MDC 2 The Wood

Chapter 6: THE WOOD

I. INTRODUCTION
Wood is a fibrous material produced by a living organism within an ecosystem.
Sunshine, the nature of the terrain, altitude, ambient temperature, air pollution...
directly intervene in the growth of trees
The plant origin of wood explains its particularities, but also its richness and variety, as a
finish support. Material with variable characteristics, displaying more or less singularities
marked, it stands out in this regard from the other materials used in construction: brick, slate,
concrete, steel, PVC, etc.
Wood is a prehistoric material; it is stilt constructions that were used, and there are remains of it.
(the ruins) so far which shows the durability of this material. In the Middle Ages, wood was used.
for the construction of half-timbered house frameworks and as foundation piles.
Nowadays, wood is used in the execution of works:
Shoring and bracing of excavations;
Formwork for concrete elements;
Construction of the framework and coverings;
Carpentry.
Or as construction material:
Scaffolding;
Lifting platforms;
Prefabricated huts;
Fences to enclose the construction sites.

II. DEFINITION
Wood is the woody and compact material that makes up the branches, trunk, and roots of trees.
and shrubs. It is a set of tissues composed of fibers, vessels, parenchyma and
tracheids.
Fibers: They are resilient cells arranged in the axial direction, constituting the framework of
the tree.
The vessels: They are hollow cells whose role is to conduct the sap intended for life and to the
growth of the tree. The entire set of vessels forms the vascular tissue.
Wood parenchyma: They are also called storage cells. They accompany the tissue
vascular. These cells, with thickened and lignified walls, particularly fulfill the function of support.
Tracheids: They exist only in conifers. They have both a supportive function and a ...
conduction of sap.

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III. ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF WOOD.
Wood originates from the tree, and the material that particularly interests us is that derived from
trunk. Taken as a whole, the trunk includes:the rhytidome, the liber, the cambium, the sapwood
the heartwood.

Wood

Tree

Trunk

Bark: Rhytidome: Lyber: Cambium: Aubier: Heartwood:

Made up of External part Internal part tissue of system element of
cells of the bark of the bark growth of driver of central support
deaths the tree the food from the tree
externe de

5 4 3 2

-a- Longitudinal cuts cross sections

Figure 1.1: Composition of a tree trunk

1. The bark: It is waterproof but allows gas exchanges for the respiration of the cells.
cambium and sapwood.
2. The rhytidome: It protects the tree against biological attacks (insects), against frost, against the
drying out (sunburn) and against injuries (falls of stones).
The liber: It is the conducting vessel of the elaborated sap (descending) formed from transformed glucose.
in starch. That is why a wound in the liber (for example, a knife engraving) can slow down or
stop the growth of a whole part of the tree.

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MDC 2 The Wood

4. The cambium: The living cells of the cambium multiply by division, grow until their
definitive size, stiffen (growth of cellular walls) and die. These vessels cease
little by little to feed the tree after a few years. They become blocked and soak up different
substances: tannins, resins, etc. In our climate, the growth of the cambium is periodic.
5. The cambium: It represents the conductive system of the tree's food, from the roots to the crown. It
transports the raw sap (upward), a mixture of dissolved nutrient salts in the water that the roots
They take from the ground. The sapwood also takes on the main effort of mechanical loads (in tension and in
compression caused by winds, snow, and the self-weight of the crown.
6. The heartwood (the perfect wood or the heartwood): it is the central supporting element of the tree.
revenge, it no longer fulfills the conductive function of nutrients. The center of the trunk,
bone marrow can, from a certain age, be hollow.

IV. WOOD CATEGORIES.

During evolution, the reign of woody plants forming trees has divided into conifers more
old, and younger broadleaf trees with a more complex structure. This more differentiated structure with
very specific cells, allows hardwoods to offer us woods ranging from the densest to the lightest,
from the hardest to the softest, from the darkest to the lightest.

Coniferous (evergreen)
These are trees producing well-developed leaves. They are dense, hard, and have a large
longevity (durability). They lose their leaves, and they are sensitive to frost or drying out.
Example: Oak, beech, ash, chestnut, mahogany, cherry, fir...

[Link] (with deciduous leaves)

These are trees producing well-developed leaves. They are dense, hard, and very large.
longevity (durability). They lose their leaves, and they are sensitive to frost or drying.
Example: Oak, beech, ash, chestnut, plane, hazel, walnut,…

Figure IV.1: The texture of wood

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MDC 2 The Wood

V. WOOD DEFECTS.
Wood sometimes has anomalies or defects that change its properties. These defects are of two
origins: vegetative or due to external causes.
V. 1. Defects of vegetative origin
We can mention:
Node: It is located at the junction of the trunk and a branch, its shape is circular or oval and its
diameter ranges between 5 ÷ 40 mm.

Emphasis on the truncated conical shape: It is the decrease in the diameter from the base to the top of a
tree.

Eccentricity of the heart: This defect appears on steep slopes or those exposed to winds.
dominants.

Twisting of fibers: The fibers are not always vertical in the standing tree. They are sometimes
arranged in a helix of variable inclination.

Wavy fibers: The fibers are arranged following a wavy line in relation to the axis of the tree.

Madré wood: It is a wood whose constituent elements are intertwined in all directions.

V. 2. Defects due to external causes

They are due to climatic causes, the action of parasitic plants, or multiple accidents.
to which the trees are exposed.
Roulure: It is a separation of two consecutive annual layers that are no longer adherent.
The warp is often caused by a very harsh winter. A warped wood is unusable.

Cracks and fissures: longitudinal splits oriented in a radial plane caused by the alternation
from frost and desiccation.
Internal fissures: They can have various causes, from grooves in the bark to bursting.
almost total. They greatly reduce the mechanical properties.
-Star heart (cadranure): These are radial slits starting from the heart. The dialed shaft is worthless.
like wood.

Figure V.1: Wood Defects

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VI. STRUCTURE OF WOOD

VI. 1. Macrostructure
To understand the structure of wood well, one must imagine three cuts on the trunk:
The cross section; made perpendicular to the axis of the trunk
The longitudinal section; made lengthwise along the trunk axis
The tangential cut; made longitudinally but far from the trunk axis
-

Figure VI.1: Different cross-sections of a tree trunk

The examination of the cross section reveals the following constituents: the bark, the phloem, the
cambium, the sapwood, the heartwood, the pith, the rays, and the growth rings.

VI. 2. Microstructure
From a physiological point of view, wood can be considered as a set of tissues conducting the
sap from one end to the other of the plant thanks to its porosity.
A thin cut in a young stem reveals under microscopic examination the existence of cells, almost
identical with a wall made of cellulose.
One can thus see that wood is essentially made up of:
Vessels ;
Fibers of sclerenchyma cells;
Storage cells

The vessels
They appear as holes on the cross section, like grooves on a radial cut.
or a tangential cut, they are often visible to the naked eye.

2. The fibers of sclerenchyma cells

The fibers have polygonal sections. Their cavity can be simple or compartmentalized, which has a
influence on hardness.

VI. 3. Chemical composition of wood

The following table gives the average chemical composition, by weight, of wood:

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Elements Percentage
Carbon (C) 50
Hydrogen (H) 6
Oxygen (O) 42
Nitrogen (N) 1
Ashes 1
As essential constituents:

40 to 50% cellulose

25 to 30% Lignin

Table VI.1: Chemical composition of wood

VII. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF WOODS

VII. 1. Mechanical properties of wood

Wood is an orthotropic material; it does not have the same properties along the three main axes.
It has excellent mechanical properties in the direction of the fibers. Its characteristics in the direction
transverse strengths are weaker, particularly in tension. The design of the assemblies must therefore take into account
Count these factors, and avoid perpendicular traction to the fibers.
The resistance of wood varies depending on factors such as the direction and duration of loading, the
density, humidity level as well as the essence and natural defects
A "dry to the touch" wood has a moisture content of around 15%; wood exposed to rain or in a very humid environment
humidity can reach 30%. Its resistance can then be reduced by 40 to 50%.
Broadleaf trees, being heavier (more dense), are more resistant than conifers.
The strength is greater in the longitudinal direction of the beam (stresses along the fibers)
that in the transverse sense.
Along the grain, wood resists 2 to 3 times better in tension than in compression (in the latter
Indeed, the fibers pull away from each other and tend to flare up.
Given its texture, wood does not resist tensile efforts very well and does poorly under
compression perpendicular to the fibers. Similarly, the shear resistance parallel to the fibers is
low. The approximate values of the rupture stresses are summarized in the following table:

Table VII.1: Rupture constraint (in bars)

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VI. 2. Physical characteristics of woods

Hygroscopicity: it is the ability of wood to absorb moisture from the air. It depends on the species,
place and conditions of growth, the part of the tree concerned, the humidity rate and
ambient air temperature.
Retractability: it is the ability of wood to change in dimensions when its moisture content varies.
between certain limits ranging from the anhydrous state to the saturation state of cellulosic tissues:
volume at saturated state
It depends on the essence, density, texture, and humidity state of the air and
the orientation (cutting plans).

Retractability conditions the stability in an outdoor environment of a species. Thus, we distinguish the
essences :
•high shrinkage: 15 < B < 20%; oak, beech, etc.
• average withdrawal: 10 < B < 15%; conifers in general,
•Lower withdrawal: 5 < B < 10%; sipo, iroko, walnut, poplar, mahogany, etc.

Conductivity: is the ability of wood to transmit heat, sound, and electricity. They depend on
of the essence, of the humidity rate of the cellular structure, of the density and of the
temperature. The decrease of air in the pores, due to an increase in humidity, improves the
thermal conductivity.
Wood conducts sound well (2 to 17 times better than air).

-Dilatation: is the ability of wood to change dimensions under the effect of heat. It depends on the
humidity rate and the temperature variation. However, the retractability being more significant,
The expansion of wood is not taken into account.

-Combustibilité: est l’aptitude du bois à brûler. Elle dépend de la teneur en eau, de la partie de
the tree, dimensions, and density. The calorific power of wood increases with density. The
Wood ignites at about 270°C.

Color: it is the visual impression due to the pigments unique to each tree. It varies depending on
the essence, the sampling location in the ball, the uniformity of the structure, the conditions of
growth and the uniformity of the material. Classification from lightest to darkest.

-Odor: a perceptible feature detected through smell. It varies according to secretions (resin, ...)
the possible alterations and the moisture content state of the wood.

Texture: it is the ratio between the initial area and the final area for an annual ring. For a hardwood
the texture is weak when the initial area is greater than the final area.
For a hardwood, the texture is strong when the initial area is less than the final area. For a
softwood the texture is weak when the initial area is less than the final area. For a softwood the
texture is strong when the initial area is greater than the final area.

Grain: is the visual impression produced by the cutting of wood elements and especially
of vessels. It depends on the essence, the cutting plan, and the place of growth. One obtains a
ranking in 3 categories:

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 • 2 Fin: vessels and elements barely visible to the naked eye.
MDC The Wood
• Medium: vessels and elements sometimes a little visible to the naked eye.

• Grossier: vessels and elements visible to the naked eye.

Density: it is the ratio of the density of wood to that of water. It depends on the species.
of the climate and growth conditions, of the extraction place in the tree, of the state
hygrometric, from the texture of the wood. The reference density is calculated with a percentage of
12% humidity.

Density and hardness:

The cell walls are more or less thick, and the lumens of more or less large diameter, depending on
the species and their growth rate.

Fast-growing conifers have wider growth rings and form a wood that is more
light, compared to the same slow-growing species. In contrast, the fast-growing hardwoods
have wider growth rings and denser wood compared to the same species at
slow growth.
The volumetric mass (or density) of wood is therefore very variable depending on the species (from 350 to
1100 kg/m3) and within the same species (with maximum variations of plus or minus 15%).
Humidity Rate
During its harvesting, green wood can contain over 100% water. Immersed, the wood can reach
after a certain time, a content of 200%. Air drying is never complete, below
at 22% humidity, wood is protected from rot (this minimum is necessary for the
development of parasitic organisms.

Consequences
The choice of specific characteristics, based on the physical properties of the wood, will be influential on
the work to be done particularly for the type of fuel and flow rate.
Hygroscopicity: All species have a variation in their hygroscopicity depending on the environment.
ambient. This rate should be as close as possible to that of the environment in which the work will be placed.
in place during machining.
Retractability: A determining characteristic for the use of wood:
The position of the wooden piece in the ball allows for defining its dimensional variations.
The cutting plan must therefore relate to the function of the part, particularly its
assembly constraints.
-Color: It determines the choice of essence for:
A non-stained wood, natural color.
Its ability to accept a hue.
Odor: It provides information about the quality of the material:
An abnormal smell is often related to deterioration of the wood and a more or less significant loss of
its mechanical properties.
Texture: It has an influence on wood machining.
- Grain: The category of grain influences:
The obtained surface state.
The finish.
Density: It partly determines the mass of the completed work.
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- Conductivity: Useful characteristic in the use of the material for acoustic insulation.

Expansion: A criterion that is rarely considered

Combustibility: This is a sought-after characteristic for firewood.

VIII. ENEMIES OF THE WOOD

Wood can be attacked by living organisms, such as fungi and insects.
preventive chemical treatments can be applied, such as creosote or
carbonyl (railway crossings) or copper sulfate (electrical poles) or using other
more complex products, based on phenols. But the most important precaution is to allow
the perfect ventilation of all parts of the construction, which will lead to aging through drying
wood (which will improve its mechanical properties). It will also be necessary to protect the frameworks.
against moisture rising through their base.

IX. USES
The wooden elements generally used in public works are:

[Link] Materials
Generally used for the transport of electrical energy (length = 6.5 to 18 m;
thickness = 20 to 32 cm) and as sleepers for railways (length = 2.7 to 5.4 m;
thickness = 24 cm.
The moisture content must not exceed 25% for the logs used for the load-bearing elements of
houses and the bridge girders. For the piles and sheet piles, it can be any.
2. Sawn timber
The wood used for sawing must be of high quality and free from any defects. The sawn wood is
subdivide into:
boards with a width/thickness ratio >2, 27x100, 27x150 mm,
75x225, 100x225mm planks
•beams 120x120 or 200x200 mm.

Figure IX .1: Sawn timber

3. Plywood
It is made by gluing together the thin layers of wood (peeled veneers). They are
divided into:

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 • 2high stability plywood water-resistant, bonded with adhesives,
MDC The Wood
• medium stability plywood glued with aminoplast resins
• water-resistant plywood limited glued using protein adhesives.

Figure IX.1: Plywood

Wood is widely used in construction for walls and floors, posts, various
supports (windows, doors), the formwork, the scaffolding and the carpentry elements, etc.

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