Ch-7 Timber

7.1 Introduction
Timber is the wood obtained from trunk of the tree suitable for various engineering purposes and it is applied to
trees measuring not less than 0.6m in girth.
Timber is highly workable, can resist shock, have good-looking texture, easily available and possesses high
salvage value. It can also be defined as a natural polymeric material which practically does not age.
From the pre historic times, timber has been use in a variety of ways in building, bridge, tunnel construction and
many other engineering works. Even today there are certain works, where timber is considered as the most ideal
material.
Generally used in the form of piles, posts, beams, door and windows, frames, roof members, truss, rafters,
purlines, flooring,ceiling, partition walls, formwork for concrete, scaffolding, fencing,etc.

Important technical terms related to timber :

Standing timber - timber available in the form of living tree.
Green timber - freshly felled tree containing free water or moist in its cells.
Rough timber - timber obtained after felling a tree.
Converted timber - timber sawn into various market sizes such as planks, beams, battens etc.
Dressed timber - timber sawn, placed and worked to the exact required condition.
Structural timber - timber used in framing and load bearing structures.
Clear timber - timber free from defects and blemishes (stains).

7.2 Structure and Growth of tree

Tree consist of mainly three parts,
[Link] - supports the crown and supplies water and nutrients from roots to leaves through branches
[Link] – to absorb moisture and mineral substances and supply them to trunk.
[Link] – remaining upper parts (leaves, branches, etc.)

Cross-section of exogenous tree

1
 A. Structure
[Link] or medulla
- innermost central portion or core of the tree.
- size and shape of pith varies for different types of trees.
- consists entirely of cellular tissues and nourishes the plant in young age.
- the pith dries up and decays, when the plant becomes old.
[Link] wood
- consist of the inner annual rings round the pith.
- is compact, strong durable and darker in colour.
- almost dead portion of tree and does not take active part in its growth.
- provides strongest and best timber for various engineering purpose.
[Link] wood
- is outer annual rings between heartwood and cambium layer.
- usually light in colour and weight.
- is weaker, more liable to decay and can be attacked by insects as compared to heart wood.
- is active layer ,contains sap, transmits the sap from roots to branches and leaves,
- rich in food material.
[Link] layer
- thin layer below bark, not converted to sap wood yet.
- Mainly responsible for the circumferential growth of tree.
- If bark is removed, cambium layer gets exposed and the cells stop to be active which results the
death of tree.
[Link] bark or bast
- inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer.
- Protect cambium layer from injury.
[Link] bark or cortex
- outermost cover or skin of stem.
- Prevent tree from external injuries and weathering action.
[Link] rings
- grow distinct concentric circle or ring round the pith of trees, generally one in every year.
- formed due to deposition of sap below bark.
- number of rings indicate the age of a tree in a tropical climate
[Link] rays
- thin radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer.
- Store and conduct food material from sap to the cells in the interior of a tree radially.
[Link]
 Tree become taller only through the growth at tips of the branches
 Become thicker through formation of cells just within the inner bark
 Young tree grows taller and thicker every year, has rapid growth in spring and slower growth
in the late summer.
 In young trees hollow cells are alive and during the growing season, they are filled with sap
and circulate in each fiber thus forming opening and connecting channels.
 As the tree grows, the older channels become partly clogged and inactive and these more
mature tissues form the heavier and stronger heartwood of the tree
 Active growth takes place only in the cells of the inner bark.
2
 During the cold winter months the cells of the tree do not contain any liquid sap but living
tissues of cell wall contain moisture.
 In early spring the sap begins to rise in the tree and fill the cells.
 Thin walled spring cells are rapidly formed during the vigorous period of spring growth.
 During the drier summer, the ground dries, leaves evaporates moisture so large amount of sap
in the tree decreases.
 Young tree cut in the spring may have 2/3 of its weight made up of water and only 1/3 of wood
substance. The same tree cut in the late summer may be composed of only 1/3 of moisture and
2/3 of wood substance.

7.3 Classification of tree

According to the manner of growth, the tree may be divided into two main classes:
1. Exogenous trees 2. Endogenous trees

1. Exogenous trees
- Grow outwards and increase in bulk by the formation of successive annular rings on the
outside under the bark.
- Each annual ring represents a layer of wood, deposited every year.
- Timber from this tree is used for building and engineering purposes.
Examples: Deodar, chir, sal, kail, shishum, teak, pine, etc
Exogenous trees may be further divided into the following two type:
a. Conifers tree
- remain evergreen and bear fruits in cone form with needle pointed leaves
- yield soft wood with light coloured, resinous, light in weight and weak.
- show distinct annual rings
Examples: - Pine, Deodar, Kail, Chir, walnut etc.
3
b. Deciduous or broad-leaf tree
- shed their leaves in autumn and put on new leaves in the spring season.
- yield hard woods with close-grained, strong, heavy dark colour, durable and non- resinous.
- does not shows distinct annual rings
- mostly used for engineering purposes.
Examples:- Sal, Teak, Shishum, khair,etc.
2. Endogenous trees
- grow inwards or end-wards
- have flexible stem and are not suitable for engineering works.
- some variety can be used for temporary construction.
Examples: Canes, Bamboos, Palms, etc.

7.4 Characteristics of good timber:

a. It should have a uniform colour.
b. Freshly cut surface should give a sweet smell.
c. Should have regular annual rings.
d. Should produce sonorous (pleasant) when struck.
e. Should have straight and closed fibers.
f. Should be heavy in weight.
g. Should be free from shakes, flaws, dead knots or blemishes of any kind.
h. Should be hard & durable and capable of resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals,
physical and mechanical agencies.
i. Should possess the property of elasticity and fire resistant.
j. Should be durable and strong for working as structural member such as joint, beam rafter, etc.
k. Should be firm adhesion of fibers and compact medullary rays.
l. When planed, its surface should present a firm bright appearance with silky lusture.
Advantages of timber:
• Easily handle, can be planed, sawn & jointed
• Easily available and quickly transported by simple means
• Good insulator of heat & sound
• light in weight
• Sustains for long period
• Stands shocks & bumps
• Easy to repair, alter & modify
• Resists corrosion
• Preferred for building works in earthquake region
Disadvantage of timber:
• Easily catches by fire
• Destroyed by decay induced by fungi & insects
• Undergoes swelling & shrinkage with change in humidity

4
7.5 Deffects in timber
The most common defects in timber are:
a. Heart shakes:
- Splits or cracks widest at centre and diminishing towards the outside circumference.
- Occurs in over-matured trees and is probably caused due to the shrinkage of the heartwood.

Heart shakes Star shakes Cup or ring shakes

b. Star shakes:
- Radial splits or cracks widest at the circumference and get diminishing towards the centre of the tree.
- are more serious as they separate the log intoa number of pieces when sawn.
- Arise mostly from severe frost and fierce heat of sun and mostly confine to sapwood.
c. Cup shakes or ring shakes:
- Formed by the rupture of the tissues in a circular direction across the cross section of a log, usually
along annual rings.
- when partly rupture called cup shake and whole way round called ring shake.
d. Radial shakes:
- Similar to star shakes but are fine, irregular and numerous.
- Occur when tree is exposed to sun for seasoning after being felled down.
- are for a short distance from bark to the centre then follw the direction of annual ring to pith.

Radial shakes Rind galls Upset

e. Rind galls:
- Peculiar (strange) curves swellings formed on the body of a tree
- Caused generally by the growth layers over the wounds left after branches have been improperly cut
off. 5
f. Upsets or rupture:
- Occur due to crushing of fibres which are deformed as a result of the injury
- Due to unskillful felling and also the result of violent wind
g. Twisted fibres or wandering hearts:
- Developed where the prevailing winds turn the tree constantly in one direction.
- Twisted fibers is unsuitable for sawing
h. Burrs or excrescences:
- Due to unsuccessful attempts at the formation of branches or injuries inflicted when the tree was young,
so that undeveloped, dormant buds grew and produced masses of contorted tissue.

Twisted fibres Knots Wind cracks

i. Wind Cracks:
- When wood is exposed to atmospheric agencies, its exterior surface shrinks results into cracks known
as wind cracks.
j. Knots:
- are roots of small branches of the tree and disturb the homogeneity of wood texture.
- disturbs the homogeneity of wood texture and wood get twisted and effects the strength.
k. Honey combing
- Due to separation of tissues in the interior of the timber as result of drying stress caused by incorrect
kiln seasoning.
– interior wood dries earlier than the external surface.
l. End Splits:
Checks extending through two faces

End splits Honey combing Druxiness

m. Dead wood:
Deficient in strength and weight as a result of trees being felled after maturity
n. Druxiness:
Defect indicated by white spots due to access of fungi. 6
o. Foxiness:
Defect indicated by reddish or yellowish brown stains caused by over maturity.
Also caused by bad ventilation during storage

7.7 Seasoning of timber

It is the process of drying timber or removing moisture or sap, presence in a freshly felled
timber, under more or less controlled conditions
Timber without seasoning is liable to shrink, warp and crack or may even rot and decay.
Objective of seasoning
a. Minimizing the tendency of timber to shrink, warp and split
b. Increase strength, durability and electrical resisting power of the timber
c. Make timber safe from attack of fungi and insect
d. Reduce the weight for transport purposes, handling and thereby reduction in cost
e. Maintain the shape and size of the components of timber articles
f. Make timber suitable for gluing and receiving treatment of paints, preservatives, varnishes, etc.
g. Make timber easily workable
Advantages of seasoning
a. Decrease the weight of timber and makes it lighter
b. Increase the strength and make it stable
c. Improves the working quality of timber
d. Reduces the possibility of attack by fungi and insects
e. Provides dimensional stability of timber
f. Enables timber to be easily polished and preserved
g. Seasoned timber has better electrical resistance

Method of seasoning
1. Natural seasoning 2. Artificial seasoning
[Link] seasoning
a. Air drying/ Seasoning

7
- Timber is stacked 30cm above floor level with longitudinal and cross pieces arranged one upon
another, leaving a space of about 25mm between for free circulation of air.
- The stacks of wood are protect from direct sunlight either with pitch roof covering or stacks are
kept in shade.
- Wood season by this method is generally suitable for carpenter’s work after two years and for
pointer’s work after nearly four years.
- Simple and cheap method
- Less chances of damage to timber.
- Process is slow and takes long time.
- consider space is required for large stack.
b. Water Seasoning
- Logs of wood are keep completely immersed in a running stream of water.
- Sap, sugar and gum, etc. are leached out of wood and replaced by water.
- The logs are then taken out and left to dry in open place.
- Quick process
- reduces the elasticity and durability of timber.
- Less liable to be eaten away by worm or to decay by dry rot.
- seasoning by boiling in water can be done which is a quick method.
2. Artificial seasoning
- Quick and moisture content can be kept under control
- Most common method of artificial seasoning is kiln seasoning
i. Kiln seasoning
- Timber is seasoned under controlled temperature and humidity condition with proper air
circulation and ventilation system.
- Drying of timber at uniform rate is well maintained by circulating air.
- ventilation is provided to avoid over heating and excessive humidity.

Fig: Kiln seasoning

Advantages
a. Moisture content can be reduced as requirement 8
 b. Timber seasoned by this method is less liable to shrinkage
c. Wood can be used immediately when required
d. Drying of different surfaces is even and uniform
e. No chances for fungi and insect attack as drying are controlled.

Disadvantages
a. Method is costly
b. Required skilled labour
c. Need continuous attention to check seasoning defects like warping, end splits, etc.
ii. Chemical seasoning
- Also known as the salt seasoning.
- Immersed in solution of soluble salt and seasoned in the ordinary way
- Chances of formation of external crack is reduced
iii. Electrical seasoning
- Works on the principle that heat is produced when poor conductors are placed in the field of
high frequency.
- Wooden planks are made to pass through an induction coil producing field of high frequency
- Moisture gets evaporated uniformly and results in superior quality of timber
- Not popular method because of prohibitive cost and lack of control of moisture content result
in defective wood.
- suitable for plywood manufacturing process.
Comparison between natural seasoning and kiln seasoning

S.N Aspects Natural seasoning Kiln seasoning

1. Nature Simple and economical Expensive and quite
technical
2. Strength It gives stronger timber It gives a little weaker
timber
3. Quality of timber More liable to the attacks of Less liable to the attack of
insects and fungi insects and fungi.
4. Moisture content Difficult to reduce the The moisture content can
moisture content below 15 to be reduced to any desired
18% level
5. Speed Slow process Quick process
6. Stacking space required More Less

7.7 Deterioration and Preservation of timber

7.7.1 Deterioration of timber
The cause or situation that favors early decay of timber are as follows:
i. Moisture
ii. Imperfect seasoning
iii. Alternation of dry and wet states
iv. Growth of vegetation
v. Insects attack 9
 vi. Bad storing of timber
[Link] of timber without suitable protective and preservative on its surface
Diseases of Wood
The common diseases of timber are:
a. Dry rot
- Decomposition of felled timber by the action of various fungi
- Occur where there is not proper circulation of air and the timber is imperfectly seasoned.
- highly infectious and destruction of timber by changing to powdery condition.
Prevention of dry rot:
- Keeping the timber dry by adequate ventilation
- decayed wood should be removed or burnt and remaning should be treated with preservative
(copper sulphate). -
b. Wet rot
- Decomposition of tissue or timber caused by damp and moisture and by alternate wetting and
drying
- Commonly found in living tree
- Timber suffering from this disease is reduced to a greyish brown powder
- It can be avoided by using thoroughly season wood.
- Season wood should be protected from moisture by tarring or painting.
7.7.2 Preservation of timber
To prevent from probable attacks due to fungi, insects and other destroying agencies timber
structures must be preserved by treating with some chemical in order to increase the life and
make durable.
Requirements of good preservative
a. Cheap and easily procurable
b. Safe to use but poisonous to fungi and insects
c. Free from obnoxious smell
d. Unwashable by water and not deteriorated by heat and light.
e. Good appearance after use
f. Non inflammable and have good penetrating power into fibers.
g. Non-corrodible to metal with which it comes into contact.
h. Should not reduce strength of timber.

Methods of preservation
Following are the various methods of preservation.
Tarring
- Applying a coat of tar or tar mixed with pitch.
- Applied for rough type of work such as timber fences, ends of door and window, etc.
Charring
- Done to prevent dry rot and attack of insects. 10
- Carried out at the lower ends of the post to be embedded in the ground
- Posts are charred to the depth about 1.5 cm over a wood fire and then quenched in water
Painting
- Carried out on the thoroughly seasoned wood otherwise paint may confine sap cause the
decay.
- Oil paint preserve wood from moisture and prolongs its life.
Creosoting
- Mostly used preservative treatment
- Creosote oil is obtained by distillation of coal tar or wood tar
- Imparts some water repellent properties to the wood
Ascue treatment
- Ascue is in powder form
- A solution of 6 parts by weight of the powder is dissolved in 100 parts by weight of water.
- The solution is sprayed on the timber
Fire proofing
- Coating of any non-combustible material on the surface of wood
- Fire retarding chemical absorbs heat and dissociates when it is heated
E.g. water solution of ammonium phosphate, ammonium sulphate, etc.

Abel’s process
- Surface of the timber is first painted with dilute solution of sodium silicate, then with a cream
like paste of slaked fat lime and finally with a concentrated solution of soda.
Types of preservative treatment
1. Surface application - brushed, sprayed or dipped in the preservative solution for suitable
period
2. Soaking treatment - submerge timber in preservative solution for sufficiently long time until
the required absorption is obtained.
3. Pressure process - inject preservative under pressure into the timber

7.8 Commercial product of Timber

Veneers
- Thin sheets slices from of logs of timber of superior quality,
- thickness varying from 0.4mm to 6mm or more.
– obtained by rotating the log by sharp knife
- have extremely attractive and curly figure.
- May be cemented in layers and are similar to plywood. – used in the construction of aircraft.

11
Plywood
- Made by cementing together several layers of wood which may be thin veneers or thick
boards.
- generally manufactured in 3 ply,5 ply, 7 ply and so on.
- easily workable and have better appearance.
– light in weight and greater strength
Made in two ways:
a. By cold pressing - adhesives can set at room temperature
b. By hot pressing - glued veneers are pressed in large hydraulic presses which are heated
electrically.
Uses : Construction of furnitures, partitions, ceilings, -
for decorative purpose inside and outside surface of building wall, shop buses etc.

Lamin Board
- Board having a core of strips, each not exceeding 7mm in thickness glued together face to face
to form a slab which in term is glued between two or more veneers, with the direction of the
grain of the core strips running at right angles to that of the adjacent outer veneers.
Uses: Walls, ceilings, partitions and packing cases.

12
Block Board
- Core consist of smaller timber block up to 25 mm in width which are cemented edge to edge
and are glued between two or more veneers.
- Extensively used for construction of railway carriages, bus bodies, furnitures, partitions, etc.
Batten Board
- Core made up of strips of wood usually 80mm wide joined to form a slat which is glued
between two or more veneers with grain direction running at right angle to that of the adjacent
outer veneers.
- Used in door panels, table tops, etc.

Batten board Fiber board

Fibre Board
- Made by pressing felled wood or other vegetable fibres which may be homogenous or
laminated.
- Thickness vary from 3mm to 12 mm and are available in length varying from 3 to 4.5 m and
width varying from 1.2 to 1.8 m
Uses:
For internal finish, wall paneling, flush doors, suspended ceilings, partition, etc.
Hard Board
- Hard pressed hence are more compact, strong and durable.
- Impart internal appearance and finish to a structure.
- Least affected to temperature change and humidity of surrounding.
Uses:
Wardrobe, cabinates in furniture, interior paneling, packaging material,etc. 13