between
an organization and its clients as they can be used to understand all the
business activities.

4) Brochures: In written Communication, brochures are generally used

for advertisement purposes. A brochure could be anything from a
pamphlet or a template which contains key information about a product
or an organization’s service. It is one of the simplest yet effective forms of
Communication.

Non-verbal Media Communication

Non-verbal Media Communication, as the name suggests, is performed
without using any words, be it oral or written. The information is generally
passed via non-verbal mediums, and let’s explore some of them below:

1) Body language: Body language is one of the most underrated forms

of communication that we perform almost every day. The way a person
reacts can speak volumes, and Some of the most successful persons are
experts in body language. That’s why it is extremely important.
 2) Gestures: In a world dominated by emojis, gestures still play a vital
role. Using a simple positive gesture like a thumbs-up could play a
massive role in your Communication and help you leave a long-lasting
impact.

3) Touch: Touch is another effective form of communication used by

humans and animals alike. You can effectively use touch as a mechanism
for positive reinforcement. However, not everyone is fond of touch, so
check if they are fine with it.

4) Silence: Believe it or not, silence is a method of Communication, and

we all use it without even realizing it. From paying respects to expressing
sadness, silence is a perfect tool for Communication.

5) Proximity: Proximity can be used to express your bond and the

respect you have for someone. At the end of the day, we are all social
animals, and we can often see how animals express their affection using
proximity. You can express your ideas and emotions even with proximity.
Standing or staying close to someone can be used to express their bond
and respect. At the same time, staying far or standing away from
someone can be used to express discomfort.

Applications of Communication Media

From learning to entertainment, the applications are vast and diverse. It

helps enrich our lives by transforming various industries. Here are some
notable applications:

1. Communication Media in entertainment

Communication Media plays a crucial role in the world of entertainment,
providing engaging and immersive experiences. Here are some of its key
aspects:

a) Film and television: Film and television platforms deliver captivating

storytelling, visual effects, and memorable performances.

b) Music and streaming: Music platforms and streaming services offer a

broad range of music genres and on-demand entertainment.
 c) Live events and performances: Live events and performances
create shared experiences, connecting audiences through entertainment
and art.

d) Online gaming and esports: Online gaming and esports provide

interactive and competitive entertainment for gamers worldwide.

e) Social media influence: As mentioned earlier, social media platforms

enable influencers to shape and engage with entertainment trends and
fandoms.

2. Communication Media in Marketing

Effective Communication Media plays a vital role in the field of marketing,
enabling brands to connect with their target audiences. Here are some of its
key aspects:

a) Influencer marketing: Influencer marketing harnesses the power of

social media influencers to expand the visibility of the brand and engage
with a wider audience.

b) Content marketing: Content marketing strategies involve creating

valuable and relevant content to attract, educate, and engage potential
customers.

3. Communication Media in education

It plays a significant role in the field of education, transforming the way we

learn and acquire knowledge. Here are some of its key aspects:

a) E-Learning platforms: E-learning platforms provide flexible and

accessible educational resources. It offers interactive courses, tutorials,
and assessments, respectively.

b) Podcasts: Podcasts offer an audio-based medium for educational

content. This allows learners to access informative discussions and expert
insights.

Examples of Communication Media

Now that we’ve learned the applications of Communication Media. Let’s take
a look at some of its examples:

1. Print media
Print media has been a fundamental form of Communication Media for
centuries, providing valuable information, news, and engaging content to
readers. It includes newspapers, brochures and books.

2. Broadcast media
Broadcast media has revolutionized how information and entertainment
reach the masses. Television and radio are some examples of broadcast
media
 3. Digital Communication Media
Digital Communication Media have revolutionized the way we connect,
communicate, and consume information. These platforms offer a
multitude of opportunities for interaction, collaboration, and
entertainment.

4. Interactive Communication Media

This avenue has revolutionized the way we engage and participate in
digital platforms. The dynamic tools used enable real-time interaction,
collaboration, and immersive experiences.

TRADITIONAL MEDIA

In an age where information is constantly at our fingertips, it’s hard to

imagine a time in which traditional media held such sway. But what is
traditional media exactly? Is it still relevant in this digital age?

What Is Traditional Media?

Traditional media refers to print media and broadcast media. Print media
includes newspapers, magazines, and books, while broadcast media includes
television and radio.

The main characteristic of traditional media is one-way communication in

which information flows from the sender to the recipient with no feedback
from the latter. This is in contrast to new media, defined by two-way
communication in which recipients can provide feedback to the sender.

Traditional media has been around for centuries, and its origins can be
traced back to early forms of communication, such as cave paintings and
tribal drums. Although new media has eclipsed print and broadcasting in
recent years, traditional news media still plays a vital role in society as it’s
still the primary source of information for many people.

Media outlets such as newspapers and magazines are also deemed by many
as more credible than new media sources such as blogs and social media
platforms. As a result, traditional media continues to exert a significant
influence on society.

What Are the Types of Traditional Media?

There are many different types of traditional media, each with its own
strengths and weaknesses.

1. Print
The print media refers to any publication printed on paper, whether a
newspaper, magazine, or book. In the past, print media was the primary
source of information and entertainment, but it has since been eclipsed by
electronic media such as television and the internet. Nevertheless, print
media still plays an essential role in society.

Traditional press is often seen as more trustworthy and reliable than

electronic media, allowing readers to consume information at their own pace.
In addition, print media is portable and can be read in places where
electronic devices are not allowed, such as on airplanes or in hospitals. As a
result, print media continues to thrive despite the rise of digital alternatives.

2. Television
Television is a form of mass media that uses moving images and sound to
communicate information. Some examples of this type of traditional media
include static content like news programs and movies.

Televisual media has a significant impact on both individuals and society. On

an individual level, television media can influence the way people think, feel,
and behave. It can also shape people’s attitudes and beliefs.

On a societal level, traditional media channels can be used to promote

positive messages, such as environmental awareness or social responsibility.
It can also be used to sell products or to deliver political propaganda.
Whether used for good or ill, television media is a powerful tool that can
have a significant impact on both individuals and society.

3. Radio
Radio is one of the oldest and most widely used examples of traditional
media. It’s a form of broadcasting that dates back to the early 20th century
and remains popular due to its portability and versatility. Radio waves can
carry audio signals over long distances, making it possible to listen to radio
stations from all around the world.

Radio is also relatively inexpensive to produce, which has made it an

essential tool for news and entertainment. Additionally, it has the unique
ability to reach listeners in cars and other places where other media cannot
be easily accessed. As a result, radio continues to be an essential part of the
mainstream media landscape.

Advantages of Traditional Media

Traditional media, such as newspapers, books, and television, is still a
relevant source of information for society. They provide news and
entertainment, and they help shape public opinion.

In recent years, traditional media has come under pressure from new media,
such as the internet and social media. While new media is more convenient
for some, traditional media is still more reliable. This is because traditional
media is more regulated than new media, making it less likely to contain
false or misleading information.
Traditional media channels also reach a broader audience than new media,
thus ensuring a greater impact on public opinion.

What is the impact of traditional media?

Traditional media is no longer as dominant as it once was. Nevertheless, it
still has a significant impact on our lives. Traditional media can help shape
our views of the world and our place in it. It can also provide us with
information and entertainment to which we might not otherwise have access.

What are the benefits of traditional media?

It may not be evident at times, but traditional media channels have many
benefits. They’re often more reliable than their online counterparts in terms
of providing accurate and objective information to the general public
because of the stringent editorial standards and fact-checking procedures.
Traditional media also has a broader reach than niche websites, making it a
valuable resource for advertisers.

What are the challenges of traditional media?

Traditional media channels, such as newspapers and television stations, face
many challenges in the modern era. The most prevalent is the reduced
readership and viewership. This results in people turning to the internet for
their news and entertainment.

Is traditional media still useful?

Traditional media outlets are still useful today, even with all the digital
sources available at our fingertips. For one thing, these outlets have been
around for longer and have established a reputation for accuracy and
impartiality. Furthermore, it provides more in-depth coverage of stories than
we can find online.

What is the difference between traditional and new media?

The emergence of new media has made it difficult for some to differentiate
the various channels. One way to tell them apart is to ask defining questions
like — what is traditional media, what is new media, and how are they
different? Perhaps the most apparent distinction is that traditional media
involves one-way communication, whereas new media is interactive.
This means that readers or viewers of traditional media have no way to
respond to what they’re seeing or hearing. With new media, users can post,
comment, and discuss with other users.

SOCIAL MEDIA AND NEW MEDIA

Social media and new media are related, but not identical concepts. Social
media refers to platforms that allow users to create, share, or exchange
information and content with others. Examples include Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, and LinkedIn.
New media, on the other hand, refers to the use of digital technology, such
as the internet and smartphones, to create, distribute, and consume content.
This can include everything from traditional media forms like online news
articles, podcasts and streaming video to interactive platforms like virtual
reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence. In short, social media is
a specific category of new media, one that is centered around user-
generated content and social interaction.
MEDIA CONVERGENCE

Media Convergence simply refers to the merging of different types of mass

media such as traditional media, print media, broadcast media, new
media and the Internet as well as portable and highly interactive
technologies through digital media platforms. This results in the combination
of 3Cs: communication, computing and content as all three are integrated
through technology.
The most relevant example of media convergence is a Smartphone that
blends together various media, i.e. print media (e-books, news apps),
broadcast media (streaming websites, radio, music apps) as well as new
media (the internet) into a single device that performs various functions
from calling and texting to photography, videography, gaming and so much
more.
Examples of Media Convergence
The most popular examples are:

 Smartphones (converging camera, music, the internet, books, and all

other media together)
 Online Radio (converging radio with the Internet)
 E-books (converging paperbacks with the digital technology)
 News Websites and Apps
Advantages

Media convergence has proved to be beneficial in the digital era which is filled with
content seeking our attention continuously. Here are the most important
advantages of Media Convergence:
1. The instant availability of news and moment-based content is one of the top
advantages of media convergence between traditional media and new
media.
2. The content producers can specifically target the best audience or group they
are aiming towards by publishing customized content.
3. With media convergence, the audience has also become the creator
themselves. From memes to social media posts, media convergence has truly
been beneficial to integrate audience on a global level.
4. Another important benefit of media convergence that it has broadened the
limitations of traditional media by blending it with new media, thus providing
instant and latest content on an international level.
5. With the media convergence between traditional media and new media, the
cost of digital marketing has also become economical thus making this
process beneficial and affordable.

Types of Media Convergence

Media convergence is an umbrella term that can be defined in the context of

technological, industrial, social, textual, and political terms.

The three main types of Media Convergence are:

 Technological Convergence
 Economic Convergence
 Cultural Convergence
1. Technological Convergence

Technological convergence is a term that describes the layers of abstraction

which enables different technologies to interoperate efficiently as a
convergent system. It is when new technologies are created and take over
from past technologies and perform the same task in a more efficient
manner.
Technological convergence is the combination of computing, communication,
and content around networked digital media platforms. It further aims to
convert existing media into a digital form of technology, for example,
viewing a book online (E-books).
Technologies convergence is when new technologies are created that mostly
take over or get upgraded from past technologies and perform the same
task but in a more advance manner. For example, people used to listen to
music using the radio but now technological convergence has evolved and
the majority use phones. Another good example is the internet.

2. Economic Convergence

Just like the general definition of Economic convergence which suggests that
countries with lower GDPs are going to grow faster than countries with
higher GDP, the Economic media convergence allows a single company to
target larger interest groups through various kinds of media.

In Economic convergence large companies use old and new media to their
advantage by selling merchandise or the rights of the product. It is the
horizontal integration of the entertainment industry companies such as
Sony, AOL, Time Warner now has an interest in film, TV books, games, and
the internet, music real estate, etc.

3. Cultural Convergence

This concept of media convergence occurs when two or more cultures adopt
each other’s traits and become more alike. Those increasing similarities
between cultures are not limited to beliefs of consumer brands and media.
Some of the major forms of cultural media convergence are: acculturation,
when weaker among two cultures adopt traits from more dominant culture
e.g Indians mostly speaking the English language and assimilation, when
original traits of weaker culture are completely erased and replaced by
traces of more dominant culture e.g. war immigrants no longer speak the
native language.

Importance of Media Convergence

Wondering why media convergence is important? It is important because it

blends together content, communication technologies and computer
networks thus leading to the immediate transformation of many established
industries, services as well as work practices and through all this, new forms
of content are born.

Here are the key points why Media Convergence is important:

1. It transforms the modes of communication, news reporting, and

journalism. For example, Media journalism.
2. It led to cross-media since a huge amount of content is now being
accessed through portable devices. For instance, news organizations
no longer simply rely on print or AV transmission.
 3. Many new media forms are born like news portals, podcasts, news
feeds, blogging, websites and mobile applications.
4. The newly converged media platforms provide online access to the
archives, and endless opportunities for users to comment on the story
or provide links to relevant material.

3Cs of Media Convergence

The 3Cs of Media Convergence are Computing, Communications,

and Content. Media Convergence unites these 3Cs of Computing,
Communications and Content and is an immediate result of digitization and
promotion of the Internet. To put it even more simply, the convergence of
Content with Communication technologies and Computer Networks is what
leads to Media Convergence.

Disadvantages of Media Convergence

While the advantages of this form of convergence focus on content

integration, faster access and international reach, disadvantages highlight
the impact of convergence on consumers as well as technology. Here are the
major disadvantages of media convergence:

 Difficulty in assessing consumer responses and

reactions scattered across diverse converged platforms.
 More competition for consumer’s time and attention with
various media platforms in one device.
 Audiences often feel overwhelmed with massive amounts of
information overload.
 The older generation and the disabled sections of the
community find it hard to learn the digital skills to use different types
of media
 Highly relied on technology and the internet thus the areas
deprived of these two aspects can face issues with using online
information.
 Prone to cyber-attacks and malfunctioning.

Universalization
Universalization is another lesser-known aspect of mass media that has been
highlighted with convergence. Media convergence has led to the promotion
of diversity and inclusion in our world as we get to know about various
cultures, their traditions and values and further learn to imbibe a respect for
every culture.

Globalization has played a central role in universalization of cultures through

media as the world is striving to become more inclusive of everyone,
irrespective of their culture, religion, gender, etc. Here’s how media
convergence has led to universalization of popular culture:

1. By providing open access to cultures around the world

2. Increased cross-cultural consumption through digital media
3. Promotion of pop culture on the Internet
4. Diversity and inclusion in media (be it through the content we
consume or content creators)
5. The internet is a hybridization of cultures and identities as we consume
content from around the world and learn about diverse cultures.

Media Convergence is known broadly as the coming together of computing,

telecommunication, and media in a digital environment. In 1978, the term
Convergence was first coined by Nicholas Negroponte which stated that
modern devices in combination with technology, social media, and the
internet form the basic structure of Convergence in media. It brings together
the “3 C’s”,i.e communication, computing, and content which is a direct
result of the digitization of media content and high usage of the Internet.

In making your career in media these are the following fields:

1. Editors 7. Photojournalists
2. Reporters 8. Proofreaders
3. Travel Journalism 9. News Analysts
4. Columnists 10. Critics
5. Correspondents 11. Cartoonists
6. Staff or Freelance Writers 12. Illustrator
Module 2 : MEDIA AND ECONOMICS

Introduction

Communication media, encompassing television, radio, print, and digital

platforms, operates not only as a conduit for information and entertainment
but also as a significant business enterprise. This module delves into the
economic aspects of media industries, exploring how media companies
generate revenue, manage costs, and navigate the competitive landscape.
By understanding media as a business, students will gain insights into the
financial and strategic decisions that shape the content and operations of
media organizations.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Understand Revenue Models: Identify and explain various revenue
models used by media enterprises, including advertising,
subscriptions, and licensing.
2. Analyze Cost Structures: Examine the cost structures of different
media platforms and understand the financial challenges they face.
3. Evaluate Market Competition: Assess the competitive dynamics within
the media industry and the strategies companies use to maintain
market share.
4. Explore Media Ownership: Understand the implications of media
ownership and consolidation on content diversity and public access to
information.
5. Develop Business Strategies: Formulate business strategies for media
enterprises that balance profitability with ethical considerations and
public service.
Media Economy in the 21st Century: Old and New Business Models
for the Media

Media industries were thought of a cash machines, but over time increased
competition, a host of technological change, and the flow of money away from traditional
media to online or digital media meant declining revenue - Alan B. Albarran

Our lives today are vastly different from the lives that we would have led just
a few generations ago. Invention of new technologies has revolutionized the
way we think, act, and communicate. The transformation is visible in all
segments of our lives, both in micro and macro levels. For example, there
was no Internet and definitely no smart phone available at the beginning of
the 20th century; people were highly dependent on newspapers and
magazine for their knowledge of the outside world. Following the
conventional supply-demand model, newspaper and magazine publishing
businesses were in vogue at that period. Nonetheless, businesses in 21st
century have adopted and adapted new strategies and models based on
integration, which has changed the economic environment radically over the
past few decades, as David Croteau and William Hoynes examine in their
2006 book named 'The Business of media'.

Alan b. Albarran, in his book named Media Economy, primarily attributes

technology for the present media market economy where change is the only
constant. Meeting financial goals and maintaining stability in the market and
projecting a profitable revenue growth were not considered as challenges for
many decades in the near past.

Hence, the media companies faced newer and tougher challenges at the
beginning of 21st century. Less advertising dollars, rising unemployment,
intense competitions are some of the most pressing challenges that the
media organizations have to deal with these days.

There have been changes not only in the mechanism of the media market
but also in terms of setting parameters in defining them. According to Robert
G. Picard, the traditional definition of a media market took two parameters
into consideration: production dimension and geographical dimension. These
parameters contributed in forming “dual product market” where products
are offered both to audiences and advertisers. The new economic
environment of media market has taken this unique property of the media
market to an advanced level where the enhanced re-selling of products
among different audiences and advertisers are ensured. Albeit, this might
seem like a huge market advantage that propagates revenue generation,
the trends of “repurposing of media products” are prone to piracy and theft.

The economic environment between the past century and the current one
can also be differentiated by the approaches that have been applied to
define markets. Traditionally, media markets have been defined as
monopoly, duopoly, oligopoly, monopolistic competition and perfect
competition. Nevertheless, researchers have found a new trend in market
economy, which works much like a hybrid market “combining elements of an
oligopoly market with a monopolistic competitive structure”, suggests
Albarran. According to Albarran, monopolistic markets have been on the
verge of extinction as combination of technology, regulatory and
globalization forces play a strong unified role in shaping media market
definition.
The new dimensions that shape the multi-platform media market that
operates in the new economic environment have forced the marketers to opt
for new strategies and business models that can contribute more efficiently
in business sustainability. These business models saturate between the two
universally accepted models of media- the market model and the public
sphere model, suggest David Croteau and William Hoynes. Alan [Link]
elucidates three business models: the advertising- based model, the
subscription-based model and a pay-per-use model. All these models are
based on the strategy of allying with different partners for distributing the
created contents. Another flagrant model that has been in vogue is the
crowdsourcing model, which can also be called the community-funded
model. These alternative business models have been in vogue for a while
and many of these are currently being tested in different media
organizations producing different results. As the scope allows depicting two
business models only, the pay-per-use model and crowdsourcing model will
be elaborated below for in-depth discussion.
The economic environment between the past century and the current one
can also be differentiated by the approaches that have been applied to
define markets. Traditionally, media markets have been defined as
monopoly, duopoly, oligopoly, monopolistic competition and perfect
competition. Nevertheless, researchers have found a new trend in market
economy, which works much like a hybrid market “combining elements of an
oligopoly market with a monopolistic competitive structure”, suggests
Albarran. According to Albarran, monopolistic markets have been on the
verge of extinction as combination of technology, regulatory and
globalization forces play a strong unified role in shaping media market
definition.
The new dimensions that shape the multi-platform media market that
operates in the new economic environment have forced the marketers to opt
for new strategies and business models that can contribute more efficiently
in business sustainability. These business models saturate between the two
universally accepted models of media- the market model and the public
sphere model, suggest David Croteau and William Hoynes. Alan [Link]
elucidates three business models: the advertising- based model, the
subscription-based model and a pay-per-use model. All these models are
based on the strategy of allying with different partners for distributing the
created contents. Another flagrant model that has been in vogue is the
crowdsourcing model, which can also be called the community-funded
model. These alternative business models have been in vogue for a while
and many of these are currently being tested in different media
organizations producing different results. As the scope allows depicting two
business models only, the pay-per-use model and crowdsourcing model will
be elaborated below for in-depth discussion.
Pay-Per-Use Model
The pay-per-use model, as the Neiman Journalism Lab States, is gaining
attention in the United States. According to Alan B. Albarran, pay-per-use
is the model where the consumers pay for a particular type of content
rather than engaging in a regular subscription. Apple’s iTunes, Amazon
Prime and Journalism Online have been mentioned as examples for this
particular business model. This model usually occurs when the
transaction values are small and can be automated. This model has been
amplified in the supply of education services such as web-conferencing,
virtual training and etc.
For media offering, as suggested by many sources, the pay-per-model
relies on heavy advertising to generate interest in premium contents such
as live sporting events, recently released movies and music. The
operational implication of the pay-per-use revenue model is that the
operations must be structured to distribute high-quality content and
process transactions automatically on a larger scale. It is implied that for
this model the service delivery should be automatic and prompt. In terms
of modality in a media market setting, this model can be combined with
advertising revenues and complement other revenue models like
Software-as-a-service (SaaS). However, the business sustainability for the
media companies who use this particular model depends highly its ability
to convert pay-per-use customers into subscriptions.
This pay-per-use model has some competitive advantage over the other
revenue models that are being applied to different media organization set
up. This model can help secure market share and reduce adoption
barriers. This model has been particularly effective along with SaaS model
and for large media organization that has more capitals to invest on
content generation. Since start-up and small and medium businesses are
unable to invest a large amount in content generation, it might turn out to
be a less appropriate one. Nonetheless, this model has been a successful
one particularly for the developed media market in the United States and
as Albarran predicts, the multi-platform content distribution and services
that are more focused towards catering the needs of a niche market will
continue to rise as we further advance in the 21st century.
Crowd-Funding Model
The second model in discussion is the crowd-funding model that has been
popularized recently. Crowd funding campaigns raise money from citizens
from all walks of life who often have the same vested interest in stories
that are often overlooked. Pertaining to the nature of a unified interest,
the content that are created with this approach can be investigative or
with some sort of developmental value. Some examples of successful
crowdfunding platforms would be Uncoverage, Beacon, sponsume,
Contributoria etc.
Sharing is in the heart of this business model. Generally a story is pitched
in a crowdfunding news platform and people and organizations that have
a common interest support the funding. This support can be rendered in
different forms, it can be monitory or media support. For example, an
 individual can decide to share the project on social media and consciously
or subconsciously support the project. Many successful crowdfunding
projects have been warranted for last few years, and journalists from
different media have been taking up challenging and expensive projects
that were initially not very profit driven for media organizations.
In terms of revenue generation, this business model is highly hybrid in
nature as it fosters partnership among different stakeholders like
payment providers, business and entrepreneurship communities, large
organizations and foundations and individual donors. This financing model
is complex and requires lot of promotion and a strong cause. However,
this is an appropriate model predominantly for the startups who can use
the funding to come up with challenging content which eventually leads
to a successful and sustainable business growth.
Integration is the key point when it comes for media organization to
sustain in the changing economic realities. As suggested by Albarran, the
multi-platform media needs to embrace an approach where the contents
are delivered through multiple channels at all times. With the rise of
social networks and people leaning more towards mobile technology
these days, the competition is ever increasing. It is more likely a fact that
if you as a media organization are not reporting and distributing an
important information, someone else is. The one thing that is easy to day
is to get lost in the diverse communication platforms that are in
existence. Thus, it is also crucial for every media organization to be
present in all platforms at all time.
The nature of the mass media has been changed and it can be
conveniently called a one-on-one media as an individual can have
completely control on his or her media consumption. That’s a pressing
challenge for all media organization, especially the ones who have been
going through a transformation from being traditional to digital. The fact
is, the audience might not come to the media anymore or they might
come at their convenient time and manner, the media organizations need
to be prepared to cater to their needs in as many ways as possible so that
the business can be profitable and sustainable.
Activity: Case study analysis of different media companies’ revenue
models, followed by group presentations.

Media Firms as Economic and Business Entities

To understand media industries, one must understand:
1. what drives media companies,
2. how their markets work, and the pressures that lead executives to
make choices about the ways their companies will be structured,
3. the activities they will undertake, and
4. the performance they require.
Companies raise capital, create facilities, employ personnel, create media
products and services, and sell these products and services in the market.
Some companies are successful and survive in the market, some that were
once highly successful cease to be successful, and some are never
successful and disappear. In the aggregate, these companies create the
broader media and communications industries, but they operate individually
—facing individual economic and managerial challenges, making individual
choices, pursuing individual strategies, and achieving different outcomes.
Whether a media company is a commercial or a noncommercial operation, it
faces a variety of economic and financial forces and must be operated as a
business entity in order to respond to and manage those forces effectively.
The forms of media companies include the range of types of firms that exist
in any industry. At the simplest level are sole proprietorships and
partnerships. Sole proprietorships are firms owned and operated by one
person. This form is found primarily among smaller newspapers and
magazines, Internet firms, and advertising firms. Partnerships are similar
but, as the name suggests, involve ownership by more than one person. This
business form, used when one person alone has insufficient capital or skills
to operate independently, is most often found in small publications, design
firms, and advertising agencies. More complex company forms involve
incorporation—that is, the creation of a firm as a legal entity independent
of its owners. This reduces the legal responsibility of individual owners for
the performance or actions of the firm. Simple corporations can be sole
proprietorships or partnerships of any size.
Most media companies are incorporated as private corporations and tend to
be small and midsized enterprises, but privately owned media firms include
larger companies such as the Bertelsmann AG, Tribune Company, and
Hearst Corporation. A number of larger firms have chosen to become public
corporations— firms whose shares are publicly traded on stock markets—
typically to gain additional capital. Examples of public media firms are News
Corporation, the New York Times Company, Pearson, and Viacom.
Another form of ownership found in media involves noncommercial firms
that are typically created as not-for-profit corporations. These include public
service broadcasters worldwide such as the British Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC) and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) as well as
publishers (or media firms) of such periodicals as the Christian Science
Monitor and The Nation and online news sites such as MinnPost and
ProPublica. All of these forms of media enterprises carry out the functions of
acquiring and organizing resources to produce goods and services, just as
firms in other industries do.
The organizational forms of businesses exist because they are an efficient
means of carrying out the various steps in the production and distribution of
goods and services. Companies have evolved into their current forms
because they create organizations that can enter into structured
relationships with owners of capital, workers, and suppliers, and because the
firm can provide the facilities, equipment, and management necessary to
produce and distribute products effectively. In public service and other not-
for-profit media, producing information and programming useful and
interesting to audiences is the primary function. In commercial media,
however, the primary function shifts to producing audiences for advertisers
or making sales of media products to customers to obtain financial revenue
for continued operation and profits. The differences in primary functions do
not mean that commercial media necessarily must produce content of
poorer quality, although some may in fact do so. The differences mean that
commercial media managers’ content choices are based on the need to
produce audiences desirable to specific advertisers or categories of
advertisers and to maximize the profitability of the firm. Managers of public
service and not-for-profit media, obviously, are not subject to these same
pressures; however, they must make content choices based on the need to
provide optimal service based on the goals outlined for their operations.
Activity: Group discussions on the financial challenges faced by traditional vs.
digital media platforms.

Cost Structures and Financial Challenges

Challenges Faced by the Media Industry
What is the media industry?
By the term media, we generally understand that it is a medium by which
some content is shared by the creator to its audience. The organizations and
the individuals that create, process, share and consume this content
constitute the media industry. The Indian Media industry is a rapidly growing
sector for the economy and is making significant acceleration. Showcasing
its elasticity to the world, the industry is on the way of creating a stronger
phase of growth, backed by rising consumer demand and improving
revenue. The industry has grown exponentially due to the digitization and
internet usage in the last decade. The Internet has turned out to be a
conventional media for entertainment for most of the people; across
demography and through various means, from the retro to the most
advanced ones, such as the radio, theatre, print, television, cinema, gaming,
advertisement, music, OTT services, etc.
The Indian Brand Equity Foundation has estimated that the Indian media
industry is projected to increase at a compound annual growth rate of 13.5%
from 2019 to 2024 and is estimated to reach US$ 43.93 Billion by 2024.
Since the industry is growing at such an unpredictable rate, it becomes
difficult for the players to keep up with the expectations of the users. One of
the most important hurdles is to handle the pressures to cut the expenses
while improving revenue. While multiple small platforms are stepping in, the
traditional monarchy of one big company is fading away. Since a new player
is introduced in the market every day, and the customer needs as well as the
delivery of content of their preference is highly fragmented, it paves way for
the media industry to implement big data and data analytics technology to
gain more insightful viewer perception. In this article, we are going to look at
the different challenges faced by the media industry.
The content that is distributed through these formats can be either for
educational purposes, for entertainment or to endorse an idea. These
formats are broadly categorized into two heads; (1) Traditional media and
(2) New media (like blogs, vlogs, websites, podcasts, websites, etc). Some
common challenges faced by both these formats are:
1. Lack of Transparency
This has been an issue for as long as the industry can be recognized. Issues
in complex nature of contracts, advertising, handling (and settlement) of
funds, acquisition and retainment of personnel and content, ambiguity in
having on board the clients and producers have always been of concern to
the media houses. Further, advertising has been a simple model; but there
are various pieces that are needed to be put together- what type of media is
being used for advertising, is it direct or indirect advertising. This leads then
to a whole separate need of accounting, from sales, to financial planning, its
analysis, to finance management. This poses a risk of slip-ups due to which
an overall analysis gets affected.
2. Compliance with laws/regulations
It is very difficult for the media industry to comply with all the rules and
regulations within the time limit and to act in accordance with all the laws
that apply to them. From managing the finances to filing of return, reporting
expectations with SEBI and such other Authorities, complying with labor
laws, environmental laws, local laws that regulate the lease of the premises,
electricity and other requirements, from employment laws to IP laws, etc.
Legal compliance is very important as it prevents the organizations from
lawsuits and damages, while detecting violations. But it is not easy to
identify them since the laws are evolving and an organization needs a sound
team to put off this challenge.
3. Challenges with respect to taxation
Each business has to pay taxes, to the local government, to the state and
the center. The Income Tax department comes very heavily on the
defaulters, from huge amounts of fines to even imprisonment. Taxation is a
very slippery path and it is very important to be cautious as to how the
media industry grows and grows safely (without having being a target to the
tax structure). Hence it is very important that this industry has a very sound
section to manage taxes.
4. Threat to media channels
With people shifting to digitization, it is not only the transmission of news,
facts and information that has become faster and easier but so has the
attacks such as hacking of social media accounts, phishing, frauds, etc.
Social media accounts are one of the most important assets of the media
industry in the current scenarios, and the hackers can easily hack into them
and spread false information which may result in hurting the sentiments of
lots of people and attract bad names to the media house. Further, the
attackers may use these handles to post a link that may redirect the users to
malicious websites and the users may be duped. There are various instances
wherein these attackers pose themselves as employees of these media
houses and loot them.
5. Hurt and life threats to people working in the industry
We see this happening to reporters that cover sensitive issues and to those
who really put in genuine efforts in revealing the truth behind a story. News
anchors, journalists, activists on social media are mainly targeted. People
who are whistleblowers or who spend their career covering issues such as
rape, dowry, honor killing, murder, revealing the identity of a famous
celebrity or a VIP or even cases related to them; most likely get threatened
of harm to their life or injury to their loved ones. This holds true for people
working in journalism, anchor/hosts of radio station, news channel, writers of
print media and influencers online.
6. Concern relating to Data Privacy
Regulations have been implemented for businesses to handle personal data
and for organizations that transmit user data to such companies, yet data
leak has been the headlines quite very often. Big data challenges can pose
trouble when it comes to accumulating adequate user data, without which
exact scrutiny cannot be carried on. Viewers are being more sensitive than
ever, towards their data and are troubled on how their personal data is being
used.
7. Licensing requirements
With each step of success that the organization takes, registration is
required for business licenses, from employment registration, taxation,
expanding the business, enlarging its scope by having new clients on board,
etc.; for all steps, the ownership document is a primary requirement.
Investors are also very vigilant on the license issues ahead of entering into
this type of business.
8. Copyright and piracy issues
These challenges have been in the industry for a very long time now and it is
very difficult to bring justice even if the laws are all stringent and in place.
With the rise of digitization, more big data problems have emerged such as
sharing of account information through which multiple users can view
content from the same account, using the password. It then becomes
difficult for the production houses to categorize what genre of content is
favorable to an adult and to a child. Pinpointing on the demographic details
of an account user also becomes extremely difficult. Many people have
started using the content available on online platforms for their own use;
pirate and spoof this data to make it look like their own new creation and
upload it to generate revenue. This is another major issue faced by, in
particular, the entertainment industry.
9. Adaptation challenges
Only a few percentages of players in the media industry are welcoming new
technologies to their area of work, while the majority are hesitant and are
concerned about the backfire or the trouble these new “uncommon”
solutions will cause. This results in dependency on outdated methodologies
making it difficult for the players to communicate business between
themselves. Use of terms like “big data”, “artificial intelligence”,
“automation” etc. have increased now more than ever, particularly as
reporting tools and yet we are resilient in adapting these technologies for
our benefit.
10. Lack of financial support
Finance is not so-much-of-a-big-issue for well-established or even new media
houses that are backed by some influential person; but it matters a lot to
small organizations, someone like you and me who wants to establish a
start-up to give out some real content. Starting a new company may or may
not be difficult on an individual basis but one thing is common in each case,
that is, building investment and scaling up with the growing business has
always been tough for all types of media houses. These costs vary a lot, from
human resources costs, to data collection and processing costs, to data
storage and protection costs, etc. SaaS and Cloud storage do make it easier
to an extent but not everyone is ready to accept it with open minds or do not
have enough resources to implement it.
11. Media Reputation
Reputation is fast-reaching; it is like the fire in the forest. The character of
lifetimes crushed down to “reputation” in one action; whether that action
was justified or not is something to be looked into but nowadays, media
houses are not considered to be a very favorable place to work at. It has
gained a bad reputation; a medium that was earlier supposed to bring out
true facts and be a source of inspiration has now merely become a money-
making institution and the “voice of the voiceless” gets silenced in no time.
Ever wondered why not many people are choosing this profession? Ever
wondered why there aren’t enough professionals to fill the void?
12. Discrimination and lack of efforts
Both these words are a reality in the media industry. Discrimination
happens; discrimination of both types-positive wherein females are not put
out on field for particular tasks where muscle and high tolerance to pain and
pressure is needed and, negative wherein a stereotype is formed that a
particular gender is only fit to assist and to do desk-job. But this
discrimination is gradually fading away when we as a society are developing
a sense of togetherness, that no work is made for a particular class and that
anyone who has the require qualification and skills can perform it. That
draws my attention to another challenge which is short of initiative. I
remember my journalist friend telling me, “I just do my part of the work, our
individuality gets work done but we lack team effort; my teammates always
have to gossip around until the deadline and then work all night”, she
continues, “we are a group, not a team.” When odds are against us, it is
the total effort that brings us success. I believe Hellen Keller puts it in the
best way when she says, “Alone we can do so little; together we can do so
much.”
13. Bullying and harassment at workplace
The media industry has been collaboratively working to promote a more
inclusive workplace but what comes out is that we still need to work on
creating a safe, respectful environment. Bullying in the form of intimidation
and/or insulting behaviour, abuse or misuse of power, mobbing or
intentional/unintentional targeting is very prevalent. Other than bullying,
harassment- physical, mental and visual, is always very frequent in the
media biz. For instance in America, the Centre for Talent innovation in its
“What #Me Too Means for Corporate America” report has found that 34% of
women and 13% of men have been victims of sexual harassment, defined as
an unwanted sexual advance or obscene remark. [2] The 2020
film “Unpaused” showed how the boss of that news channel is making
advances and is offering his female juniors an opportunity to handle big
projects in return for sexual favors. This has been a challenge that needs to
be tackled for so long but the victims were not ready to open up for
understandable reasons. The society is now supportive and the abusers are
now being questioned but we still need to fight this evil.
Sector-Specific Issues
Media is basically of three types; broadcasting, printing and internet media.
Let us now look at some concerns faced by these different communication
outlets:
1. Television
The customer’s flavor is changing every day; they are not anymore fully
satisfied with conventional broadcasting. They want, rather need, fresh
content each time they log in; on their laptops, tablets, mobile phones, social
media TV etc. That being said, customers now do not have the time to sit in
front of the LED TV and view content, they rather prefer television-on-the-go.
The biggest challenge that affects the Television media industry is
digitization and technological advancements. Technology never remains
static, televisions which were very popular once, have not much in style in
the present day. The channels now have their own mobile application
through which users can watch the shows from any device, anywhere and
this does not look good for this traditional medium of communication. OTT
platforms have become quite popular amongst the younger generation.
When one can simply view fresh, new content on these platforms, why would
users wait for the content to be broadcasted on TV?
The customers have become tech savvy and since now everything is on their
fingertips, it is easier for them to decide what electronics are best suited
according to their lifestyle, what is pocket friendly and what return do they
get out of their investment. This is another challenge for the industry; the
customers have realized that television sets are expensive and which are
not-so-expensive might need added accessories like speakers and home
theatre etc. The other electronics are cheaper and come with newer
technologies. The subscription of these OTT platforms and the mobile
applications is not very expensive as compared to paying for a TV channel
package.
With many more new manufacturers coming out in the TV market, it is
necessary to be outstanding from the group to build customer trust and
confidence. They are in the pressure to cut their costs and even in the long
run, we do not see the companies earning a significant amount of profit. This
will result in winding up of many TV manufacturing companies because their
selling price would not be much than the manufacturing costs, leading to
reduction in the company’s profitability.
2. Radio
The oldest and the cheapest form of entertainment, All India Radio has been
going through a turbulent phase and is fighting for its survival. The relief
from the government in the form of annual license fee payment is not
enough and nor is the FDI which is not more than 49% subject to terms and
conditions.[3] The smaller organizations would reach a stage whereof their
revival is beyond the scope. Another challenge is coming out of the turbulent
phase affected by the Covid-19 lockdowns. Even if the business starts
operating as usual, there is not much support from the government in
respect of advertising and revenue; and hence, the industry will take a long
time to put itself back in as their previous position.
Another hit to the radio industry comes through the other sectors of business
and their advertising. Apart from the government advertisements, the other
players that contribute to its revenue are real estate, MSME, retail,
hospitality, etc. These industries too have suffered immensely due to the
pandemic and do not help in contributing towards the radio industry. The
only way to distribute their content is by branching out and generating
revenue for themselves.
Big cities such as Mumbai, Delhi, Ahmedabad and Chennai are recovering
from the hit as compared to smaller towns. Banking and finance institutions,
the FMCG sector have come forward for advertisement with respect to
hygiene, sanitation, etc, bringing in new revenue. The industry is partnering
up with OTT music streaming platforms making their original shows, content
and podcasts available on apps for a better reach. At the most basic level,
radio was used for person-to-person communication, the scenario of which is
changing now. Partnering up is at the cost of losing radio’s own uniqueness;
the business will grow on a compromise driven model rather than a content
driven model.
The radio is expected to show the true image of the facts; help citizens with
clearer social and political awareness. But when the regional and the
national government is of two different political parties that will not be a
smooth sail. Even though broadcasting is within the powers of the union
government, they cannot work in isolation without the inputs of the state
governments. Yes, there is a risk from the new media coming up but radio is
still a very respectable medium which has compromised significantly. It is
important that with a rigid policy in respect of new recruitments, internal
promotions; it meets the requirements of suitability in respect of language
and professional standards.
3. Cinema/Films
Cinema is a combination of visual, dialogue, music and special effects that
makes us reflect on our lives and entices deep feelings. There are many
petty problems regarding the cinema industry worldwide but here, we will
look into how it has mainly affected the industry in India. For the Hollywood
movies that wish to come to India for their shoot, one of the major problems
is that the industry has too many permissions to take, too many protocols to
follow, which results in losing the potential client and they shifting to some
other location where this process is much faster.
Challenges Faced
Perhaps the biggest challenge to the industry is the Censor Board; it is now
machinery that does not produce critical, positive criticism but just creates
too many problems. From corruption, to having decisions influenced by
politics, to mere ignorance, to making insensible statements; the Censor
Board has made it to the headlines quite a few times. From releasing a list of
words that is no longer allowed to use in the movies, making too many cuts,
to refusing certification for a film being too women-centric; Pahlaj Nihlani has
depicted a very ignorant approach towards film rating.
Another major challenge that the Indian cinema industry has to fight through
is the misconception about Bollywood. Most consider that our Hindi movie is
all about music and fantasy (which is not always true) and that the
actors must know how to dance. Agreed that music brings in significant
revenue to the industry since that lures people to come and watch movies;
people are now realizing that songs are not required in every motion
picture. Why do we need songs in a horror movie or a sci-fi movie? The
industry too needs to realize this fact and work on the issue. What we need
to understand is this industry is capable of bringing out meaningful, sensible
and serious issues (movies like Pink, Badhai Ho, Stree, Taare Zameen Par,
Lipstick under my Burkha, Dear Zindagi, etc).
The industry needs to understand that people see and understand
everything. Starring famous celebrities with no proper storyline or concept is
not going to bring them money. This is why there is a gradual shift in the
audience favoring Hollywood in place of Indian cinema. We just do not have
good scripts; all we see is a remake of either, old movies or movies from
other industries. This being said, another point that we observe is the
producers like to play it safe, for themselves and their distributors. Most of
the producers bet their money on the same old cliché scripts and are not
willing to take risks even on good content, which in my opinion is regretful.
Like every other industry in India, even the cinema is affected by the virus of
realtive-ity. With a population of over a billion, we try to accommodate our
known ones in a vacancy, even if that person is capable of achieving it for
themselves without any help. Nepotism has been the talk of the industry for
quite some time now, and it is very difficult for a newcomer to get
established and be launched without a caretaker.
Piracy and shifting to OTT platforms has been an issue for quite a few
decades and the major reasons that aids to piracy are high ticket prices,
release of film in other places of the world before India and poor cyber
structure. However, with anti-piracy measures and laws in place to safeguard
innovative content, along with the government reducing the GST on film
tickets, piracy has been under the radar but it still has a long way to go.
4. Print Media
The print media has been in the market since Johannes Gutenberg invented
the print press in 1450s. However, technology upgradation and changes in
customer preferences have created some serious challenges for this
industry. One of the very serious concerns amongst the masses lately has
been that so much paper is consumed by the print and publication industry.
As much as half, or atleast near about so; of the trees that are harvested,
are cut off to make paper. The bleaching agents that the industry uses, also
causes harm to the environment. Inks which are petroleum based, have high
amounts of volatile organic compounds that cause further harm to the
environment.
Challenges Faced
One of the biggest challenges is the digital substitution of the print media.
With the introduction of E-Book formats such as Kindle, Noble and Nook, and
audio books, a larger audience has substituted the traditional means of
newspaper, magazines and books. These digital substitutions are a better
option and are affordable, convenient. Another shot that digitalization has
taken on the print media is that, there were some tasks that very
mandatorily be done through the means of printing; but due to the Covid-19
hitting worldwide and us witnessing nationwide lockdown, has made us
digital. We create documents and send them online; can create invites,
brochures, magazine layouts on our desktops/laptops and share online with
people. No need for printing now.
They say that a Pen is mightier than a sword. Journalism, a form of print
media is expected to state out true facts, to bring out the political narrative.
However, with political pressure and/or the media house owners’/promoters’
ties with political links, suppress the actual facts and the whole intention
of free press is failed. For instance, a Marathi newspaper, Lokmat, have Mr.
Rajendra Darda and Vijay Darda as its editor-in-chief, both former MP of
Congress and Jagran, a Hindi newspaper, has Mr. Mahendra Mohan Gupta as
is CMD, who is a former MP from the Samajwadi Party. Various regional print
media publications are partially or wholly owned by the political parties.
Such control of present or former politicians can directly/indirectly affect the
elections. Though the Election Commission comes down heavily and watches
every activity of the parties participating in elections, a kin or next friend
having interest in the media house can influence the readers through
advertisements. Political capture in India needs to be regulated.
Being strategic. With many competitors emerging in the industry, the
business houses need to up their game, engage in formal strategic planning
by goal setting and undertaking measures to stay ahead in the competition.
Assets, talent, margins, verticals, customer base, their response should be
considered at all times. Planning, Pricing and People will help media houses
stay ahead in such times of crisis.
 5. Online Education
With schools and colleges closing its operations during the lockdown due to
COVID-19, alternatives had to find an alternative. All the institutions shifted
to digital classes through Zoom, Cisco Webex, etc. The problem with going
digital is since there are so many participants, bandwidth creates issues and
there are other technical glitches too. Apart from issues relating to
geographical reach; not everyone has the means, financial or otherwise, to
procuring education by this means. Adaptation is also an issue; not
everyone, especially the professors, are not very well versed with the
technology.
With lack of in-person interaction, there is also a lot of distraction among
students. Social media is always a distraction; while students go online to
surf the internet to learn things, they tend to go switch to other social media
and then it gets difficult to manage time.
There have been instances where the students while hiding their identity,
harass the professors online, calling their names and abusing them. On the
other side, during proctored examinations, the supervisors have misused the
personal information of the students, approached them and have made
advances. One such recent instance was that of NMIMS. [4]
Conducting examinations has been a challenge; though the proctor system is
in place, there are still a lot of ways that the students have devised to cheat.
Assessment and Feedback is affected as compared to the traditional method
where the teachers and the students communicated physically.
6. Advertising
Ad Blockers are the biggest challenge. People want to view content without
interruption. This software makes it easier so that many advertisements do
not appear on screen. These programs cost billions to the advertisers.
With the increase in the use of social media, the advertising agencies saw a
great potential in their business. However, the key people of the social
media platforms realised what they were missing and simply blocked having
advertisements on their platform unless paid for such promotion. The
industry, especially small brands, started spending hugely on advertisement
across all platforms digitally or otherwise. This resulted in an increase in the
cost of advertisement. Embracing technology and at the same time
protecting the privacy of the users will be something that the industry will
have to confront with.
Another challenge for the advertisement industry is attention and retention.
We do not have the time and patience to look through all the advertisements
and appreciate the content. Which is why, it becomes very important for the
players in the industry to keep their content catchy, appealing and targeting
a specific audience. The only solution to keep its business growing is to
study the market, see what content is acknowledged by the majority of the
users and accordingly make content. This helps in attracting an audience as
well as in its retention.
Another challenge on a positive side is the rapid growth of the digital setting.
Advertisements started off with printing and publishing, then now have
moved on to the digital space but the truth is that it’s not only the internet
that the industry now has to focus on; we have smart cars, smart houses,
IoT, virtual reality and what not. It is in the industry to figure out what their
audience is, find different avenues, optimize, target and accordingly place
advertisements. Technology will continue and so will the obstacles.
7. OTT platforms
Content is the most important factor to these platforms; it’s basically the
heart of the OTT media. If the platform is unable to provide services that
match up with the standards of the public, these service providers are not
going to be successful and are going to suffer terribly. For this, the industry
needs to understand its audience. Providing content which is niche, is a very
good prospect for growth but the problem while having a survey around this
question is that either the sector to which they can invest in is very niche
and not very popular or is niche and already over-crowded.
Competition and Retention. One of the very important issues is the rise of
players in the industry. With rise in Covid-19 and the governments declaring
nationwide lockdown with temporary closure of theatres and other sources
of entertainment, these OTT platforms have received fame like it never has.
However, there were many companies who had projected this to happen and
have launched themselves in the market giving rise to competition. Yes, we
do think that the ones that are old enough and have their customer’s trust
will survive nevertheless. But we are living in a society that is savings
friendly; we switch to the service provider that provides services for a lesser
amount. Further, since we are talking about reality, let us not forget that we
all share our user ids and passwords with our friends and relatives so that
they can view content for the platform that we have a subscription and the
other way around.
OTT platforms do their best, despite the competition, to offer high quality
video, favorable content, at reasonable price and uninterrupted content; yet
viewer retention poses a great difficulty to these service providers.
Challenges Faced
Challenges such as congestion, privacy, security and LAN etc. occur during
multicasting on these platforms. They also require a protocol to distribute
the concept and program guide across various devices. Further, multicasting
either requires diverse versions of multicast streams for facilitating DASH
protocols or a one-size-fits-all approach based on a single video version.
Along with multicasting, functionality also poses a challenge. Viewers no
longer want to browse through pages to find content of their interest; they
rather want it on their fingertips wherein they could just search or glance
through a set and find interesting content. Thus, it is important that the
service provider adapts themselves with the preferences of the viewers and
makes their content easily discoverable.
Though this is an internal challenge of each company, it is something that
hits the industry across frontiers. Managing demand has been challenge ever
since people have started using social media; what content goes viral is
almost unexpected to predict; it maybe some really important issue to a
really dumb meme. But when a video or a part thereof of some video from
OTT platform goes viral, the company must have enough measures in place,
the bandwidth and servers in place, so that the application does not crash
and that it handles so much pressure effectively.
8. Social Media
Social Media has become a very powerful tool; some use it to spread
awareness and educate people, while others just want to create chaos
online. This happens due to a lot of misinformation. Sometimes a post has
been shared and re-shared so many times that the real source of the
information is lost in the process and it’s very difficult to establish whether
the piece of information is genuine or fake. This becomes a major challenge
for the industry to dig deeper, establish the source and label it, much before
the information is lost or creates disorder.
The second important challenge of this industry is to protect the privacy of
the users. Social media is a space where nothing goes unnoticed and
everything that an individual reacts to, comments on or posts, has a
consequence or an influence on the onlookers. This attracts attention from
people, from authorities and even from people with not-so good intentions. It
is the duty of the company providing a platform to the users to protect the
interests of the user and takes reasonable measures to guard the identity of
the user. Further, driven with ideological and financial motives, we are going
to witness more fake news and weaponization of social media. The media
houses will have to be more media literate now than ever.
These social media houses are recommendation machines. They suggest to
you more of what you want to see. This results in more audiences being
attracted to them and their business growing enormously. It becomes
difficult to adapt to the geographical reach, the scale of growth, while
continuing the level of performance and maintaining internal constraints.
The Regulators come down heavily on these media platforms for any harmful
content or for missing compliances.
Conclusion
In this article, we have seen an overview of the difficulties/challenges faced
by the media industry, jointly and severally. The underlying trend is that the
society is moving towards digital and social transformation. By using the
rapidly evolving technology, distribution of information and news has
become easier. The implications of technology depend on the general
developments in the industry, its impact on each country and its audience
responding and adapting to the change. It also depends on the policies
framed, regulation made and on its implementation; censorship,
intimidation, professionalism, and interpersonal relations.
However, this article mentions all such challenges that we read on in our
everyday life and the real, ground issues are beyond the scope of this article.
The Indian media industry today has a lot of things happening in and around
it; be it introduction of FDI, restrictions from the government and impact on
the economy, new lifestyle of the users to the advancement of technology.
The industry needs to conquer all its setbacks in a determined manner, while
producing high quality end products. The media industry has all that it takes
to be a tool rather than a weapon; it only needs a little support from the
government and an open mind, ears and eyes of the general public to excel
in the economy. Challenges are going to evolve every day in an advanced
manner but it is on us how we are informed, keep ourselves informed and
inform others.
Activity: Group discussions on the financial challenges faced by
traditional vs. digital media platforms.

References
[1] Quote by Hellen Keller, [Link]
we-can-do-so-little-together-we-can-do (last visited 03rd December, 2021,
05:00 P.M. IST)
[2] [Link]
WhatMeTooMeans_PressRelease.pdf (last visited 03rd December, 2021,
05:10 P.M. IST)
[3] Consolidated FDI Policy Circular of 2020,
[Link]
29October2020_0.pdf (last visited 03rd December, 2021, 07:00 P.M. IST)
[4] ‘Got Your Number From Sources’: Students of Mumbai College Accuse
Proctors of Harassment- published on 9th January, 2021 on
[Link]
exams-mettl
Media Ownership and the Commoditization of Information

Background and Issues

A light-touch regulation has encouraged the growth of global media and

digital communication companies, referred to as transnational media or
digital conglomerates. Their power and influence extend over geographic,
economic, and political barriers. Global media and digital communication
companies include those that operate at the regional level. Convergence,
despite antitrust regulations, has also facilitated media mergers and
acquisitions at the national and global level. Many mass media organizations
are establishing alliances with companies doing business in
telecommunications, web applications and entertainment (movies and video
games), etc. The new companies created by these coalitions have become
more powerful as their messages, images and voices can now be transmitted
globally and reach even the remotest villages through diverse platforms –
print, broadcast and digital.

The emergence of global media and digital communication presents both

challenges and opportunities. Some communication scholars have warned of
threats of cultural homogeneity, but the same media tools offer
opportunities for cultural diversity and pluralism (i.e. it is now easier to
produce, share, and exchange local media content). The global media also
have the capability and resources to set higher standards of professionalism.
Consequently, many local media outlets are forced to become more
competitive by improving the quality of their programming. Moreover,
development issues that have a worldwide impact, such as climate change,
pandemics, or threats to biodiversity, can be effectively communicated by
the global media. It is also acknowledged that many stories hidden from
local and national audiences due to politico-economic constraints, are
revealed to a worldwide audience by independent global media. The global
digital companies have the financial resources to pay for content moderation
and network security, notwithstanding the challenges of massive scale
(which in turn are a function of the very size and profitable expansion of the
companies themselves).

The impact of media and digital communication industries on the political

setting is also changing. With new media technologies, there is now a
greater two-way flow of information within and outside national boundaries,
as well as broader platforms for public discourse. All these cultivate
tolerance and understanding but also enable cross-border international
operations. The paramount issue is: How can the media and digital
communication help promote a wider range of options, choices and
freedom? The prevailing commercial media and digital systems deserves
particular attention because advertising remains its main source of revenue.
How can media organizations keep their independence and the public's trust,
while remaining viable (profitable) and sustainable (in terms of operations)?
The impact of overemphasizing either factor should be considered.

Monopolistic ownership of the media, like state control, can pose a

significant threat to media diversity and pluralism, and therefore to freedom
of expression. Competition regulation is an important part of restricting
monopolies as is the professionalism and independence of journalism.
Diversity of viewpoints is also helped by a variety of forms of ownership
(public, private and not-for-profit), as well as by the availability of different
types of media (print, radio, television, Internet, etc.). The same principles
apply to digital communications companies which can hold news media
hostage and work against small competitors.

For discussion: the widest possible dissemination of information from diverse

and pluralistic sources is essential to democracy and development choices.
While separately-owned newspapers and broadcasters generally criticize
each other’s content, the concentration of media under common ownership
may prevent any kind of mutual criticism and result instead in self-
promotion.

Case Studies

 Use published stories on how the political and economic interests of

media owners have influenced news coverage of specific issues. (Refer
to Module 2, Units 2 and 3, for background on news values and the
news development process.) Learners can identify factors that
determine the degree of influence or control.
 Research how digital companies’ gatekeeping role has impacted on
news prominence and economic viability.

Contextual Analysis

 Identify a national issue extensively covered by different major

television stations (privately-owned, government-owned and publicly-
owned) and compare and contrast the angles (i.e. particular points of
view or perspectives) and treatment (i.e. reporting or manipulation) of
news stories. (Refer to Module 2, Units 2 and 3, for background on
news values and news development processes.)
 Review the editorial policies of school publications in different settings
(sectarian vs. non-sectarian, private vs. government-owned, and state
vs. local schools) and discover how ownership affects publication
management, editorial content, etc.
 Review the coverage of two different media outlets, possibly from
different world regions, on a particular topic and particular day and
compare and contrast the angles and treatment of news stories.
 For at least two to three days, review the issues covered in the
business section of a major newspaper or news channel. On a daily
basis, count the number of stories about private corporations vis-à-vis
the total number of stories for the section. Also, stories can be
classified as ‘good’ news, ‘bad’ news or ‘neutral’ concerning the
corporations.
 Compare this to how the news feed works on a social media platform
like Facebook and Sina Weibo. Issue-Enquiry Approach/Research
 Interview at least ten primary-school children and ask them why they
prefer a particular brand for a particular product. Collate the answers
 of the children and compare the top answers with the advertisements
of the preferred products.

Trans-Nationalization of Media Ownership and Control

Transnational corporations are companies that maintain active operations
and assets in at least one other nation but have their headquarters in a
parent country. They usually operate through foreign subsidiaries that serve
as country branches to extend the parent companies’ active presence and
influence. They are also globally-oriented and quick to adapt to local
markets’ demands owing to their quest for cheaper resources abroad such
as labor, raw materials and avoiding high taxes in their home countries.
(Mingst & Arreguín- Toft, 2013). Notable examples include; FedEx,
ExxonMobil, Samsung, Barclays & Unilever.
Transnational media corporations (TMC’s) are conglomerates that actively
export information and entertainment across national borders for their global
audiences to consume through mediums like the internet, radio, TV
networks, motion pictures, and print media (Kamalipour, 2007).Examples
include Sony, Time Warner, Comcast, Vivendi SA, Televisa, and Grupo Globo.
Their collective vision is the media that transcends physical barriers
including national borders to reach as many people as possible. Most of
today’s transnational media corporations are headquartered in the west from
where they direct their operations across the globe through
bureaus/agencies.
Over the past few decades, TMC’s have significantly expanded through
regional partnerships, global joint ventures, outright takeovers or
acquisitions. They’ve pushed hard for the dismantlement of barriers to free
media, mainly political, for them to extend their global reach unhindered
(McPhail, 2010). They’re often backed up by their powerful home
governments who habitually agitate for media freedom in countries where it
is highly restricted, i.e. Cuba, Russia and China.
TMC’s are among the world’s notable financial heavyweights since they are
the most powerful economic force for global media activity controlling more
than half of the world’s media revenues (Gershon, 2007).Some like Comcast,
Microsoft and Google have bigger budgets that surpass national budgets of
many countries. Their economic and opinion power greatly influences the
globalization landscape and due to their financial muscle, they’re contending
with state actors for the dominance of global communication (i.e. Facebook
vs Iran, Bangladesh, Tajikistan,Turkey).
Transnational media corporations have always been at the forefront of
promoting global capitalism which involves the deregulation of media to
create conducive environments that facilitate the free marketplace of ideas
and opinions, encouraging the global use of advanced media and
information technology to open up and link deeply conservative societies
and remote places of the earth with a good example of Facebook’s
Connectivity Lab which builds drones, satellites and lasers to beam and
deliver affordable internet from the sky.
Communication Media and Advertising

Introduction

Advertisements (Ads) are everywhere – be it watching a program on

Television (TV) or listening to radio programs. From market to highways, you
would find billboards and hoardings advertising something or the other. In
fact, hearing the jingle of an old advertisement brings back a lot of
memories. Nonetheless, not many of us actually welcome advertising. Ad
breaks on TV have come to imply breaks for any tiny work that needs to be
attended to. But the advertisers are getting smarter and they are sneaking
in ads in places where we least expect it. Like, having an actor in a movie
use a certain product or advertisement in the form of editorial (called
advertorial) appearing in a magazine or newspaper. Content marketing is
another thing that is used by advertising agencies in today’s time.

Why do you think companies invest so much in advertising?

Does it actually make a difference? Are the sales of a product or service
actually influenced by advertising? Do advertisements alter consumer
behavior? If so, then why are some advertising campaigns more effective
than others? These are fundamental questions that connect advertising to
psychology, particularly social psychology. Let us try answering some of
these questions in this unit.

Media and Advertising

Media is all about communication, sharing knowledge and information, and
connecting people. One of the major roles of media is advertising, that is,
spreading awareness about certain products and services highlighting their
benefits and uniqueness. Advertising is a huge multi-billion-dollar industry
that has grown significantly over the years. It connects manufacturers and
service providers with their customers via different media. Different media
used for advertising include print media (newspaper and magazine ads),
audio-visual media (radio and television ads), social media (ads that pop up
on your Facebook or Instagram feeds) and internet (contextual ads placed on
search engines result pages or on e-mail). Let us now see what advertising is
and how it has changed over the years. 7.1.1 Advertising and its goals
Advertising can be defined as a form of communication with the goal of
persuading the intended audience to take certain actions (like buying a
product or availing a service). The content of most advertisements is
information about the organization/business firm, description of the
product/service, benefits of the product (often through comparisons) and
specifying the target audience. According to Philip Kotler, the father of
marketing, advertisement is “any paid form of non-personal presentation
and promotion of ideas, goods and services through mass media such as
newspapers, magazines, television or radio by an identified sponsor” (Kotler,
1984, p.58). In this definition it is important to note that advertising is not
‘personal selling’, which is an interpersonal communication, while
advertisements use mass communication media. The vehicle through which
advertisements communicate the content is media. It is the way the content
is packaged and served/transmitted to the audience.
Goals of advertising:
1) Boosting the sale of the product/service by persuading people to buy
them, thus increasing the customer base.
2) Introduction of a new product: When a new product is launched,
advertisements inform the public about them, thereby creating product
publicity.
3) Building brand and creation of good public image: Advertisements also
help building reputation of the sponsoring organization, as they
communicate how the organization has addressed customer satisfaction. 4)
Education and awareness: Advertisements educate people, not only about
new products but also creates awareness towards health in them. Many ads
emphasize adopting new healthy lifestyle and giving-up unhealthy habits.
The underlying objectives in advertising are (Kotler, Armstrong, Saunders &
Wong, 1999): · To inform the target audience about a product, its uses,
advantages, drop in price etc. or providing information to create awareness
in public or to reduce public fears with respect to a product · To persuade
people to change their perception about a product, have a favorable attitude
and influence them to buy certain product/services. · To remind people
about products, offers, or issues, their future needs (like insurance policies)
etc.

Communication Media and Consumerism

Objectives: After going through this unit, you should be able to:
1. explain consumerism.
2. state the rights of buyers and sellers
3. describe the role of the media in protecting consumer rights.

Introduction
In this unit, we shall first discuss the phenomenon of consumerism in India
and acquaint ourselves with consumerism laws. Then, the role of the media
in consumer education and problem resolution will be discussed.
Consumerism
A consumer is the user of an article. One usually buys the article in order to
be able to use it. The act of purchase confers on the buyer, the right to
respect a certain standard of quality from the product, the product may
belong to either category: goods or services. The consumer might
consciously want value for their money, yet not be able to judge quality. In
such cases, they may be duped. If consumers are -dissatisfied with the
performance of an item after its purchase, they have every right to seek
redress of their grievances. This they can do at suitable forums specially
created for the purpose, called consumer organizations. They call even move
the courts.
The protection of the purchaser's interests is termed consumerism. This is
practiced by the government through legislation. Committed persons in
society may form consumer organizations for this purpose. Suppose you buy
a matchbox in which every other matchstick fails to light on striking. Then,
your right to expect the matches to conform to standards is not met. Though
it may appear an insignificant matter, it is not in the purchaser's interests.
The government and voluntary agencies have to involve the general public
in the consumer movement. This they do by informing the people about the
quality that they can expect, when they buy any item. These agencies also
keep a close watch on the market for sub-standard goods and services.
Definition
By definition, consumerism is an organized movement of concerned citizens
and the government, to enhance the right and powers of buyers in relation
to sellers.

The Rights of Buyers and Sellers

Buyers and sellers are empowered with rights that govern their transactions.
Traditionally, the balance was tilted in the sellers favor. Now, due to greater
consumer awareness, equal if not more power and rights exist within the
buyer's reach. A few of the traditional rights of both sellers and buyers are
enumerated here. The traditional sellers' rights include:
 the right to introduce any product in any size and style, provided it is
not hazardous to personal health or safety or, if it is, to introduce it
with proper warnings and controls;
 The right to price the product at any level, provided there is no
discrimination among similar classes of buyers;
 The right to spend any amount to promote the product, provided it is
not defined as unfair competition;
 The right to formulate any product message, provided it is not
misleading or dishonest in content or execution.
 The right to introduce any buying incentive schemes they wish.
The traditional buyers' rights include:
 The right not to buy a product that is offered for sale.
 The right to expect the product lo be safe.
 The right to expect the product 10 be what it claims to be.

The Philippine Media

Philippine media pertains to the various ways people around the country can
access the current happenings in the country.
The roles and functions of Philippine Media are to present news on a
nationwide scale as conveniently as possible. It has not been easier to
access this with affordable mobile data plans offering free access to Tiktok,
Instagram, Youtube, and the like.
For better or worse, the role of media in the Philippines is crucial as ever,
being able to dictate and influence the minds of anyone with a screen. It
remains a great debate just how accurately events are portrayed to the
public with different networks and sources tailoring their info to their
audience, just like how social media platforms do.
What Is The State Of Philippine Media Today?

Broadcast media remains as strong, if not stronger than digital media, reaching rural
areas as one of the oldest and most reliable pieces of technology. The widespread
availability of digital media, on the other hand, has led to a decline in the popularity of
print publications.

With the broad reach that news currently has, media literacy has become an
issue of grave concern. It has benefited the masses that networks and
outlets have invested more in digital media and infrastructure.
Unfortunately, this reach has also given access to people whose credibility is
questionable and whose opinions are not well informed.
With digital technology only recently making its way throughout the country,
fact-checking is a new skill that needs to be learned. For every bit of news
reported accurately straight from the authorities, there is a Facebook post
written by your neighbor citing illegitimate sources that people blindly trust.
Aside from digital media in the form of the internet, broadcast media (radio)
and print media (newspapers and magazines) make up the overall landscape
of Philippine Media.

How Have Philippine Media Grown Up?

It has grown up like a baby maturing into a corrupted teenager. Once pure
and authentic, it has grown up and rebelled into a volatile mess, refusing to
engage with you honestly. During the times when legacy media in the form
of print, radio, and television were the primary sources of information,
questions of legitimacy were not a big deal in the Philippine media
landscape.
Starting under the regime of the late dictator, Ferdinand Marcos, control of
the freedom of the press began. All sources of information
were filtered before being released to the public. Although it was restored
thanks to the 1987 Constitution, there are worries history may repeat itself.
Nowadays, Philippine digital media has been weaponized, with different
sources taking advantage of the still-widened gap in socio-economic classes.
With the ways it has tapped across the nation and varying agendas,
Philippine Media has successfully blurred the lines between fact and fiction.
What Are The Different Types Of Media In The Philippines?
1.) Local and Global Media in the Philippines
Once a two-horse race between ABS-CBN and GMA, the Philippine television
market is now dominated by a single network. This followed the controversial
closure of ABS-CBN by then-president Rodrigo Duterte. Although they have
then pivoted to exclusively digital content and recently executed
a partnership with the TV5 network, it is still a big blow to their image, as
television is still an influential player in the Philippine media landscape.
Private, family-owned companies dominate locally owned media in the
Philippines; another media outlet not mentioned is the government-owned
television network, PTV4. An online publication popular with content on the
more radical side is Rappler, whose CEO Maria Ressa has been a mainstay in
headlines concerning public service. Whether liberal or conservative, there
always seems to be an agenda forwarded by the publication, regardless of
stance.

2.) Communication Media in the Philippines

Communication media is used to describe the various channels that are
used to disseminate information to the public. This is loosely used to
describe the way the internet, radio, and outdoor media in the form of
billboards hits target audiences. The efficiency and reach of communication
media are vital to the success of companies fulfilling their goals.

Unfortunately, this Philippine media tends to be sensational and clickbaity in

nature. With many companies vying for readers' attention, the success of
their promotions hangs on the headlines' ability to grab your interest from
the get-go.

3.) Controversial and Viral Forms of Media in the Philippines

n this context, media weaponization is at its most dangerous and
destructive. In the past elections, it is no secret that "troll farms" were grown
to create armies of fake aliases that spread political disinformation (also
known as fake news). Political parties employed individuals to sow discord
among rational discourse and whitewash known facts about past crimes.
When disseminating this false information, Facebook is the main offender.
With the ability to pay for sponsored content and the Filipinos' use of the
platform for daily news, politics turned into social warfare more than
achievements and accolades.
Tiktok was also a vehicle for the spread of misinformation, with
whitewashing and smear campaigns of other candidates making their way
into peoples' algorithms.

4.) Alternative Media in the Philippines

Alternative media goes into a more organic and creative approach to the
spread of information. Whether it be performance arts in the form
of plays, street art, and musical performances, these enjoy the freedom of
the press and are independent of government control.

The ability to promote an agenda or message is the most distinctive feature

of this mode of media dissemination, along with the fact that it is not
corporately owned.
Case Study on Media and Advertising

TARGET knows when its customers are pregnant!

Target is an American retail corporation, which sells a wide range of products
from groceries and home essentials to clothing, accessories and electronics.
In the year 2012 a story of disgruntled customer attracted media attention.
A father of a high schooler in Minneapolis was upset that his daughter was
being given discount on maternity clothes and baby products by their local
TARGET store. TARGET had sent via post brochure containing
advertisements for baby clothing, diapers, baby furniture etc. When the
managers were taken to task, they apologized unequivocally, however in a
few days it was the father who came back apologizing. His daughter was
indeed pregnant and TARGET had found out before he did!

Capitalizing on pregnant customers is extremely profiting. They need to buy

a lot and usually prefer to buy it all from one place. This further makes them
permanent clients once they become parents. TARGET hired a statistician,
Andrew Pole, and tasked him to identify potentially pregnant customers.
Based on the buying behavior pattern, Pole came up with 25 key
items/products, which helped him give customers a “pregnancy prediction
score”. Customers who would buy from these 25 products could then be
categorized as pregnant and also zeroed in for the month of pregnancy with
a lot of accuracy. TARGET would then, depending upon their pregnancy
month, offer special discounts and coupons. For instance, Pole noticed that
women stocked on multivitamins for the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, and
shifted to unscented soaps, lotions and moisturizers as they neared the due
date. Near their due date of delivery, pregnant women buy lots of big bags
of cotton balls, hand sanitizers and washcloths.

Knowing such patterns of consumer behavior helped TARGET identify their

potential long-term customers (soon to be parents), who were then targeted
with offers and discounts for baby products. This pregnancy score’s accuracy
is what led to a teenager receiving coupons for discounted maternity clothes
before she could tell her family!

The case study illustrates the increasing use of data mining and data sharing
of targeted customers. In the information age of today, knowledge is key.
Most companies are making use of the customer data (like the products they
are searching on the internet, the ads they are clicking on, the places they
are visiting based on google map search) to customize ads for them. Many
times, you would have seen that after a particular google search you get ads
for similar products in your e-mail or on your social media. Thus, our online
activities and digital footprints do not go unnoticed, but are actually valuable
resources for advertisers.
MODULE 3 : COMMUNICATION, POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

Introduction:
Normative theories were first proposed by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson
and Wilbur Schramm in their book called “Four Theories of the Press”. At first
the word “Normative Theory” was pronounced in USA during the height of
‘cold war’ with communism and soviet. Often it called as western theories of
mass media.

A Normative theory describes an ideal way for a media system to be

controlled and operated by the government, authority, leader and public.
These theories are basically different from other communication theories
because normative theories of press are not providing any scientific
explanations or prediction. At the same these “four theories of the press”
were came from many sources rather than a single source. Sometimes
media practitioners, social critics and academics also involved to develop
these normative theories.
Normative theories are more focused in the relationship between Press and
the Government than press and the audience. These theories are more
concern about the ownership of the media and who controls the press or
media in the country.
The 4 Theories of the Press/Media
1. Authoritarian Theory
Authoritarian theory describe that all forms of communications are under the
control of the governing elite or authorities or influential bureaucrats.
Authoritarians are necessary to control the media to protect and prevent the
people from the national threats through any form communication
(information or news). The press is an instrument to enhance the ruler’s
power in the country rather than any threats. The authorities have all rights
to permit any media and control it by providing license to the media and
make certain censorship.
If any media violate the government policies against license, then the
authority has all right to cancel the license and revoke it. The government
have all right to restrict any sensitive issues from press to maintain peace
and security in the nation.
Censorship
Censorship is a suppression of any communication which may consider as
harmful to the people, King, government and its nation. Especially these
censorship methods are much familiar in press which against the freedom of
speech and freedom of expression. In some other cases, the censorship
helps to protect the rulers and authorities from sensitive issues.

There are different types of censors l

1. Political censor
2. Moral censor
3. Religious censor
4. Military censor
5. Corporate censor
Examples of Authoritarian theory:

For right Nikolai Yezhov, standing near Stalin was removed from this photograph after he shot dead
in 1940. These types of censors are common during Stalin’s reign.

 Here, Journalist or any media persons should not have any rights to
comment, discriminate or stand against the government. Sometimes,
an authority gives considerable freedom to minority thoughts and
cultural issues to promote them if it doesn’t make any threats to
authority or ruler.
 King – King is the authority, who has all rights to control the
communication and no one can question against the king.

“The French king Louis XIV was concentrated in his person

parliamentary, law making and judicial power. He was the authority of
Supreme Court as well as he can condemn a men to death penalty
without any rights appeal”.
 Dictatorship – During the World War II Hitler and Mussolini are the two
major authorities who controlled the press in Germany and Italy. Press
was under the control of the authority and No press can’t question
against or publish against these two dictators.
  Few countries blocked wiki leaks website from its country to maintain
the internal security because the wiki leaks are not ready to
compromise with government censorship and realizing classified
documents against the government.

2. Libertarian Theory
The Libertarian theory is one of the “Normative theories of press”. The
theory which is originally
came from libertarian thoughts from 16th century in Europe. The libertarian
theorists are against the authoritarian thoughts.
International trade and urbanization undermine the power of a rural
aristocracy which leads various social movements raise includes the
Protestants reformation, that demands individual’s freedom and their own
lives and free thoughts. Liberalism means information is knowledge and
knowledge is power. Libertarianism is free from any authority or any control
or censorship. The libertarianism is an idea of individualism and limited
government which is not harmful to another.
Libertarian theory sees people are more enough to find and judge good ideas
from bad. The theory says people are rational and their rational thoughts
lead them to find out what are good and bad. The press should not restrict
anything even a negative content may give knowledge and can make better
decision whilst worst situation. The libertarian thoughts are exactly against
or opposite to the authoritarian theory which means the authoritarian theory
says “all forms of communication works under the control of government or
elite like king”.
Strength and Weakness
1. Freedom of press will give more freedom to media to reveal the real
thing happening in the society without any censorship or any authority
blockades.
2. Is reliable with U.S media traditions.
3. It gives more values for individuals to express their thoughts in media.
4. Theory excessively positive about media’s willing to meet
responsibilities which may leads people into negative aspects.
5. Is too positive about individual ethics and rationality.
6. Ignores need for reasonable control of media.
7. Ignores dilemmas posed by conflicting freedoms.
Example
Wiki leaks website published all sorts of confidential or restricted files in
public space and especially classified documents. These articles are
providing brief knowledge about the government and its activities which
helps people to identify what is happening in the society and its gives great
choices to elect a better president in future.
Sometimes these documents may work against the government and its
authority that is why most of the country is not willing to allow libertarian
thoughts because it may affect their power and kingdom.
3. Social Responsibility Theory
In the mid 20th century most of the developing countries and third world
nations have used this social responsibility theory of the press, which is
associated with “the Commission of the Freedom of Press” at United States
in 1949.
In the book “Four theories of Press” (Siebert, Peterson and Schramm) it has
been stated that “pure libertarianism is antiquated, outdated and obsolete.”
That paved way for replacement of Libertarian theory with the Social
responsibility theory.
4. Soviet Media Theory
After the 1917th revolution, the Soviet Union was restructured with new
political system based on the Marxist-Leninist principles. The newly formed
communist party by Lenin shows much interest in the media which serves to
the working class in the country and their welfares. So the Soviet originates
a theory from Marxist, Leninist and Stalinist thoughts, with mixture of Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ideology is called “Soviet Media Theory” is also
known as “The Communist Media Theory”. The same theory was
developed and followed by Adolf Hitler’s Nazi in Germany and Benito
Mussolini in Italy.

Soviet media theory is imitative of Leninist principles which based on the

Carl Marx and Engel’s ideology. The government undertake or controls the
total media and communication to serve working classes and their interest.
Theory says the state have absolute power to control any media for the
benefits of people. They put end to the private ownership of the press and
other media. The government media provide positive thoughts to create a
strong socialized society as well as providing information, education,
entertainment, motivation and mobilization. The theory describe the whole
purpose of the mass media is to educate the greater masses of working class
or workers. Here, the public was encouraged to give feedback which would
able to create interests towards the media.
According to authoritarian theory, the media controlled and censored by the
ministries in the country but libertarian is fully free without any intervention
of any authority or government, Social responsibility theory – press freedom
in one hand but other hand they controlled the press by raising question and
Soviet media theory, the whole control of the media is under the leader of
the nation.
Critics of Soviet Media Theory:
1. Soviet media theory looks similar like authoritarian theory but the core
part is different from each other. In authoritarian theory is a one way
communication, there is no feedback allowed from the public but in
Soviet media theory is a two way communication at the same time the
whole media is controlled or works under the leadership.
2. Private ownership is not allowed which leads the press without any
restriction and it can serve people without any authoritative blockades.
3. Soviet media theory allows some restriction based on the nation
interest rather than personal.
4. Under communist theories like soviet media theory, the journalist or
press should support the leadership rather than a watchdog.
5. If the leadership is wrong the whole nation will suffer a lot.

The Importance of Self-Regulation of the Media in Upholding

Freedom of Expression
Importance of freedom of expression
Freedom of expression has long been regarded as a fundamental right, one
which is important in itself and also helps to defend other rights and
freedoms. There are three reasons why freedom of expression is so crucial.
Firstly it is a human need to be ourselves and have our own identity, and the
ability to express ourselves in words, music, dance or any other form of
expression is central to the realization of our humanity. Secondly it is a
foundation for other rights and freedoms as without freedom of expression it
is not possible to organize, inform, alert, or mobilize in defense of human
rights. Thirdly, as Amartya Sen has persuasively argued it is the precondition
of social and economic development as transparent and open
communications are necessary to ensure economic and social development
that benefits everyone1. The importance of the right to freedom of
expression is reflected by its widespread protection in international law at
the global and regional level. The right is protected in all significant
international and regional human rights treaties, including Article 19 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and Article 19 of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). It is also
protected in regional treaties: by Article 13 of the American Convention
on Human Rights; by Article 9 of the African Charter (elaborated by a
specific declaration agreed in October 2002); and Article 11 of the
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Its significance is
uncontested.
If it is to be fully realized, however, freedom of expression requires a public
dimension—a means of communication—in order to facilitate the exchange
of opinions, ideas and information. It follows that free expression activists
have focused a great deal of attention on the structure and regulation
of the media environment, for it is these that provide the principal platforms
for public expression, from books and newspapers to the broadcast media.
How freedom of expression is supported – the UNESCO framework Free
expression has always required a means of communication to be effective,
otherwise communication is confined to those we can immediately speak
with. A megaphone goes farther than a human voice, a radio transmitter
even further. These platforms have changed over the centuries, from wall
paintings to print, through radio to analogue television. This means that the
media must have the freedom to provide the means of information
exchange, debate and opinion that is necessary to enable us to realize our
freedom of expression in the fullest sense. It is inevitable therefore that free
expression activists have always concerned themselves with the operations
of the media and its ability to function free from repression and
government control. Much attention has been paid to the norms and
standards that freedom of expression requires in the traditional media world.
The consensus is that a media environment capable of supporting free
expression will have a number of characteristics: it will be a diverse media
environment, part public, part private and part community; a plurality of
different media outlets; and a system that is broadly self-regulating with
the exception of broadcast media(where spectrum has been limited and a
regulatory body allocates bandwidth). Media professional will have sufficient
training to understand and implement the demands of their profession and
there will be adequate access to the means of the communication for people
as a whole. This framework is elaborated in detail in UNESCO’s Media
Development Indicators2adopted by UNESCO in 2008. The analysis sets out
five major categories of indicators that can be used to analyze the media
development of a country. Each category is broken down into a number of
component issues which in turn contain a series of broad indicators

What is self-regulation and its advantages?

What do we mean by self-regulation? Self-regulation is combination of
standards setting out the appropriate codes of behavior for the media that
are necessary to support freedom of expression, and process how those
behaviors will be monitored or held to account. The benefits of self-
regulation are well rehearsed. Self -regulation preserves independence of
the media and protects it from partisan government interference. It could be
more efficient as a system of regulation as the media understand their
own environment better than government (though they may use that
knowledge to further their own commercial interests rather than the
public interest). As the media environment becomes global (through the
development of the internet and digital platforms) and questions of
jurisdiction become more complex then self-regulation can fill the
resulting gap. It is less costly to government because industry bears the cost
and can be more flexible than government regulation. Self-regulation may
also encourage greater compliance because of peer pressure (although there
is also evidence that regulation or the threat of regulation is more likely to
secure compliance). Self-regulation can also drive up professional standards
by requiring organizations to think about and even develop their own
standards of behavior.

Journalists Codes of Conduct

For many years self-regulation was deemed to be the professional
responsibility of journalists themselves and a variety of attempts have
taken place to codify the responsibility of journalists, often through the
medium of their professional associations. While various existing codes
have some differences, most share common elements including the
principles of truthfulness, accuracy, objectivity, impartiality, fairness. The
earliest attempts to draft a code of ethics seem to be the Code of Journalistic
Ethics adopted by the first Pan-American Press Conference held in
Washington in 1926. It was adopted as policy by the Inter-American
Press Association at a conference held in New York in October 1950.
The first International Federation of Journalists, established in 1926 but
dissolved after the Second World War, took various steps aimed at self-
regulation by the profession, including the establishment of an International
Court of Honor in The Hague in1931 and the adoption of a professional
code of honor in 1939. Refounded in 1952, it developed a professional
ethical code for journalists and adopted a declaration of journalists’ duties
in 1954, at its Second Congress12. Subsequently, six journalists’ trade
unions of the European Community adopted a Declaration of Duties and
Rights of Journalists in November 197113. A range of national media
institutions have developed their own codes of conduct, for example the
Swiss Press Council These codes tend to focus upon certain accepted
principles – a respect for truth and for the right ofthe public to truth; the
right to fair comment and criticism; factual and objective reporting; the
use off air methods to obtain information; the willingness to correct
mistakes; respecting the confidentiality of sources. These draw upon what
is usually regarded as the essential elements of journalism – for example as
sketched out by Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel15which they define as:
• Journalism’s first obligation is to the truth.
• Its first loyalty is to the citizens.
• Its essence is discipline of verification.
• Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover.
• It must serve as an independent monitor of power.
• It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise.
• It must strive to make the news significant
• It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional.
• Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience.

The limitation of codes of conduct is that they are difficult to uphold. They
are essentially professional codes adopted voluntarily by journalists but
without sanction if breached. It would be possible for a journalist association
to expel a member who consciously breached such a code but that would
not necessarily prohibit them from working as journalists. Moreover
journalists often have little power within their organizations. Decisions about
what stories to cover, how much budget is allocated to each story, what
prominence is given are usually made by editors or senior managers. Media
owners can use their power to influence how news is reported and published
and shape the priorities of the media organization. In such circumstances a
journalist code of ethics will be relatively powerless

How Social Media Is Shaping Political Campaigns

In his short-lived campaign for president, entrepreneur and former New York
City Mayor Michael Bloomberg spent more than $1 billion of his own money
before dropping out of the race in March 2020. More than 70% of that
budget went toward advertising.
The extraordinary spend highlights just how much cash it takes to run for
public office in America and why it’s so difficult for political newcomers to
gain momentum at the polls without connections to influential donors (or in
Bloomberg’s case, his own deep pockets). The problem perpetuates through
election cycles, which is why up to 90% of incumbents are reelected in what
research calls “the incumbency advantage.”
How Has the Internet Revolutionized Political Campaigns?
But social media has changed the game, allowing incumbents and
newcomers alike to speak directly to constituents on everything from policy
to what they had for dinner. Barack Obama was the first presidential
candidate to use the medium, which was still nascent during his 2008 bid,
and Donald Trump took to Twitter almost daily to express himself without
the filter of traditional media.
“If you look at the way that politicians communicate today, it’s very different
than the way that they used to communicate five, 10 years ago,” Wharton
marketing professor Pinar Yildirim said. “They would speak through the
official speakers or they would be on TV. They would be in print or official
online newspapers. Today, they are communicating through places like
Twitter. And I think that begs a question, why are they doing that? Is there
any benefit to communicating on channels like Twitter?”
A study co-authored by Yildirim offers some answers. “Social Media and
Political Contributions: The Impact of New Technology on Political
Competition,” written with Maria Petrova and Ananya Sen, finds that
political newcomers can get a substantial boost in support by using social
media channels, which cost next to nothing and are easily tapped by anyone
with an internet connection. The finding is important because it indicates
how social media can help level the playing field in politics, where money
and access to formal communication channels pose huge barriers to new
entrants.
“Never have politicians been so accessible to the public,” the authors wrote
in an opinion piece for The Globe Post. Yildirim recently spoke about the
researchers’ findings during a segment of the Wharton Business Daily
radio show on Sirius XM. (Listen to the podcast at the top of this page.)
Using Social Media for Political Campaign Fundraising
The study, which will be published in Management Science, measured
support for a candidate based on donations from individual citizens and
whether that support increased after the candidate opened a Twitter or
Facebook account. Yildirim said she and her colleagues were surprised to
find such a significant effect: Within the first month of using Twitter,
politicians were able to raise between 1% and 3% of what they would have
raised in a two-year traditional campaign. But that gain flowed almost
exclusively to newcomers, not incumbents. And it was amplified when
candidates included hyperlinks to more information.
Yildirim made it clear that the advantage has nothing to do with assumptions
about age; there is simply more to learn about new candidates.
“This is not about the age of your constituency. This is not because the
political newcomers are somewhat more technologically savvy, or their base
is younger and that’s where they can communicate and find those
individuals on social media,” she said. “We tested all of these, and these are
not the drivers.”
Beyond communicating their policy views, new candidates can humanize
themselves through their social media accounts, and that helps voters feel
more connected to them. For example, former Democratic presidential
contender Pete Buttigieg introduced his shelter dogs to his 2 million
Twitter followers, while U.S. Sen. Elizabeth Warren used her Instagram
account to chat live with supporters who made small contributions to her
presidential campaign.
Those small contributions often between $5 to $100 seem unlikely to move
the needle in a multimillion-dollar political campaign. But the researchers
said they are an important part of the voting process because they represent
hope.
“There’s this idea that if there are many of us just donating in small
amounts, eventually that will turn into a sea of donations, and that could
help this person to get elected down the road,” Yildirim said. “So, donations
are very meaningful in a number of ways.”
In Politics, all Communication Counts
If video killed the radio star, as the 1980 pop song declared, will Facebook
kill nationally televised debates or news interviews that are the hallmark of
old-school political campaigns? Probably not. As Yildirim pointed out, organic
coverage from newspapers or television stations is free and reaches a wide
audience. And while costly, paid advertising allows candidates to target a
specific message to a specific audience. However, so does social media. It
cannot be discounted as a low-cost, powerful tool in political competition.
“You don’t have to have the big money, big bucks, big fundraisers, big
supporters to be able to communicate on Twitter with your constituency and
tell them about what your ideas are for the future,” Yildirim noted. “You can
tell them about who you are, what your values are, and this is typically what
we see politicians do. They talk about themselves. They talk about their dog,
they talk about their favorite sports team, they talk about their favorite place
to go in the neighborhood. Of course, you can always talk about your policies
and what you hope to achieve if you were elected into an office. And you can
do this way before you officially declare running for an office.”
The scholars believe the intersection of social media and politics is ripe for
more research, and their paper makes a notable contribution in the field. The
finding suggests that, with enough strategy, social media could erase the
incumbency advantage and bring American politics back to its grass roots.
“As political campaigns are becoming increasingly more expensive and the
need to reach out to constituencies is becoming more vital, social media will
undoubtedly play a more important role in determining electoral outcomes
as it gives young politicians a platform,” they said in the op-ed.
 MEDIA AND GOOD GOVERNANCE
By
SENATOR MIRIAM DEFENSOR SANTIAGO
(Guest speaker during Communication Week at Assumption College,
held on Monday, 10 March 2014)
FOUNDATIONS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE
I am happy to speak on the theme, Social Justice and Responsibility for
communicators. This topic was an advocacy of Saint Marie Eugenie of Jesus,
founder of the Religious of the Assumption. I was privileged to be invited to
her canonization ceremonies conducted in Rome by the pope, who lovingly
gave the Filipinos an audience. It was a numinous experience, and hence I
have a special place in my heart for St. Marie Eugenie.
Good governance is founded on the participation of civil society in the
government's decision-making process, and in instituting the rule of law.
UNESCO posits that good governance will flourish, if people actively: fight
corruption; defend human rights; demand transparency and accountability
by governments; and move for ways to reduce poverty in the country.[1]
This means that we will have to invest time in making sure that the
government works for the welfare of its citizens. Going to the streets,
sending letters to errant officials, commenting on social media sites - all
these are ways of participating in the political process, and in ensuring that
the government does its job. If we want change, we have to work for it. You
may think that you are just a student, whose voice is too small to be heard;
but if there are enough advocates and like-minded individuals, the
government will be forced to listen to the people. In the past, these
marching voices were even able to topple two presidents, who failed to hear
the people.
I respectfully encourage you to broaden your knowledge of what happens
outside your school. By knowing more about your surroundings, you will be
able to formulate opinions, and make informed decisions when participating
in the political arena. Getting involved in social issues will teach you not only
to sympathize, but also to empathize with others, and to see their problems
as your own. For example, you may think that human rights violation, such
as the the killing of journalists, is not your problem. But you must remember
that the guarantee of the inviolability of human rights, such as the right to
life, freedom of speech and access to information, is a precondition for a
functioning society.
There is no such thing as a perfect government or a perfect society. But
through your participation in the government's decision-making process, and
in instituting the rule of law, the government is forced to become responsible
for, and to, its citizens; rather than rule with an authoritarian hand over
them.[2]
ROLE OF MEDIA IN GOOD GOVERNANCE
Another foundation of good governance is an independent and strong media.
The media should be free to probe, monitor, and criticize government
policies and state actions. Known as the fourth estate, the media plays a
crucial role in disseminating information and in ensuring that players in the
political field do not abuse the democratic process.[3]
The media serves as the eyes and ears of the people, especially in areas
where face-to-face participation by the citizens is not possible. Media helps
the people remain vigilant and help form public opinion. Thus, independent
media does not only increase awareness among the people, but also drives
them to participate more in the public arena. For example, it is through the
media that we are able to determine the openness and transparency of the
elections. It is also through them that we found out about the pork barrel
scam.
The media therefore determines what is newsworthy and what is not. On the
one hand, this has a positive effect with the media bringing into the open,
controversial issues and information which an ordinary citizen would not be
able to access. On the other hand, this power to determine what should
appear on the news has created a breed of corrupt media practitioners.
These so-called journalists are bribed by traditional politicians who want
extra media mileage. Nonetheless, the media is not an all-powerful entity.
Some of the obstacles they have to face are: censorship, denial of access to
government information, restrictive laws, heavy fines, and even
imprisonment for reporting against the government.
POWER OF SOCIAL MEDIA
The media referred to as the fourth estate generally means the traditional
media - print, radio, and television. However, there is another media
platform where traditional media and the ordinary citizen can converse -
social media.
Social media encourages participatory democracy. Facebook, Twitter, and
YouTube are the big three social media services where large numbers of
people can easily and inexpensively contact each other through a variety of
services. Other social media platforms, such as Tumblr and Instagram, also
play an active role in gathering people to share their opinions and
experiences. Social media therefore lowers traditional socio-economic
barriers to commanding the spotlight. The power of the rich politicians
becomes more porous, and the political warlords have less control.[4]
The future of political warfare will take place online. According to an article
by Tim Unwin[5] and a blog entry posted by the World Bank[6] major
political changes, such as what happened in the Middle East, can be seen as
a direct result of the use of social media. Social media works in such a way
that it breaks the barriers between national borders and government
structures.
I therefore urge you - students of Assumption College - to fight back against
social evils, using your wit and with your words. Use social media to air your
grievances. Be the tide that will cleanse the Philippines of the corrupt and
the useless. Weaponize social media. Fire up your Facebook, Twitter,
YouTube, Tumblr, and Instagram accounts on demanding social change. You
can do this by posting content that does not only inform, but also entertains
and motivates. For example, create memes against the plunderers in
government and create infographics showing how much embezzled money
by government officials could have been used to fund social services and
public works. Learn graphic design, videography, and programming
language. This way, you will be more equipped in creating riveting content
that will arouse, organize, and mobilize the masses.
ON LINE
Social media can be used to protect democratic freedoms. Its low or no cost
for set-up, potentially wide reach, and quick or instantaneous sharing of
messages[7] are characteristics that make social media an ideal platform for
digital advocacy. It is also one of the areas where the freedom of speech
remains free and unabridged. However, the libel provision in Republic Act
No. 10175 or the Cybercrime Law intrudes on the freedom of netizens to
express themselves in the online realm.
Our Constitution provides that freedom of speech is a fundamental right.
Article 3, Section 4 states: "No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of
speech, of expression, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to
assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances." In this
context, the controversial law penalizing online libel makes a gross mistake
in juxtaposing traditional media and social media. These are two completely
different universes. Social media does not operate within the same universe
as traditional media. In TV, radio, and print, once you are maligned, it is
extremely difficult to get your side aired.
For example, if your enemy is a corrupt politician, his unexplained wealth
would enable him to publicize a libelous article or even false information
against you. By contrast, it would be very difficult for you to receive equal
space and equal time in publishing a reply. This position of inequality does
not apply on the internet. On the internet, if someone posts something
against you, you have the full right to answer him in kind and you do not
have to pay anything.
The controversial libel provision in the Cybercrime Law violates at least two
widely-accepted principles of constitutional law. The first principle is the
"void for vagueness" doctrine. As presently worded, the provision on online
libel is so vague that you hardly know who are covered by it. The Supreme
Court ruled that it is only the sender who is liable, not the person who is
commenting or receiving, but we must ask: Who is the sender? Is it the
service provider, the individual netizen, or a group? How do we identify
them? Worse, if they are not using their true identities, how are you going to
go beyond what they profess to be their identities on the internet? These
questions emphasize how different the internet is from traditional forms of
media.
The second principle that the provision violates is what is known in
constitutional law terms as the "overbreadth doctrine." According to this
doctrine, a law is unconstitutional if, in proscribing unprotected speech, it
also tramples on protected speech. It is a basic principle that the law should
be confined within very strict limits. Thus, here we have a case that,
unfortunately, appears to be jurisprudence trailing after technology, because
of the lack of information on how the internet operates in society.
I humbly submit that the Supreme Court ruling on online libel is erroneous.
And I call on all netizens to magnify our efforts to pass Senate Bill No. 53 or
The Magna Carta for Philippine Internet Freedom (MCPIF). This is a new law
that I have filed from internet crowdsourcing. It was not me who crafted this
law, but all the netizens coming from different professions, such as lawyers,
civil engineers, and technology savvy-people, among others. Under my bill,
the State is obliged to protect and promote the freedom of speech online,
the right of the people to petition online for redress of grievances, and the
right of the people to publish material and distribute information online. It
also upholds the privacy and security of data, ensures the freedom to
innovate and create without permission, and guarantees the protection of
intellectual property.
Under my bill, there is no internet libel if there is no malice or intent to
injure, and if the person claiming to be a victim of internet libel is not
explicitly or positively identified in the libelous speech. The bill also codifies
the exceptions to libel that have been carved out by a long line of Supreme
Court decisions.[8] My bill, therefore, still penalizes internet libel, but does
not impose a criminal penalty. It merely imposes civil penalties. This means
that online libel is not a crime, and is therefore "decriminalized." The victim
can sue for damages.
Another highlight of my bill is that it punishes an even graver offense: hate
speech. Internet hate speech is "a public and malicious expression calling for
the commission of illegal acts on an entire class of persons, a reasonably
broad section thereof, or a person belonging to such a class, based on
gender, sexual orientation, religious belief or affiliation, political belief or
affiliation, ethnic or regional affiliation, citizenship, or nationality, made on
the Internet or on public networks." [9] This provision is absent in the
present Cybercrime Law, hence the urgent need for a new law.
GOVERNANCE AND COMMITMENT TO THE MEDIA
To ensure good governance, it is imperative that a positive relationship
should exist between the state and the media. The government should
therefore implement a legal and regulatory environment which encourages
freedom and pluralism, rather than stifles the sharing of information. It is up
to us, the citizens, to take the lead in assisting media outlets to become
independent and economically self-sustaining.
The media promotes vigilance by fostering investigative journalism,
promoting the openness of court, legislative and administrative proceedings,
and access to official and public documents. Since corrupt practices prevent
the government from ensuring the best life possible for their people, the
government should therefore protect the media and whistleblowers. Good
governance can only be achieved when the government sees the media as
an investigative ally and not as a threat.[10] It is entirely possible that the
2016 presidential and senatorial elections will be determined by social
media. When he first ran the American presidency, Pres. Obama relied
heavily on social media. It later helped him to win the Nobel Prize.
When I ran for president in 1992 - remember I won in the voting, but lost in
the counting - like all the other candidates, I had to go to all the major cities
throughout the country, to deliver campaign speeches. Many of my
opponents rented their crowds, meaning that the candidate provided the
buses and jeepneys, gave the food, and even paid every person who went to
the rally.
I had no money, so I merely relied on the energy and courage of young
people. They begged for rejected wood from lumber yards and built the
campaign stage, which sometimes crashed to the ground because it was
overcrowded. I was cheated, only because my youth volunteers could watch
the counting only by staying sleepless for three straight nights. When my
volunteers went home to sleep, the power brownouts began all over the
country. That rendered us helpless.
Today, social media has changed the rules of the game. Anyone can
participate in the extended debate to distinguish the truth from the
propaganda of moneyed candidates. There will be less rallies and
motorcades. The crooked candidates will hire armies of professional to
dominate and maybe even crash the social media. But while the youth
continues to fight, the candidates with immoral wealth and their criminal
campaign contributors will get a beating. Such is the power of social media.
Claim it!
The best test for the 2016 presidential elections would be a presidential
debate. This was started in 1992, when I ran. Again, today is a far cry from
the past. Almost every family has a TV or a family member who can access
YouTube. I endorse a presidential debate, because the best test for
leadership is intellectual, not financial.
Module 4 COMMUNICATION MEDIA AND CULTURE
In 1850, an epidemic swept America—but instead of leaving victims sick with
fever or flu, this epidemic involved a rabid craze for the music of Swedish
soprano Jenny Lind. American showman P. T. Barnum (who would later go on
to found the circus now known as Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey), a
shrewd marketer and self-made millionaire, is credited with spreading
“Lindomania” through a series of astute show-business moves. Barnum
promised Lind an unprecedented $1,000-a-night fee (the equivalent of
$28,300 in 2009) for her entire 93-performance tour of the United States.
Ever the savvy self-promoter, Barnum turned his huge investment to his
advantage by using it to create publicity—and it paid off. When the Swedish
soprano’s ship docked on U.S. shores, she was greeted by 40,000 ardent
fans; another 20,000 swarmed her hotel (Barnum). Congress was adjourned
specifically for Lind’s visit to Washington, DC, where the National Theatre
had to be enlarged to accommodate her audiences. A town in California and
an island in Canada were named in her honor. Enthusiasts could purchase
Jenny Lind hats, chairs, boots, opera glasses, and even pianos. Barnum’s
marketing expertise made Lind a household name and created an
overwhelming demand for a singer previously unknown to American
audiences.
The “Jenny rage” that the savvy Barnum was able to create was not a unique
phenomenon, however; a little more than a century later, a new craze
transformed some American teenagers into screaming, fainting
Beatlemaniacs. Though other performers like Frank Sinatra and Elvis Presley
were no strangers to manic crowds, the Beatles attracted an unprecedented
amount of attention when they first arrived in the United States. When the
British foursome touched down at New York’s Kennedy Airport in 1964, they
were met by more than 3,000 frenzied fans. Their performance on The Ed
Sullivan Show was seen by 73 million people, or 40 percent of the U.S.
population. The crime rate that night dropped to its lowest level in 50 years
(Ehrenreich, et. al., 1992). Beatlemania was at such a fever pitch that Life
magazine cautioned that “a Beatle who ventures out unguarded into the
streets runs the very real peril of being dismembered or crushed to death by
his fans.” The BBC publicized the trend and perhaps added to it by
highlighting the paraphernalia for fans to spend their money on: “T-shirts,
sweat shirts, turtle-neck sweaters, tight-legged trousers, night shirts,
scarves, and jewelry inspired by the Beatles” were all available, as were
Beatles-style mop-top wigs.
In the 21st century, rabid fans could turn their attention to a whole swath of
pop stars in the making when the reality TV program American Idol hit the
airwaves in 2002. The show was the only television program ever to have
snagged the top spot in the Nielsen ratings for six seasons in a row, often
averaging more than 30 million nightly viewers. Rival television network
executives were alarmed, deeming the pop giant “the ultimate schoolyard
bully,” “the Death Star,” or even “the most impactful show in the history of
television,” according to former NBC Universal CEO Jeff Zucker (Carter,
2007). New cell phone technologies allowed viewers to have a direct role in
the program’s star-making enterprise through casting votes, signing up for
text alerts, or playing trivia games on their phones. In 2009, AT&T estimated
that Idol-related text traffic amounted to 178 million messages (Poniewozik,
2009).
These three crazes all relied on various forms of media to create excitement.
Whether through newspaper advertisements, live television broadcasts, or
integrated Internet marketing, media industry tastemakers help shape what
we care about. For as long as mass media has existed in the United States,
it’s helped to create and fuel mass crazes, skyrocketing celebrities, and pop
culture manias of all kinds. Even in our era of seemingly limitless
entertainment options, mass hits like American Idol still have the ability to
dominate the public’s attention. In the chapters to come, we’ll look at
different kinds of mass media and how they have been changed by—and are
changing—the world we live in.
References
Barnum, P. T.” [Link], [Link]
Carter, Bill. “For Fox’s Rivals, ‘American Idol’ Remains a ‘Schoolyard Bully,’”
New York Times, February 20, 2007, Arts section.
Ehrenreich, Barbara, Elizabeth Hess, and Gloria Jacobs, “Beatlemania: Girls
Just Want to Have Fun,” in The Adoring Audience: Fan Culture and Popular
Media, ed. Lisa A. Lewis (New York: Routledge, 1992), 84–106. 3 •
UNDERSTANDING MEDIA AND CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION TO MASS
COMMUNICATION
Poniewozik, James. “American Idol’s Voting Scandal (Or Not),” Tuned In
(blog), Time, May 28, 2009,
[Link]
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