AR8321

SOA, MCE , SEM III

[Link] BALAJI &

AR. B. LAKSHMI PRIYA

[BUILDING MATERIALS AND

CONSTRUCTION II]
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UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO BRICK AND CLAY PRODUCTS

Brick and clay as basic building materials and brief history of their use through examples.
Types of brick and clay products. Outline of their manufacture, characteristics and
applications in building construction. Products to include different types of bricks for
masonry, roofing products such as pot/pan tiles and Mangalore tiles, flooring tiles such as
clay, ceramic and vitrified tiles, Hourdi tiles,current innovations.
Understanding of product literature. Site visits with documentation in the form of sketches/
drawings/photos.

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BRICKS ?

❑ Brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction.
❑ Traditionally, the term brick referred to a unit composed of clay, but it is now used to denote any rectangular
units laid in mortar.
❑ A brick can be composed of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, or concrete materials.
❑ Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period,
and are produced in bulk quantities.

STANDARD SIZE OF BRICK

❑ Bricks of dimensions 215 mm x 102.5 mm × 65 mm;

1. Write a short note on size and weight of brick?

• Size of a standard brick (modular brick) should be 19 x 9 x 9 cm.

• However, the bricks available in most part of the country still are 9” x 4 ½” x 3” and are known as field
bricks. Weight of such a brick is 3.0 kg.
• An indent called frog, 1 – 2 cm deep is provided for 9 cm height bricks only.
• The purpose of providing frog is to form a key for holding the mortar and therefore, the bricks are laid
with frogs on top.
• Frog is not provided in 4 cm high bricks

BRIEF HISTORY OF BRICKS ……

❑ One of the first building materials were mud bricks, molded by hand and dried in the sun for days.

❑ Later, bricks were made of clay and fired in kilns to create a strong, lasting material.

❑ Throughout history, bricks have been used in every culture, from the Ancient Chinese to the Romans.

❑ SOUTH EAST ASIA -before 7500 BC, were found at Tell Aswad, in the upper Tigris region and in southeast
Anatolia close to Diyarbakir.

❑ EGYPT - 7,000 and 6,395 BC, come from Jericho (a Palestinian city located near the Jordan River in the
West Bank),Catalhüyük (Çatalhöyük was a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in
southern Anatolia of Turkey, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC, and flourished
around 7000 BC) the ancient Egyptian fortress of Buhen,

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❑ INDIA - the ancient Indus Valley cities of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Mehrgarh. Ceramic or fired brick
was used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities.

❑ CHINA - By the Qujialing period (3300 BC), fired bricks were being used to pave roads and as building
foundations at Chengtoushan.

❑ Early civilizations around the Roman Empire adopted the use of fired bricks, including the Ancient
Greeks and Romans. The Roman legions operated mobile kilns, and built large brick structures
throughout the Roman Empire.

❑ The first successful brick-making machine was patented by Henry Clayton, employed at the Atlas
Works in Middlesex, England, in 1855, and was capable of producing up to 25,000 bricks daily with
minimal supervision.

1. What is the composition of brick earth ?

3. State the harmful ingredients in brick earth?

❑ Lime- excess causes bricks to melt and shape is lost

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❑ Iron pyrites- bricks are crystallized and disintegrated during burning because of the oxidation of iron
pirates.

❑ Alkalis – mainly found in the form of soda potash. Acts as a flux in the kiln during burning and they
cause brick to fuse, twist and deform.

❑ Pebbles - it will not allow the clay to be mixed uniformly and thoroughly which will result into weak and
porous bricks.

❑ Vegetation and organic matters–if doesn’t get burnt completely causes pores in the brick

4. Compare stonework and brickwork?

CLASSIFICATION OF BRICK EARTH

The brick earth is classified in the following three categories:

(1) Loamy, mild or sandy clay

(2) Marls, chalky or calcareous clay

(3) Plastic, strong or pure clay.

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(1) Loamy, Mild or Sandy Clay:

This type of earth consists of considerable amount of free silica in addition to alumina. The presence of sand
helps in preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of bricks. The addition of lime in such clay helps to fuse
sand and thereby to increase hardness of bricks.

(2) Marls, Chalky or Calcareous Clay:

This clay consists of considerable amount of chalk in addition to alumina and silica. Such clay generally makes
good bricks. But to avoid undesirable effects of excess lime, the sand is sometimes added to such clay.

(3) Plastic, Strong or Pure Clay:

This clay consists of alumina and silica and it is sometimes referred to as strong clay or fat clay. The raw bricks
will crack, shrink and warp during drying, if pure clay alone is used in making of bricks. Hence such clay is
corrected by the addition of sand and ash. The sand prevents shrinkage and the ash provides lime to act as
flux.

4. How is brick superior to stone work?

• At places where stones are not easily available but where there is plenty of clay, the brickwork
becomes cheaper than stonework.
• The cost of construction works out to be less in case of brickwork than stone work as less skilled lab our is
required in the construction of brickwork.
• No complicated lifting devices are necessary to carry bricks as they can be easily moved by manual
lab our.
• The bricks resist fire better than stones and hence, in case of a fire, they do not easily disintegrate.
• The brick of good quality resist the various atmospheric effects in a better way than the stones.
• In case of brickwork, the mortar joints are thin and hence the structure becomes more durables.
• It is easy to construct connections and openings in case of brickwork than stonework.
• As it is light in weight, it can be used in cantilever walls.
• Due to its modular shape and size more space can be saved.

PROPERTIES OF GOOD BRICK

A good brick should be able to resist the effects of weathering agencies like temperature, rain, etc.

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❑ Color: Color should be uniform and bright.

❑ Shape: Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners and
uniform in shape.
❑ Size: Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.
❑ Texture: They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They should not possess fissures, cavities,
loose grit and unburnt lime.
❑ Soundness: When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic ringing sound.
❑ Hardness: The bricks should be sufficiently hard finger nail scratching should not produce any impression
on the brick.
❑ Strength: Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for strength is that
when dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 mm on a hard ground, the brick should not break into
pieces.
❑ Durability : The good bricks should be able to resist, the effects of weathering agencies like wind, rain,
temperature variations etc.
❑ Water Absorption: After immersing the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should not be more
than 20% by weight for class-I, bricks and 22 % by weight for second class bricks.
❑ Efflorescence: Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24 hours and then
allowed to dry in shade. White patches are due to the presence of sulphates of calcium, magnesium
and potassium. They keep the masonry permanently in damp and wet conditions.
❑ Thermal Conductivity: Bricks should have low thermal conductivity, so that buildings built with them are
cool in summer and warm in winter.
❑ Sound Insulation: Heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while light weight and hollow bricks provide
good sound insulation.
❑ Fire Resistance: Fire resistance of bricks is usually good. In fact bricks are used to encase steel columns
to protect them from fire.

QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICK

1. The bricks should be table-moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper-coloured, free from cracks and with
sharp and square edges. The colour should be uniform and bright.
2. The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
3. The bricks should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.
4. The bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and uniform compact
structure free from voids.
5. The brick should not absorbs water more than 20% by weight, for first class bricks and 22% by weight for
second class bricks, when soaked in water for a period of 24 hours.
6. The bricks should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left on brick surface, when it is scratched
with finger nail.
7. The bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one
meter.
8. The bricks should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound proof.
9. The bricks, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salt when allowed to
dry in shade.
10. No bricks should have the crushing strength below 5.50 N/mm2.

5. What is the test for bricks?

A brick is generally subjected to the following tests to find out its suitability for the construction work:
(1) Absorption:

A brick is taken and .it is weighed dry. It is then immersed in water for a period of
16 hours. It is weighed again and the difference in weight indicates the amount
of water absorbed by the brick. It should not, in any case, exceed 20 per cent of
weight of dry brick.

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(2) Crushing Strength:

The crushing strength of a brick is found out by placing it in a compression

testing machine. It is pressed till it breaks. As per IS: 1077-1970, the minimum
crushing or compressive strength of bricks is 3.50 N/mm2. The bricks with
crushing strength of 7 to 14 N/mm2 are graded as A and those having
above 14 N/mm2 are graded as AA.`

(3) Hardness:

In this test, a scratch is made on brick surface with the help of a finger nail. If no
impression is left on the surface, the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard.

(4) Soundness:

In this test, the two bricks are taken and they are struck with each other. The
bricks should not break and a clear ringing sound should be produced.

(5) Structure:

A brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be homogeneous,

compact and free from any defects such as holes, lumps, etc.

(6) Presence of Soluble Salts:

The soluble salts, if present in bricks, will cause efflorescence on the surface of bricks. For finding out the
presence of soluble salts in a brick, it is immersed in water for 24 hours. It is then taken out and allowed to dry in
shade. The absence of grey or white deposits on its surface indicates absence of soluble salts.

If the white deposits cover about 10 per cent surface, the efflorescence is said to be slight and it is considered
as moderate, when the white deposits cover about 50 per cent of surface. If grey or white deposits are found
on more than 50 per cent of surface, the efflorescence becomes heavy and it is treated as serious, when such
deposits are converted into powdery mass.3

(7) Shape and Size:

In this test, a brick is closely inspected. It should be of standard size and its shape should be truly rectangular
with sharp edges. For this purpose, 20 bricks of standard size (190 mm X 90 mm X 90 mm) are selected at
random and they are stacked lengthwise, along the width and along the height.

For good quality bricks, the results should be within the following permissible limits:

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COLORS OF BRICKS

The colours of bricks, as obtained in its natural course of manufacture, depend on the following factors:

i. Degree of dryness achieved before burning,

ii. Natural colour of clay and its chemical composition,
iii. Nature of sand used in moulding operation,
iv. Quality of fuel used in burning operation,
v. Quantity of air admitted to the kiln during burning, and
vi. Temperature at which bricks are burnt.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BRICK

❑ Bricks should be uniform in color, size and shape.

❑ Standard size of brick should be maintained.
❑ They should be sound and compact.
❑ They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone nodules etc. with sharp and
square edges.
❑ Bricks should not absorb more than 1⁄5 of their own weight of water when immersed in water for 24 hours
(15% to 20% of dry weight).
❑ The compressive strength of bricks should be in range of 2000 to 5000 psi (15 to 35 MPa).
❑ Salt attack hampers the durability of brick. The presence of excess soluble salts in brick also causes
efflorescence. The percentage of soluble salts (sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and
potassium) should not exceed 2.5% in brunt bricks.
❑ Brick should not change in volume when wetted.
❑ Bricks should neither overburnt nor under-brunt.
❑ Generally, the weight per brick should be 6 lbs. and the unit weight should be less than 125 lbs. per
cubic ft.
❑ The thermal conductivity of bricks should be low as it is desirable that the building built with them should
be cool in summer and warm in winter.
❑ Bricks should be sound proof.
❑ Bricks should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
❑ Bricks should be free from lime pitting.

[Link] are the different types of bricks?

Bricks can be of many types depending on

1. Quality
2. Building Process
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3. Manufacturing Method
4. Raw Material
5. Using Location
6. Weather-resisting Capability
7. Purpose of Using
8. Shape
9. Region

➢ TYPES OF BRICKS – BASED ON QUALITY

• FIRST CLASS BRICKS (GRADE A)

These bricks are hard, sound and of uniform shape, well burnt in kilns, table
moulded and rectangular with sharp edges. Surface is clean, smooth, straight and
have no cracks. First class bricks are mainly used for face worked structure or
used for superior work.

• SECOND CLASS BRICKS (GRADE B)

These bricks are also hard, burnt in kilns and ground moulded but with slightly
rough and irregular in shape. They may have hair cracks and spots. Their edges
may not be sharp and uniform. Second class bricks are mainly used for
ordinary structures and also used at places where brick work is to be provided
with plaster coat.

• THIRD CLASS BRICKS (GRADE C)

These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in clamps and are slightly soft. Third
class bricks have rough surfaces with irregular, blunt and distorted edges. These
bricks are used for unimportant and temporary structure and at place where
rainfall is not heavy. These bricks give dull sound when they are struck together.

• FOURTH CLASS BRICKS (GRADE D)

These bricks are over burnt bricks with rough surface, irregular shape and
dark colour. These bricks are very hard. These bricks are used as aggregates
for concrete foundation, floors, roads etc.

TYPES OF BRICKS – BASED ON BUILDING PROCESS

UNBURNT BRICKS BURNT BRICKS OVER BURNT OR JHAMA BRICK

These are half burnt bricks. The Burnt bricks are made by burning It is often known as the vitrified
color is yellow. The strength is low. them in the kiln. First class, Second brick as it is fired at high
They are used as surki in lime Class, Third Class bricks are burnt temperature and for a longer
terracing. They are used as soiling bricks. period of time than conventional
under RCC footing or basement. bricks. As a result, the shape is

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Such bricks should not be exposed distorted. The absorption capacity

to rainwater. is high. The strength is higher or
equivalent to first class bricks. It is
used as lime concrete for
the foundation. It is also used as
coarse aggregate in
the concrete of slab and beam
which will not come in contact with
water

TYPES OF BRICKS – BASED ON MANUFACTURING METHOD

EXTRUDED BRICK MOLDED BRICK DRY PRESSED BRICK

It is created by forcing clay and It is shaped in molds by hand rather It is the traditional types of bricks
water into a steel die, with a very being in the machine. Molded which are made by compressing
regular shape and size, then bricks between 50-65mm are clay into molds. It has a deep frog
cutting the resulting column into available instantly. Other size and in one bedding surface and
shorter units with wires before firing. shapes are available in 6-8 weeks shallow frog in another.
It is used in constructions with after the order.
limited budgets. It has three or four
holes constituting up to 25%
volume of the brick.

TYPES OF BRICKS – BASED ON USING LOCATION

• Facing Brick:
The façade material of any building is known as facing brick. Facings bricks are standard in size, are stronger
than other bricks and also have better durability. The color is red or brown shades to provide a more aesthetic
look to the building. There are many types of facing bricks which use different techniques and technology.
Facing bricks should be weather resistant as they are most generally used on the exterior wall of buildings.

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• Backing Brick:
These types of brick don’t have any special features. They are just used behind the facing bricks to provide
support

TYPES OF BRICKS – BASED ON RAW MATERIALS

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TYPES OF BRICKS – BASED ON WEATHER - RESISTING CAPACITY

SEVERE WEATHER GRADE: MODERATE WEATHER GRADE: NO WEATHER GRADE:

These types of bricks are used in These types of bricks are used in These bricks do not have any
the countries which are covered tropical countries. They can weather resisting capabilities and
in snow most of the time of year. withstand any high temperature. used on the inside walls.
These bricks are resistant to any
kind of freeze-thaw actions.

TYPES OF BRICKS – BASED ON USAGE

COMMON BRICKS ENGINEERING BRICKS:

These bricks are the most common bricks used. They don’t These bricks are known for many reasons. They have high
have any special features or requirements. They have low compressive strength and low absorption capacity. They are
resistance, low quality, low compressive strength. They are very strong and dense. They have good load bearing
usually used on the interior walls. capacity, damp proof, and chemical resistance properties.
They have a uniform red color. They are classified as Class A,
class B, class C. Class A is the strongest but Class B is most used.
They are used for mainly civil engineering works like sewers,
manholes, ground works, retaining walls, damp proof courses,
etc.

TYPES OF BRICKS – ACCORDING TO SHAPE

The ordinary bricks are rectangular solids. But sometimes the bricks are given different shapes to make them
suitable for particular type of construction. Different types of bricks available with various shapes:

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TYPES OF BRICKS – BASED ON REGION

❑ Cream City Bricks: These bricks are from Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
❑ London Stock: These bricks are used in London.
❑ Dutch: These are from the Netherlands.
❑ Nanak Shahi Bricks: These are from India.
❑ Roman: These are used in Roman constructions,
❑ Staffordshire Blue Brick: These are from England.

4. Explain the process involved in manufacture of bricks?

MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS :
In the process of manufacturing of bricks, the following four distinct operations are involved:
1. Preparation of clay / Brick earth
2. Moulding
3. Drying
4. Burning

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Clay with water is placed in pug mill from the top. When the vertical shaft is rotated by using electric pair,
steam or diesel or turned by pair of bullocks. Clay is thoroughly mixed up by the actions of horizontal arms and
knives when the clay has been sufficiently pugged hole at the bottom of tub, is opened out and the pugged
earth is taken out from the ramp for the next operation of moulding.

TYPES OF HAND MOULDING

[Link] MOULDING
In this method the ground is first levelled and fine sand is sprinkled over it. The mould is dipped in water and
placed over the ground. the clay is pressed in the mould in such a way that it fills all the concerns of the
mould. any surplus earth from the top of the mould is removed using cutting wire or metal. The same mould
can b used for other also so that wastage is avoided.

2. TABLE MOULDING
The process of operations are carried out on a specially designed moulding tabel. the clay , the mould, water
pots, stock board, etc are placed on this tabel. the bricks are moulded similar to the ground moulding on the
table. the cost of brick increase when table moulding is adopted.

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❑ MACHINE MOULDING

The moulding can also be achieved by using machines. it is quiet economical when bricks are produced in
huge amount. this moulding is classified into two categories.
1 . Plastic clay machine
2 . Dry clay machine

2. DRYING

❑ If the damp bricks are directly burnt, there is a possibility of being cracked and distorted.
❑ Hence bricks are dried before burning stage artificially or naturally.
❑ Laid longitudinally in stacks.
❑ They are laid along and across the stack in alternate layers.
❑ They are kept for drying till 2% of moisture is removed – bone dry
❑ Important fact to be remembered regarding drying of bricks.
➢ Artificial Drying: in the form of tunnels or hot floor dryers usually about 1 to 3 days.
➢ Circulation of air – Stacks are arranged in such a way that sufficient air space is left between
them for circulation of air.
➢ Drying-yard- special yards should be prepared slightly higher level to prevent accumulation of
rain water.
➢ Period for drying – usually about 3 to 10 days for brick to become dry
➢ Screens – screens are necessary , may be provided to avoid direct exposure to wind or sun.

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3. BURNING

❑ Very important stage in the manufacturing of bricks.

❑ Imparts hardness and strength to the bricks.
❑ It makes the bricks dense and durable
❑ Three chemical changes are known to take place in the brick earth, namely dehydration, oxidation
and vitrification.
❑ Dehydration is completed within 425-750 degree C temperature range and it results in expulsion of
most of the water from bricks.
❑ Vitrification is an extreme reaction and occurs when heating is carried out beyond 900 degree Celsius.
❑ Heating clay up to 640 degree C produces physical changes. If such clay is cooled back, it absorbs
moisture from air and gets hydrated back to its original state. Such poorly burnt clay is unstable.
❑ If the clay is heated up to 700 – 1000 deg C chemical changes take place by which alumina and silica
in clay fuse together resulting in a compound which is strong and stable.
❑ If over burnt, then bricks will become brittle.
❑ If under burnt, they will be soft and will not be able to take load.
❑ Burning is done in either clamps or in kilns:-
➢ Clamps – are temporary structures and they are adopted to manufacture bricks on small scale.
➢ Kilns – are permanent structure and they are adopted to manufacture bricks on large scale.

CLAMP

Clamps are temporary structures and they are adopted to manufacture bricks on small scale. Kilns are
permanent structures and they are adopted to manufacture bricks on a large scale.

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• A trapezoidal shape in plan with shorter is slightly in excavation and wider end raised at an angle of 150
from ground level
• A brick wall with mud is constructed on the short end and a layer of 70cm to 80cm thick fuel (grass,
cow dung, ground nuts, wood or coal) laid on the floor.
• A layer consists of 4 or 5 courses of raw bricks laid on edges with small spaces between them for
circulation of air
• A second layer of fuel is then placed, and over it another layer of raw bricks is putap. The total height of
clamp in alternate layers of brick is about 3 to 4 m.
• (5) When clamp is completely constructed, it is plastered with mud on sides and top and filled with
earth to prevent the escape of heat
• (6) The period of burning is about one to two months and allows the same time for coding
• (7) Burnt bricks are taken out from he clamp.

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Each chamber is provided with the following:

(a) A main door for loading and unloading of bricks,

(b) Communicating doors which would act as flues in open condition,
(c) A radial flue connected with a central chimney, and
(d) Fuel holes with covers to drop fuel, which may be in the form of powdered coal, into burning chambers.
The main doors are closed by dry bricks and covered with mud, when required. For communicating doors and
radial flues, the dampers are provided to shut or open them. In the normal condition, only one radial flue is
connected to the chimney to establish a draught.
In this type of kiln, each chamber performs various functions in succession, namely, loading, drying, burning,
cooling and unloading

The cool air enters through chambers 1 and 12 as their main doors are open. After crossing the cooling
chambers 8 to 11, it enters the burning section in a heated condition. It then moves to chambers 2 to 5 to dry
and pre-heat the raw bricks. The damper of chamber 2 is in open condition and hence it escapes into
atmosphere through chimney.

3. TUNNEL KILN
This type of kiln is in the form of tunnel, which is oval, circular or straight in plan. It contains stationary zone of
fire. The raw bricks are placed in trolley which are then moved from one end to another end of the tunnel.

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This type of kiln is in the form of tunnel which may be straight, circular or oval in plan. It contains a stationary
zone of fire. The raw bricks are placed on trolleys which are then moved from one end to the other end of
tunnel.
The raw bricks get dried and pre-heated as they approach zone of fire. In zone of fire, the bricks are burnt to
the required degree and they are then pushed forward for cooling. When bricks are sufficiently cooled, they
are unloaded.
This kiln proves to be economical when bricks are to be manufactured on a large scale. As temperature is
under control, uniform bricks of better quality are produced.

[Link] OF CLAMP AND KILN BURNING

[Link] Clamp Burning Kiln Burning

1 Capacity About 20000 to 100000 bricks Average 25000 bricks can be prepared per
day.

2 Cost of Fuel Low as grass, cow dung, litter, etc. Generally high as coal dust is to be used.
may be used.

3 Initial Cost Very low as no structures are to be More as permanent structures are to be
built. constructed.

4 Quality of The percentage of good quality bricks The percentage of good quality bricks is
Bricks is small about 60% or so. more about 90% or so.

5 Regulation It is not possible to control or regulate The fire is under control throughout the
of Fire fire during the process of burning. process of burning.

6 Skilled Not necessary throughout the process The continuous skilled supervision is
Supervision of burning. necessary.

7 Structure Temporary structure Permanent structure.

8 Suitability Suitable when bricks are to be Suitable when bricks are to be

manufactured on a small scale and manufactured on a large scale and when
when the demand of bricks is not there is continuous demand of bricks.
continuous.

9 Time of It requires about 2 to 6 months for Actual time for burning of one chamber is
Burning and burning and cooling of bricks. about 24 hours and only about 12 days are
Cooling required for cooling of bricks.

10 Wastage of There is considerable wastage of heat The hot flue gas is used to dry and pre-heat
Heat from top and sides and hot flue gas is raw bricks. Hence the wastage of heat is
not properly utilized. the least.

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USES OF BRICKS

Brick plays very important role in the field of civil engineering construction. Bricks are used as an alternative of
stones in construction purpose. Here some main uses of construction brick are given below.

What are the various types of tiles?

Tiles are thin slabs of brick which are burnt in kiln. Classified into two
1. Common Tiles – These tiles have different shapes &sizes. Used for paving, Flooring & roofing.
2. Encaustic Tiles – Used for decorative purposes in floors,walls, ceilings & roofs.

Types of common tiles

• Drain Tiles

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• Floor or Paving Tiles

• Roof Tiles

Drain Tiles – These tiles are prepared in such a way that they retain porous texture after burning, when such tiles
are laid in water logged areas , they allow sub soil water to pass through their skeleton.

Floor or Paving Tiles – The floor or paving tiles are square or hexagonal in shape. These are flat tiles. Thickness
varies from – 12- 50 mm. the size of the square tiles varies from 150-300 mm. They should be hard & compact.
• The ceramic floor tiles have the following advantages despite their high Cost.
• They are available in many colours & designs
• They are easier to lay as they are small in size
• They are lighter than mosaics & marbles.
• They are scratch, stain & damp proof as well as anti-slip
• They do not require polishing.

15. What are the characteristics of good tile?

1. It should be free from any cracks, flaws & bends.
2. Should be regular in shape & size
3. Should be Sound, hard & durable.
4. Should be well burnt.
5. Clear ringing sound when struck with hand or with one another or with light hammer.
6. Should fit in properly, when placed in position.
7. Should be even & have a compact structure when seen on its broken surface.
8. Possess uniform colour.

6. Describe the process of manufacturing clay tiles?

• Unglazed pipes, tiles, terracotta and building bricks are manufactured from locally clays without glaze,
which contain the fluxes needed for binding.
• For building and face bricks, red burning clay is used, which is cheap and durable.
• Bricks can be manufactured from
Ø Soft mud process
Ø Stiff mud process
Ø Dry press process

Soft mud process:

The clay mixture contain 30% water is moulded in moulds. This mould bricks are dried in tunnel drier. While
common bricks are burnt in scove kiln, in which coal is used as fuel. The kiln is built from the green bricks with
the outside walls daubed or scoved with clay. It is a variation of undraft type of kiln. After burning the kiln is
completely dismantled.

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Stiff and mud process :

Clay mixture contains 12-15% water, which is just enough to stick together. The clay is forced out through a
die in a screw or auger machine. The extruded clay bar passes long or short belt conveyor on to a cutting
table on which a frame with number of wires which automatically cuts the bar into appropriate lengths.
These bricks may be repressed to make face bricks.
Dry process:
The water content of the clay is reduced to 4-7% which make the clay non plastic. The brick unit is moulded
at high temperature.

PROPERTIES:
• Depending on the content of the soil, clay can appear in various colours, from a dull gray to a deep
orange-red.
• Clays exhibit plasticity when mixed with water in certain proportions, when dry, it becomes firm and
when fired in a kiln, permanent physical and chemical changes occur which converted clay into a
ceramic material.
• Because of these properties, clay is used for making pottery items, both utilitarian and decorative.
• Different types of clay, when used with different minerals and firing conditions, producing earthenware,
• stoneware, and porcelain.

➢ ROOF TILES

Roof tiles are designed mainly to keep out rain, and are traditionally made from locally available materials such
as terracotta or slate. Modern materials such as concrete and plastic are also used and some clay tiles have a
waterproof glaze.

[Link] ROOF TILES

They are used as alternatives to corrugated and plain Galvanized Iron Sheets and timber as roofing material for
building construction - especially sloping roofs.

QUALITIES

❑ Absolutely leak proof.

❑ Very durable.
❑ Easy to fix on the roof
❑ Less maintenance cost.

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11. Explain the application of various types of roofing materials with case studies and sketches .

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8. FLEMISH TILES
❑ These tiles have got the shape of letter ‘s’ with dimensions as 350 mm X 225 mm x 12 mm and they are
prepared with the help of a mould.
❑ These tiles do not form a good covering as the plain tiles and they are used only for sheds.

10. HOURDI ROOFING

❑ The hourdi block produced by the Auram press 3000 is used to create floors and roofs.
❑ These blocks rest either on reinforced concrete T beams or on ferrocement channels.
❑ As these blocks are hollow they create roofs which are more comfortable under a hot climate.
❑ The resistance of these blocks is extremely high. We could not break 8 hourdis with 750 Kg stacked upon
them, which means about 3125 Kg/m2.
❑ Testing hourdi blocks - 750 kg on 8 hourdis = 3125 kg/m2

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FLOORING TILES

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7. Where a short note on paving bricks?

• Iron content is more than that in the ordinary clay bricks.
• Excessive iron causes verification of bricks while burning at a low temperature, gives natural glaze to the
brick, making it more resistant to abrasion.
• Paving bricks can be manufactured from surface clays, impure fire-clays or shale.
• However, shale’s are the best raw material for paving bricks.
• These are generally burned in continuous kiln for seven to ten days.
• The available sizes are:
(i) 19.5 × 9.5 x 9 cm
(ii) 19.5 × 9.5 × 4 cm
Compressive strength: should not be less than 40.0 N/mm2.
Water absorption should not be more than 5 per cent by weight after immersion for about 24 hour

8. What is meant by terracotta?

• It is an Italian word; Terra means clay and Cotta means burnt.
• Terracotta is refractory clay product and is used in ornamental parts of buildings.
• The clay used for its manufacture should be of superior quality and should have sufficient iron and
alkaline matters.
• By varying iron oxide in clay, desired colour can be obtained.
• The clay is mixed with powdered glasses, pottery and sand ground to fine powder and pugged several
times till it gets uniform and soft for moulding.
• Terracotta is impervious, hard and cheap.
• When properly made the material weathers well and because of its glazed surface can be cleaned
easily.
• The product is burnt in special kilns (Muffle furnace).

9. Whatdo you understand by glazing in ceramic and vitrified tiles?

Glazed ceramic tiles:

• Glazed tile is a type of ceramic tile to which a glaze has been applied.
• After the glaze is painted or sprayed on, the tile is filed at high temperatures, causing a chemical
reaction which makes the glaze vitrify, essentially turning into glass.
• Glazed tiles in general are tiles with sheen on the surface.
• Ceramics is used to indicate Potters art or articles made by potter. It is derived from the Greek word
Kremos – Potter’s earth.
•
Vitrified tiles:

It is manufactured from carefully prepared ordinary clay, colouring materials & sometimes finer clay. Colouring
pigments are added to the clay to get the desired print or colour after manufacture.

10. Name any four clay products?

1. Paving bricks
2. Hollow bricks
3. Mangalore tiles
4. Pan tiles

11. Explain the types of characteristic and use of the following:

(i)Hollow bricks:

• Hollow blocks, also known as cellular or cavity blocks.

• These are used to reduce the dead weight of the masonry and for exterior as well as partition walls.
• They also reduce the transmission of heat, sound and dampness.
TYPES:
Type A — Blocks with both faces keyed for plastering or rendering.

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Type B — Blocks with both faces smooth for use without plastering or rendering on either side.
Type C — Blocks with one face keyed and one face smooth.
DIMENSIONS
Length Breadth Height
(cm) (cm) (cm)
19 19 9
29 9 9
29 14 9
• Hollow concrete block partitions are built of individual units of concrete.
• Clay blocks used are well prepared from clay or terra-cotta, and they are either solids or hollow.
• Hollow clay blocks of section 30x20 cm with thickness varying from 5 cm to 15 cm can also be used.
• The blocks are provided with grooves on top, bottom and sides, surfaces are kept glazed in different
colures.
• They do not change their volume and are in lighter in weight.
• Hollow blocks moulded from clay, terracotta.
• Walls are light, rigid, economical, strong andfire resistant.

(ii) Porcelain:

• A high grade ceramic ware having white colour, zero water

absorption and glazed surface which can be soft or hard,
consists of finely dispersed clay, kaolin, quartz and feldspar,
baked at high temperature and covered with a Coloured or
transparent glaze.
• The glazing material is applied before firing.
• At high temperatures, the feldspar particles fuse and bind the
other constituents into a hard, dense, and vitreous mass.
• High temperature ensures non-porosity and a better product. Because of white colour, it is also called
white ware which is of two types:
SOFT PORCELIAN is made from white clay to which flint is added.
HARD PORCELIAN is made from china clay or kaolin with quartz
and felspar are added as filler.
COMPOSTION:
China clay 50–60%
Ordinary clay 5%
Whiting < 1%
Felspar20%
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Low (zero) water absorption.
2. Hard and glazed.
3. Good refractory material.
4. Good electric insulator.
USES: Porcelain is used for manufacturing sanitary wares, containers and crucibles, reactor chambers and
electric insulators.
(iii) Stoneware pipes and ceramic sanitary appliances:

• These are made by burning the ordinary clay at low temperature and cooling slowly.
• To check shrinkage, sand and crushed pottery is mixed with
clay. This also increases the toughness, hardness and strength
of the ware.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Soft, porous and weak.
2. Glazed earthenware becomes resistant to weathering action.
USES:
Earthenware is used for manufacturing drain pipes, lavatory fittings
and light weight partition walls.

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MAJOLICA:
• It is Italian earthenware coated with opaque white enamel, ornamented with metallic colour.
• It is manufactured from low-heat clays to which up to 20 per cent calcium carbonate is added in the
form of chalk.
• Majolica has a micro porous texture.
USES: It is used in doorways, window casings, and facing tiles.

12. Discuss the varieties of terra-cotta?

It is an Italian word; Terra means clay and Cotta means burnt. Terracotta is refractory clay product and is
used in ornamental parts of buildings. The clay used for its manufacture should be of superior quality and
should have sufficient iron and alkaline matters. By varying iron oxide in clay, desired colour can be
obtained. The clay is mixed with powdered glasses, pottery and sand ground to fine powder and pugged
several times till it gets uniform and soft for moulding. Terracotta is impervious, hard and cheap. When
properly made the material weathers well and because of its glazed surface can be cleaned easily. The
product is burnt in special kilns (Muffle furnace).
Terracotta is of two types, the porous and the polished (Faience).

POROUS TERRACOTTA:
It is manufactured by mixing sawdust or finely fragmented cork in the clay and has the following
characteristics.
1. Light weight.
2. Resistant to weathering action.
3. Fire resistant.
4. Can be nailed and sawn to various shapes.
5. Sound proof.
6. Poor strength—used only for ornamental works.

POLISHED TERRACOTTA: is highly glazed architectural terracotta with relatively coarse body. These are made
from refractory clays with addition of quartz sand and fusing agents such as chalk. The polished terracotta is
also called terracotta twice burnt.
The 1st burning is called biscutting and is done at 650°C. Then, this product is coaled with glazed solution
which imparts texture and colour. Thereafter it is dried and fired at 1200°C. The material
1. Is hard, strong and durable.
2. Can be given different colours.
3. Is leak proof (water absorption < 12 per cent) and can be easily cleaned.
4. is resistant to chemical action.
5. is resistant to weathering action of atmosphere.
6. Is fire proof

12. Elaborate on the different clay products in building industry other than roofing materials.

1. Wall material:
The examples are common clay brick, perforated clay brick, porous and perforated stiff-mud brick, and hollow
clay dry-press brick. Perforated plastic moulded ceramic stones and light weight building brick. Clay brick
accounts for half of the total output of wall materials. Structural properties of hollow clay products and low
heat losses through air-filled voids (particularly at subzero temperatures) provide great possibilities for reducing
the thickness and the weight of exterior walls. Ceramic facing tiles remain the chief finishing material for sanitary
and many other purposes and are still in great use for external facing of buildings.
2. Brick for special purposes:
The example is curved clay brick, stones for sewage installations (underground sewer pipes) brick for road
surface (clinker).
3. Hollow clay products for floors: The examples are stones for close-ribbed floors (prefabricated or monolithic),
stones for reinforced ceramic beams, sub flooring stones (fillers between beams).
4. Facade decoration: The examples are glazed or non-glazed varieties subdivided in to facing brick and
ceramic stones, floor ceramics, small-size ceramic tiles, ceramic plates for facades and window-sill drip stones.

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5. Clay products for interior decoration:

The examples are tiles for facing walls, built-in parts, large floor tiles and mosaic floor tiles.
6. Roof materials:
The examples are common clay roof tiles for covering slopes of roofs, ridge tiles for covering ridges and ribs,
valley tiles for covering valleys, end tiles ("halves" and "jambs") for closing row of tiles, special tiles.
7. Acid-resistant lining items:
The examples are common acid-resistant brick, acid-resistant and heat-and-acid-resistant ceramic shaped tiles
for special purposes, ceramic acid resistant pipes and companion shapes.
8. Sanitary clay items:
Sanitary wares items are manufactured mainly form white-burning refractory clay, kaolins, quartz and feldspar.
There are three groups of sanitary ceramics: faience, semi-porcelain and porcelain, which differ in degree of
caking and, as a consequence, in porosity. Items from faience have a porous shell, and items from porcelain, a
solid shell, while those from semi-porcelain are of intermediate densities. The various degrees of caking of
faience, porcelain and semi-porcelain, made of the same raw materials, are due to the latter's different
proportions in the working mass. Porcelain is used to manufacture insulators for power transmission lines,
chemical laboratory vessels, etc.
9. Aggregate for concrete:
Creamiste (manufactured from low-heat clay), a light weight porous material forms excellent aggregate for
light weight concrete.

13. Describe the manufacturing process of sand-lime bricks?

Sand lime bricks are manufactured by mixing sand, fly ash and lime in desired proportion that may be followed
by chemical accelerator during wet mixing. This mixture is moulded under pressure. The green bricks can be air
cured for 24-48 hours and then steam cured in autoclave at desired pressure and temperature. The green
bricks may be steam / hot water cured at atmospheric pressure also. In presence of moisture, fly ash reacts with
lime at ordinary temperature and forms a compound possessing cementitious properties. After reactions
between lime and fly ash, calcium silicate hydrates are produced which are responsible for the high strength of
the compound. Bricks made by mixing lime and fly ash are, therefore, chemically bonded bricks. These bricks
are suitable for use in masonry just like common burnt clay bricks.
These bricks have the following advantages over the clay bricks:
1. Possess adequate crushing strength as a load-bearing member.
2. Have cement colour in appearance, are uniform in shape and smooth in finish and require no plastering for
building work.
3. They are lighter in weight than ordinary clay bricks. Generally, dry fly ash available from power plants meets
the properties specified in IS: 3812 and is suitable for manufacture of Fly Ash – lime bricks in accordance with
the requirements of IS : 12894. Sand Lime Bricks or Decorative bricks are made of sand and lime mixed with
water and then pressed in an atmosphere of steam for hardening. It is a firebrick made of refractory silica sand
with lime as a bonding agent. Brick made with sand and slaked lime rather than with clay; usually a light grey or
off-white color.
These bricks have the following advantages over the clay brick:
1. Possess adequate crushing strength as a load-bearing member
2. Have cement colour in appearance, are uniform in shape and smooth in finish, require no plastering for
building work and consume less mortar
3. Are lighter in weight than ordinary clay bricks
4. They can produced in desired colours
Production Procedure of Sand Lime Bricks:
The process of manufacture of sand lime bricks involves the preparation of the raw material viz., the sand and
the quick lime, mixing them in the right proportion with specified quality of water and allowing the mixture to
react for a specified period. The reacted material is once again taken and the moisture content suitably
readjusted and thoroughly missed again before it is passed on to the press hopper. This properly prepared
mixture is compressed under high hydraulic pressure to form the required size of bricks/ blocks. These green
bricks are autoclaved for a specified time at specified temperature and pressure to harden the green bricks.
This process of hardening gives the required strength to the green brick. After this process of hardening, the
brick is ready for use immediately. If Coloured bricks are to be manufactured suitable pigments will be added
at the time of remixing after reaction.

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UNIT II
BRICK AND CLAY IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Basic principles of brick bonding and its types. Mortar, plastering, pointing, finishes for brick.
Construction principles and procedures for building components using brick and clay
products. Components to include foundation, load bearing walls, partition walls, compound
walls, parapet walls, roofs, arches, lintels, coping, steps, flooring, paving of different types.
Principles for innovative and composite construction using brick and clay products. Products
to include prefabricated brick panels, precast curved brick arch panels, reinforced brick/
reinforced brick concrete slabs, prefabricated floor/ roof using structural clay units, Hourdi
block roofing, current innovations.
Drawings/ models of the principles. Understanding of detailed drawings/ published work. Site
visits with documentation in the form of sketches/ photos.

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BRICKWORK

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NOMENCLATURE OF BRICKS

BRICK POSITIONS ( ORIENTATION )

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CUTS IN BRICK

BRICK MOTAR JOINTS

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Brick Masonry Terms:

TYPES OF BRICK BONDING

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